Approach method_and_technique_in_english_teaching_2014

TEFLTEFLAPPROACH, METHOD AND TECHNIQUE IN

LANGUAGE TEACHINGElih Sutisna Yanto- ENGLISH EDUCATION

PROGRAMME Unsika, West-Java, [email protected]

APPROACH, METHOD AND TECHNIQUE IN

LANGUAGE TEACHINGElih Sutisna Yanto- ENGLISH EDUCATION

PROGRAMME Unsika, West-Java, [email protected]

Purpose of this PowerpointPurpose of this Powerpoint

• to become more aware of the terms of approach, method, and technique relating to English learning and teaching;

• to think about the nature of language and the nature of language learning.

• To think about how language are learned ( a first language) according to behaviorists, innatists and interactionists

• to become more aware of the terms of approach, method, and technique relating to English learning and teaching;

• to think about the nature of language and the nature of language learning.

• To think about how language are learned ( a first language) according to behaviorists, innatists and interactionists

Edward Anthony (1965)

An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of

language and the nature of language learning and teaching.

Edward Anthony (1965)

An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of

language and the nature of language learning and teaching.

According to Edward Anthony’s model (1965)

approach is the level at which assumptions and beliefs about language and language learning are specified; method is the level at which theory is put into practice and at which choices are made about the particular skills to be taught, the content to be taught, and the order in which the content will be presented; technique is the level at which classroom procedures are described.

According to Edward Anthony’s model (1965)

approach is the level at which assumptions and beliefs about language and language learning are specified; method is the level at which theory is put into practice and at which choices are made about the particular skills to be taught, the content to be taught, and the order in which the content will be presented; technique is the level at which classroom procedures are described.

In other words, According to Edward Anthony’s model (1965)an approach embodies the theoretical principles governing language learning and language teaching. A method, however, is “an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based upon, the selected approach. An approach is axiomatic, true in such an obvious way that you do not to prove it, a method is procedural” (p.65)

The Antony framework attempted to portray the entire language teaching operations as simple, hierarchical relationship between approach, method, and technique, without in any way considering the complex connections between intervening factors such as societal demands, institutional resources and constraints or restrictions , instructional effectiveness, and learners needs.

The Antony framework attempted to portray the entire language teaching operations as simple, hierarchical relationship between approach, method, and technique, without in any way considering the complex connections between intervening factors such as societal demands, institutional resources and constraints or restrictions , instructional effectiveness, and learners needs.

Clarke (1983) summarized the inadequacy of the Antony framework as follows:Approach, by limiting our perspective of language learning and teaching, serves as a blinder which hampers rather than encourages, professional growth. Method is so vague that it means just about anything that anyone wants it to mean, with the result that, in fact, it means nothing. And technique, by giving the impression that teaching activities can be understood as abstractions separate from the context in which they occur, obscures the fact that classroom practice is a dynamic interaction of diverse system. (p.111)

In short, the Antony framework did not effectively serve the purpose for which it was designed.

Clarke (1983) summarized the inadequacy of the Antony framework as follows:Approach, by limiting our perspective of language learning and teaching, serves as a blinder which hampers rather than encourages, professional growth. Method is so vague that it means just about anything that anyone wants it to mean, with the result that, in fact, it means nothing. And technique, by giving the impression that teaching activities can be understood as abstractions separate from the context in which they occur, obscures the fact that classroom practice is a dynamic interaction of diverse system. (p.111)

In short, the Antony framework did not effectively serve the purpose for which it was designed.

Summary and elements and sub elements that constitute method (Richards & Rodgers:33)

The first level, approach defines those assumptions, beliefs, and theories about the nature of language and the nature of language learning which operates as axiomatic constructs or reference points and provide a theoretical foundation for what language teachers ultimately do with learners in classrooms. The Second level in the system, design, species the relationship of theories of language and learning to both the form and function of instructional materials and activities in instructional settings. The third level, procedure, comprises the classroom techniques and practices which are consequences of particular approaches and design.

The first level, approach defines those assumptions, beliefs, and theories about the nature of language and the nature of language learning which operates as axiomatic constructs or reference points and provide a theoretical foundation for what language teachers ultimately do with learners in classrooms. The Second level in the system, design, species the relationship of theories of language and learning to both the form and function of instructional materials and activities in instructional settings. The third level, procedure, comprises the classroom techniques and practices which are consequences of particular approaches and design.

Notice that the term, method, does not figure in this hierarchy. That is because Richards and Rodgers preferred to use it as an umbrella term to refer to the broader relationship between theory and practice in language teaching.

Notice that the term, method, does not figure in this hierarchy. That is because Richards and Rodgers preferred to use it as an umbrella term to refer to the broader relationship between theory and practice in language teaching.

Summary and elements and sub elements that constitute method (Richards & Rodgers:33)

Richards and Rodgers retained the term, approach, to mean what it means in the Antony framework, that is, to refer primarily to the theoretical axioms governing language, language learning, and language teaching.

Richards and Rodgers retained the term, approach, to mean what it means in the Antony framework, that is, to refer primarily to the theoretical axioms governing language, language learning, and language teaching.

Richards and Rodgers introduced a new term, design, to denote what Antony denoted by the term, method. Design, however, is broader than Antony’s method as it includes specifications of (a) the content of instruction, that is , the syllabus, (b) learner roles, (c) teacher roles, and (d) instructional materials and their types and functions.

Richards and Rodgers introduced a new term, design, to denote what Antony denoted by the term, method. Design, however, is broader than Antony’s method as it includes specifications of (a) the content of instruction, that is , the syllabus, (b) learner roles, (c) teacher roles, and (d) instructional materials and their types and functions.

Procedure, like technique in the Antony framework, refers to the actual moment-to moment classroom activity. It includes as specification of context of use and a description of precisely what is expected in term of execution and outcome for each exercise type. Procedure is concerned with : the types of teaching and learning techniques, the types of exercises and practice activities, and the resources – time, space, equipment – required to implement recommended activities.

Procedure, like technique in the Antony framework, refers to the actual moment-to moment classroom activity. It includes as specification of context of use and a description of precisely what is expected in term of execution and outcome for each exercise type. Procedure is concerned with : the types of teaching and learning techniques, the types of exercises and practice activities, and the resources – time, space, equipment – required to implement recommended activities.

The three-tier system proposed by Richards and Rodgers (2001) is surely broader and more detailed than the Antony framework. However, a careful analysis indicates that their system is equally redundant and overlapping. (Kumaravadivelu 2006:86)

The three-tier system proposed by Richards and Rodgers (2001) is surely broader and more detailed than the Antony framework. However, a careful analysis indicates that their system is equally redundant and overlapping. (Kumaravadivelu 2006:86)

For instance, while defining approach, the authors state that “theories at the level of approach relate directly to the level of design since they provide the basis for determining the goals and content of language syllabus.” (Kumaravadivelu 2006:86-87)

For instance, while defining approach, the authors state that “theories at the level of approach relate directly to the level of design since they provide the basis for determining the goals and content of language syllabus.” (Kumaravadivelu 2006:86-87)

While defining design, they state that design considerations “ deal with assumptions about the content and the context for teaching and learning....The boundary between approach and design is blurred (not clear) here because the operational definition of both relate to theoretical assumptions that actually belong to the realm of approach. (Kumaravadivelu 2006:86-87)

While defining design, they state that design considerations “ deal with assumptions about the content and the context for teaching and learning....The boundary between approach and design is blurred (not clear) here because the operational definition of both relate to theoretical assumptions that actually belong to the realm of approach. (Kumaravadivelu 2006:86-87)

Three different views of The nature of language

1. Structural view: It views language as a system of structurally related element.

The target of language learning is seen to be the mastery of elements of this system, which are generally defined in terms of phonological units (e.g., phonemes), grammatical units (e.g., clauses, phrases, sentences), grammatical operations (e.g., adding, shifting, joining, or transforming elements), and lexical items (e.g., function words and structure words)

For examples: the Audiolingual method, the Total Physical Response, and the Silent Way embody this particular view of language.

1. Structural view: It views language as a system of structurally related element.

The target of language learning is seen to be the mastery of elements of this system, which are generally defined in terms of phonological units (e.g., phonemes), grammatical units (e.g., clauses, phrases, sentences), grammatical operations (e.g., adding, shifting, joining, or transforming elements), and lexical items (e.g., function words and structure words)

For examples: the Audiolingual method, the Total Physical Response, and the Silent Way embody this particular view of language.


2. Functional view: It regards language as a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning.The communicative movement in language teaching subscribes to this view of language.This theory emphasizes the semantic and communicative dimension rather than merely the grammatical characteristics of language, andLeads to a specification and organization of language teaching content by categories of meaning and function rather than by elements of structure and grammar.

2. Functional view: It regards language as a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning.The communicative movement in language teaching subscribes to this view of language.This theory emphasizes the semantic and communicative dimension rather than merely the grammatical characteristics of language, andLeads to a specification and organization of language teaching content by categories of meaning and function rather than by elements of structure and grammar.


3. Interactional view: It sees language as a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations and for the performance of social transactions between individuals. Language is seen as a tool for the creation and maintenance of social relations.The development of interactional approach to language teaching include interactional analysis, conversational analysis, and ethnomethodology,

3. Interactional view: It sees language as a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations and for the performance of social transactions between individuals. Language is seen as a tool for the creation and maintenance of social relations.The development of interactional approach to language teaching include interactional analysis, conversational analysis, and ethnomethodology,

Rivers (1987) defined the interactive perspective in language education: “Students achieve facility in using a language when their attention is focused on conveying and receiving authentic messages (that is, messages that contain information of interest to both speaker and listener in a situation of importance to both.) This is interaction (Rivers 1987:4)

Rivers (1987) defined the interactive perspective in language education: “Students achieve facility in using a language when their attention is focused on conveying and receiving authentic messages (that is, messages that contain information of interest to both speaker and listener in a situation of importance to both.) This is interaction (Rivers 1987:4)

The common assumptions about the nature of the language

1. Language is a group of sounds with specific meaning and organized by grammatical rules (The Silent Way).

2. Language is the everyday spoken utterance of the average person at normal speed (Audio Lingual Method).

3. Language is a system for the expression of meaning (Communicative Language Teaching).

4. Language is a set of grammatical rules and language consists of language chunks (Total Physical Responses)

1. Language is a group of sounds with specific meaning and organized by grammatical rules (The Silent Way).

2. Language is the everyday spoken utterance of the average person at normal speed (Audio Lingual Method).

3. Language is a system for the expression of meaning (Communicative Language Teaching).

4. Language is a set of grammatical rules and language consists of language chunks (Total Physical Responses)

Definitions of learning1. A change in behavior as a result of experience or

practice.2. The acquisition of knowledge.3. Knowledge gained through study.4. To gain knowledge of , or skill in, through study,

teaching, instruction or experience.5. The process of gaining knowledge.6. A process by which behavior is changed, shaped, or

controlled.7. The individual process of constructing understanding

based on experience from a wide range of sources.(Alan Prichard 2009:2)

1. A change in behavior as a result of experience or practice.

2. The acquisition of knowledge.3. Knowledge gained through study.4. To gain knowledge of , or skill in, through study,

teaching, instruction or experience.5. The process of gaining knowledge.6. A process by which behavior is changed, shaped, or

controlled.7. The individual process of constructing understanding

based on experience from a wide range of sources.(Alan Prichard 2009:2)

The nature of language learning:

1. Behaviorism: Stimulus- Response- Reinforcement.- Drilling, exercise, repetition.

2. Nativism: A child naturally has a language acquisition device. (Kodrati).

3. Constructivism: A child acquired a language through interaction between the child and environment. (Jean Piaget).

1. Behaviorism: Stimulus- Response- Reinforcement.- Drilling, exercise, repetition.

2. Nativism: A child naturally has a language acquisition device. (Kodrati).

3. Constructivism: A child acquired a language through interaction between the child and environment. (Jean Piaget).

The nature of learning:

1. Behaviorism is a theory of learning focusing on observable behavior and discounting any mental activity. Learning is defined simply as the acquisition of new behavior. (Alan Prichard 2009:6)

1. Behaviorism is a theory of learning focusing on observable behavior and discounting any mental activity. Learning is defined simply as the acquisition of new behavior. (Alan Prichard 2009:6)

Learning a first languageSay what I say: the behaviorist position

Traditional behaviorists believed that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.

Children imitate the sounds and patterns which they hear around them and receive positive reinforcement ( the form of praise or just successful communication) for doing so.

The quality and quantity of the language which the child hears, as well as the consistency of the reinforcement offered by others in the environment, should have an effect on the child’s success in language learning.

Traditional behaviorists believed that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.

Children imitate the sounds and patterns which they hear around them and receive positive reinforcement ( the form of praise or just successful communication) for doing so.

The quality and quantity of the language which the child hears, as well as the consistency of the reinforcement offered by others in the environment, should have an effect on the child’s success in language learning.

Learning a first language It’s all in your mind: the innatists position

The linguist Noam Chomsky claims that children are biologically programmed for language and that language develops in the child in just the same way that other biological functions develop.

For example, every child will learn to walk as long as adequate nourishment and reasonable freedom of movement are provided.

The child does not have to be taught, most children learn to walk at about the same time, and walking is essentially the same in all normal human beings.

The linguist Noam Chomsky claims that children are biologically programmed for language and that language develops in the child in just the same way that other biological functions develop.

For example, every child will learn to walk as long as adequate nourishment and reasonable freedom of movement are provided.

The child does not have to be taught, most children learn to walk at about the same time, and walking is essentially the same in all normal human beings.

Chomsky (1959) argues that behaviorism cannot provide sufficient explanations for children’s language acquisition for the following reasons:

Chomsky (1959) argues that behaviorism cannot provide sufficient explanations for children’s language acquisition for the following reasons:

–Children come to know more about the structure of their language than they

could be expected to learn on the basis of the samples of language they hear.

–Children come to know more about the structure of their language than they

could be expected to learn on the basis of the samples of language they hear.

–The language children are exposed to includes false starts, incomplete sentences and slips of the tongue, and yet they learn to distinguish between grammatical and

ungrammatical sentences. –Children are by no means systematically

corrected or instructed on language by parents.

–The language children are exposed to includes false starts, incomplete sentences and slips of the tongue, and yet they learn to distinguish between grammatical and

ungrammatical sentences. –Children are by no means systematically

corrected or instructed on language by parents.

Cont...

For Chomsky, language acquisition is very similar to the development of walking.

The environment makes a basic contribution – in this case, the availability of people who speak to the child. The child, or rather, the child’s biological endowment, will do the rest.

Chomsky developed his theory in reaction to the behaviorist theory of learning based on imitation and habit formation.

For Chomsky, language acquisition is very similar to the development of walking.

The environment makes a basic contribution – in this case, the availability of people who speak to the child. The child, or rather, the child’s biological endowment, will do the rest.

Chomsky developed his theory in reaction to the behaviorist theory of learning based on imitation and habit formation.

LAD: LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE ( or BLACK BOX)

LAD: LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE ( or BLACK BOX)

– It contains all and only the principles which are universal to all human languages

(i.e.. Universal Grammar – UG).

– It contains all and only the principles which are universal to all human languages

(i.e.. Universal Grammar – UG).

CONCLUSION

• Children’s acquisition of grammatical rules is guided by principles of an innate UG which

could apply to all languages.

• Children “know” certain things of the language just by being exposed to a limited

number of samples.

• Children’s acquisition of grammatical rules is guided by principles of an innate UG which

could apply to all languages.

• Children “know” certain things of the language just by being exposed to a limited

number of samples.

Evidence used to support Chomsky’s innatist position:

Virtually all children successfully learn their native language

at a time in life when they would not be expected

to learn anything else so complicated (i.e. biologically programmed).

Virtually all children successfully learn their native language

at a time in life when they would not be expected

to learn anything else so complicated (i.e. biologically programmed).

–Language is separate from other aspects of cognitive developments (e.g., creativity and social grace) and may be located in a different

“module" of the brain.

The language children are exposed to does not contain examples

of all the linguistic rules and patterns.

The language children are exposed to does not contain examples

of all the linguistic rules and patterns.

Animals cannot learn to manipulate a symbol system

as complicated as the natural language

of a 3- or 4-year-old child.

Animals cannot learn to manipulate a symbol system

as complicated as the natural language

of a 3- or 4-year-old child.

Children acquire grammatical rules

without getting explicit instruction.

Children acquire grammatical rules

without getting explicit instruction.

The biological basis for the innatist position:The biological basis for the innatist position:

The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) –Lenneberg:

• There is a specific and limited time period (i.e., “critical period”) for the LAD to work successfully.

• Only when it is stimulated at the right time

The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) –Lenneberg:

• There is a specific and limited time period (i.e., “critical period”) for the LAD to work successfully.

• Only when it is stimulated at the right time

Virtually every child learns language on a similar schedule in spite of different environments.

– Three case studies of abnormal language development - evidence of the CPH • Victor – a boy of about 12 years old (1799)• Genie – a girl of 13 years old (1970)• Deaf signers (native signers, early learners, vs.

late learners)

Virtually every child learns language on a similar schedule in spite of different environments.

– Three case studies of abnormal language development - evidence of the CPH • Victor – a boy of about 12 years old (1799)• Genie – a girl of 13 years old (1970)• Deaf signers (native signers, early learners, vs.

late learners)

Cognitive, constructivist learning

Constructivists view learning as the result of mental construction. That is, learning take place when new information is built into and added onto an individual’s current structure of knowledge, understanding and skills. We learn best when we actively construct our own understanding (Alan Prichard 2009:17)

Constructivists view learning as the result of mental construction. That is, learning take place when new information is built into and added onto an individual’s current structure of knowledge, understanding and skills. We learn best when we actively construct our own understanding (Alan Prichard 2009:17)

Learning a first language Mom’s the word: the interactionist

positionA third theoretical position focuses on the role of the

linguistic environment in interaction with the child’s innate capacities in determining language development.

‘The interactionist’ position is that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the uniquely human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops.

Unlike the innatists, the interactionists claim that language which is modified to suit the capability of the learner is a crucial element in the language acquisition process.

A third theoretical position focuses on the role of the linguistic environment in interaction with the child’s innate capacities in determining language development.

‘The interactionist’ position is that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the uniquely human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops.

Unlike the innatists, the interactionists claim that language which is modified to suit the capability of the learner is a crucial element in the language acquisition process.

Cont...

For example: Caretaker talk (Motherese) We are familiar with the way adults typically modify the way they speak when addressing little children.In English, caretaker talk involves a slower rate of speech, higher pitch, more varied intonation, shorter, simple sentence patterns, frequent repetition, and paraphrase.Example:Son : I putted the plates on the table.Mother : You mean, I put the plates on the table.Son : No, I putted them on all by myself.

For example: Caretaker talk (Motherese) We are familiar with the way adults typically modify the way they speak when addressing little children.In English, caretaker talk involves a slower rate of speech, higher pitch, more varied intonation, shorter, simple sentence patterns, frequent repetition, and paraphrase.Example:Son : I putted the plates on the table.Mother : You mean, I put the plates on the table.Son : No, I putted them on all by myself.

The following assumptions relate to theories of learning and teaching

1. Learning is facilitated if language learners discover rather than repeat and remember without understanding what is to be learned (Silent Way).

2. Learning involves the unconscious functions, as well as the conscious functions (Suggestopedia).

3. The norms of the society often block the process of learning (Suggestopedia)

4. Language learning will take place if language learners maintain their feeling of security (Community Language Learning).

5. Language learning is a process of habit formation (Audio Lingual Method)

1. Learning is facilitated if language learners discover rather than repeat and remember without understanding what is to be learned (Silent Way).

2. Learning involves the unconscious functions, as well as the conscious functions (Suggestopedia).

3. The norms of the society often block the process of learning (Suggestopedia)

4. Language learning will take place if language learners maintain their feeling of security (Community Language Learning).

5. Language learning is a process of habit formation (Audio Lingual Method)

Assumption about learning and teaching, which have been developed from theories in psychology, seem to develop faster than those about the

nature of language.

Assumption about learning and teaching, which have been developed from theories in psychology, seem to develop faster than those about the

nature of language.

Method

The plan of language teaching which consistent with the theories. (Edward Anthony-1963)

Method may mean different things to different people (Mackey, 1975:155) For some , it means a set of teaching procedures; for others, the avoidance of teaching procedures. For some, it is the primary of a language skill; for others, it is the type and amount of vocabulary and stucture.

The plan of language teaching which consistent with the theories. (Edward Anthony-1963)

Method may mean different things to different people (Mackey, 1975:155) For some , it means a set of teaching procedures; for others, the avoidance of teaching procedures. For some, it is the primary of a language skill; for others, it is the type and amount of vocabulary and stucture.

Method cont...

The term “method” in the Direct Method may refer to a single aspect of language teaching: presentation of material.

Method in the Reading Method refers to the emphasis of a single language skill: reading, while

In the Grammar Translation Method, method refers to the emphasis of the teaching material.

The term “method” in the Direct Method may refer to a single aspect of language teaching: presentation of material.

Method in the Reading Method refers to the emphasis of a single language skill: reading, while

In the Grammar Translation Method, method refers to the emphasis of the teaching material.

Method cont...

According to Mackey (1975:157), all teaching, whether good or bad, must include some sort of selection, some sort of gradation, some sort of presentation, and some sort of repetition.

Therefore, all methods should include the four steps of teaching a language.

Any method should include the four steps: selection, gradation, presentation, and repetition.

According to Mackey (1975:157), all teaching, whether good or bad, must include some sort of selection, some sort of gradation, some sort of presentation, and some sort of repetition.

Therefore, all methods should include the four steps of teaching a language.

Any method should include the four steps: selection, gradation, presentation, and repetition.

Method

According to Richards and Rodgers (2001), a method is theoretically related to an approach, organized by the design, and practically realized in procedure.

According to Richards and Rodgers (2001), a method is theoretically related to an approach, organized by the design, and practically realized in procedure.

Technique

Carry out a method. It is implementational, meaning that a technique is something that actually takes place in language teaching or learning in the classroom.

Carry out a method. It is implementational, meaning that a technique is something that actually takes place in language teaching or learning in the classroom.

Technique cont... The following are some examples of techniques in error correction.1.The teacher does not praise or criticize so that language learners learn to rely on themselves (Silent Way).2.The teacher often praises when a student has made a good thing in learning (Audio Lingual Method).3.When a student has produced a wrong expression, the teacher just repeats the right one (Total Physical Response).4.The teacher does not care when a student make an error as long as it does not hinder (delay/prevent) communication (Natural Method)

The following are some examples of techniques in error correction.1.The teacher does not praise or criticize so that language learners learn to rely on themselves (Silent Way).2.The teacher often praises when a student has made a good thing in learning (Audio Lingual Method).3.When a student has produced a wrong expression, the teacher just repeats the right one (Total Physical Response).4.The teacher does not care when a student make an error as long as it does not hinder (delay/prevent) communication (Natural Method)

The Term of Technique(H.D. Brown 2007:180)

1. Task. Task usually refers to a specialized form of technique or series of techniques closely allied with communicative curricula, and as such must minimally have communicative goals. It is focuses on the authentic use of language for meaningful communicative purpose beyond the language classroom.

1. Task. Task usually refers to a specialized form of technique or series of techniques closely allied with communicative curricula, and as such must minimally have communicative goals. It is focuses on the authentic use of language for meaningful communicative purpose beyond the language classroom.

The Term of Technique 2. Activity. Activity may refer to virtually anything that learners do in the

classroom. We usually refer to a reasonably unified set of student behaviour, limited in

time, preceded by some direction from the teacher, with a particular objective. Activities include role plays, drills, games, peer-editing, small-group

information-gap exercise, and much more. Because an activity implies some sort of active performance on the part of

learners, it is generally not used to refer to certain teacher behaviours like saying “good morning,” maintaining eye contact with students, explaining a grammar point, or writing a list of words on the chalkboard.

Such teacher behaviour, however can indeed be referred to as technique.

2. Activity. Activity may refer to virtually anything that learners do in the classroom.

We usually refer to a reasonably unified set of student behaviour, limited in time, preceded by some direction from the teacher, with a particular objective.

Activities include role plays, drills, games, peer-editing, small-group information-gap exercise, and much more.

Because an activity implies some sort of active performance on the part of learners, it is generally not used to refer to certain teacher behaviours like saying “good morning,” maintaining eye contact with students, explaining a grammar point, or writing a list of words on the chalkboard.

Such teacher behaviour, however can indeed be referred to as technique.

The Term of Technique 3. Procedure. Richards and Rodgers (2001) used the term

procedure to encompass “the actual moment-to-moment techniques, practices, and behaviour that operate in teaching a language according to a particular method” (p.26)

Procedures from this definition, include techniques. Thus, for Richards and Rodgers, this appears to be a catchall term, a thing for holding many small objects or a group or description that includes different things and that does not state clearly what is included or not.

3. Procedure. Richards and Rodgers (2001) used the term procedure to encompass “the actual moment-to-moment techniques, practices, and behaviour that operate in teaching a language according to a particular method” (p.26)

Procedures from this definition, include techniques. Thus, for Richards and Rodgers, this appears to be a catchall term, a thing for holding many small objects or a group or description that includes different things and that does not state clearly what is included or not.

The Term of Technique 4. Practice, behaviour, exercise,

strategy...In the language-teaching literature, these terms, and perhaps some others, all appear to refer , in varying degrees of intensity, to what is defined as technique.

4. Practice, behaviour, exercise, strategy...In the language-teaching literature, these terms, and perhaps some others, all appear to refer , in varying degrees of intensity, to what is defined as technique.

The Term of Technique 5. Technique Even before Anthony (1963) discussed and

defined the term, the language teaching literature generally accepted technique as a superordinate term to refer to various activities that either teachers or learners perform in the classroom.

In other words, technique include all tasks and activities.

They almost always planned and deliberate, done on purpose rather than by accident.

5. Technique Even before Anthony (1963) discussed and

defined the term, the language teaching literature generally accepted technique as a superordinate term to refer to various activities that either teachers or learners perform in the classroom.

In other words, technique include all tasks and activities.

They almost always planned and deliberate, done on purpose rather than by accident.

The Term of Technique Cont...They are the product of a choice made by the teacher. And they can, for your purposes as a language teacher, comfortably refer to the pedagogical units or components of a classroom session. You can think of a lesson as consisting of a number of techniques, some teacher-centered, some learner-centered, some production-centered, some comprehension-centered, some clustering together to form a task.

Cont...They are the product of a choice made by the teacher. And they can, for your purposes as a language teacher, comfortably refer to the pedagogical units or components of a classroom session. You can think of a lesson as consisting of a number of techniques, some teacher-centered, some learner-centered, some production-centered, some comprehension-centered, some clustering together to form a task.

Taxonomy of language-teaching Techniques (adapted from Crookes & Chaudron,1991 pp.52-54)

Controlled Techniques1.Warm-up: Mimes, dance, songs, jokes, play. This activity gets the students stimulated, relaxed, motivated, attentive, or otherwise engage and ready for the lesson. It does not necessarily involves use of the target language.2.Setting: Focusing on lesson topic. Teacher directs attention to the topic by verbal or nonverbal evocation of the context relevant to the lesson by questioning or miming or picture presentation, possibly by tape recording of situations and peole.3.Organizational: Structuring of lesson or class activities includes disciplinary action, organization of class furniture and seating, general procedures for class interaction and performance, structure and purpose of lesson, ete

Controlled Techniques1.Warm-up: Mimes, dance, songs, jokes, play. This activity gets the students stimulated, relaxed, motivated, attentive, or otherwise engage and ready for the lesson. It does not necessarily involves use of the target language.2.Setting: Focusing on lesson topic. Teacher directs attention to the topic by verbal or nonverbal evocation of the context relevant to the lesson by questioning or miming or picture presentation, possibly by tape recording of situations and peole.3.Organizational: Structuring of lesson or class activities includes disciplinary action, organization of class furniture and seating, general procedures for class interaction and performance, structure and purpose of lesson, ete


Controlled Techniques4.Content Explanation: Grammatical, phonological, lexical (vocabulary), sociolinguistic, pragmatic, or any other aspect of language.5.Role-play demonstration: Selected students or teacher illustrate the procedure(s) to be applied in the lesson segment to follow. Includes brief illustration of language or other content to be incorporated.6.Dialogue/Narrative presentation: Reading or listening passage presented for passive reception. No implication of student production or other identification of specific target forms or functions (students may be asked to “understand”)7.Dialogue/Narrative recitation: Reciting a previously known or prepared text, either in unison or individually.

Controlled Techniques4.Content Explanation: Grammatical, phonological, lexical (vocabulary), sociolinguistic, pragmatic, or any other aspect of language.5.Role-play demonstration: Selected students or teacher illustrate the procedure(s) to be applied in the lesson segment to follow. Includes brief illustration of language or other content to be incorporated.6.Dialogue/Narrative presentation: Reading or listening passage presented for passive reception. No implication of student production or other identification of specific target forms or functions (students may be asked to “understand”)7.Dialogue/Narrative recitation: Reciting a previously known or prepared text, either in unison or individually.


Controlled Techniques8.Reading aloud: Reading directly from a given text.9.Checking: Teacher either circulating or guiding the correction of students’ work, providing feedback as an activity rather than within another activity.10.Question-answer display: Activity involving prompting of students responses by means of display questions (i.e. teacher or questioner already knows the response or has a very limited set of expectations for the appropriate response). Distinguished from referential questions by the likelihood of the questioner’s knowledge of the response and the speaker’s awareness of that fact.

Controlled Techniques8.Reading aloud: Reading directly from a given text.9.Checking: Teacher either circulating or guiding the correction of students’ work, providing feedback as an activity rather than within another activity.10.Question-answer display: Activity involving prompting of students responses by means of display questions (i.e. teacher or questioner already knows the response or has a very limited set of expectations for the appropriate response). Distinguished from referential questions by the likelihood of the questioner’s knowledge of the response and the speaker’s awareness of that fact.


Controlled Techniques11.Drill: Typical language activity involving fixed patterns of teacher prompting and student responding, usually with repetition, substitution, and other mechanical alterations. Typically with little meaning attached.12.Translation: Student or teacher provision of L1 or L2 translation of given text.13.Dictation: Student writing down orally presented text.14.Copying: Student writing down text presented visually.15.Identification: Student picking out and producing/labeling or otherwise identifying a specific target form, function, definition, or other lesson-related item.

Controlled Techniques11.Drill: Typical language activity involving fixed patterns of teacher prompting and student responding, usually with repetition, substitution, and other mechanical alterations. Typically with little meaning attached.12.Translation: Student or teacher provision of L1 or L2 translation of given text.13.Dictation: Student writing down orally presented text.14.Copying: Student writing down text presented visually.15.Identification: Student picking out and producing/labeling or otherwise identifying a specific target form, function, definition, or other lesson-related item.


Controlled Techniques16.Recognition: Student identifying forms, as in identification (i.e., checking off items, drawing symbols, rearranging pictures), but without a verbal responses.17.Review: Teacher-led review of previous week/month/or other period as a formal summary and type of test of student recall performance.18.Testing: Formal testing procedures to evaluate student progress.19.Meaningful drill: Drill activity involving responses with meaningful choices, as in reference to different information. Distinguished from information exchange by the regulated sequence and general form of responses.

Controlled Techniques16.Recognition: Student identifying forms, as in identification (i.e., checking off items, drawing symbols, rearranging pictures), but without a verbal responses.17.Review: Teacher-led review of previous week/month/or other period as a formal summary and type of test of student recall performance.18.Testing: Formal testing procedures to evaluate student progress.19.Meaningful drill: Drill activity involving responses with meaningful choices, as in reference to different information. Distinguished from information exchange by the regulated sequence and general form of responses.


Semicontrolled Techniques20.Brainstorming: A form of preparation for the lesson, like Setting, which involves free, undirected contributions by the students and teacher on a given topic, to generate multiple associations without linking them; no explicit analysis or interpretation by the teacher.21.Storytelling (especially when student-generated): Not necessarily lesson-based, a lengthy presentation of story by teacher or student (may overlap with Warm-up or Narrative recitation), May be used to maintain attention, motivate, or as lengthy practice.22.Question-answer, referential: Activity involving prompting of responses by means of referential questions (i.e., the questioner does not know beforehand the responses information). Distinguished from Question-answer, display.

Semicontrolled Techniques20.Brainstorming: A form of preparation for the lesson, like Setting, which involves free, undirected contributions by the students and teacher on a given topic, to generate multiple associations without linking them; no explicit analysis or interpretation by the teacher.21.Storytelling (especially when student-generated): Not necessarily lesson-based, a lengthy presentation of story by teacher or student (may overlap with Warm-up or Narrative recitation), May be used to maintain attention, motivate, or as lengthy practice.22.Question-answer, referential: Activity involving prompting of responses by means of referential questions (i.e., the questioner does not know beforehand the responses information). Distinguished from Question-answer, display.


Semicontrolled Techniques23.Cued narrative/Dialogue: Student production of narrative or dialogue following cues from miming, cue cards, pictures, or other stimuli related to narrative/dialogue (e.g., metalanguage requesting functional acts).24.Information transfer: Application from one mode (e.g., visual) to another (e.g., writing), which involves some transformation of the information (e.g., student fills out diagram while listening to description). Distinguished from Identification in that the student is expected to transform and reinterpret the language or information.25.Information exchange: Task involving two-way communication as in information-gap exercise, when one or both parties (or a larger group) must share information to achieve some goal. Distinguished from Question-answer, referential in that sharing of information is critical for the task.

Semicontrolled Techniques23.Cued narrative/Dialogue: Student production of narrative or dialogue following cues from miming, cue cards, pictures, or other stimuli related to narrative/dialogue (e.g., metalanguage requesting functional acts).24.Information transfer: Application from one mode (e.g., visual) to another (e.g., writing), which involves some transformation of the information (e.g., student fills out diagram while listening to description). Distinguished from Identification in that the student is expected to transform and reinterpret the language or information.25.Information exchange: Task involving two-way communication as in information-gap exercise, when one or both parties (or a larger group) must share information to achieve some goal. Distinguished from Question-answer, referential in that sharing of information is critical for the task.


Semicontrolled Techniques26. Wrap-up: Brief teacher- or student-produced summary of point and/or items that have been practiced or learned.27.Narration/Exposition: Presentation of a story or explanation derived from prior stimuli. Distinguished from Cued narrative because of lack of immediate stimulus.28.Preparation: Student study, silent reading, pair planning and rehearsing, preparing for later activity. Usually a student-directed or –oriented project.

Semicontrolled Techniques26. Wrap-up: Brief teacher- or student-produced summary of point and/or items that have been practiced or learned.27.Narration/Exposition: Presentation of a story or explanation derived from prior stimuli. Distinguished from Cued narrative because of lack of immediate stimulus.28.Preparation: Student study, silent reading, pair planning and rehearsing, preparing for later activity. Usually a student-directed or –oriented project.


Free Techniques29.Role play: Relatively free acting out of specified roles and functions. Distinguished from Cued dialogues by the fact that cueing is provided only minimally at the beginning , and not during the activity.30.Games: Various kinds of language game activity not like other previously defined activities (e.g., board and dice games making words).31.Report: Report of student-prepared exposition on books, experiences, project work, without immediate stimulus, and elaborated on according to student interests. Akin to Composition in writing mode.

Free Techniques29.Role play: Relatively free acting out of specified roles and functions. Distinguished from Cued dialogues by the fact that cueing is provided only minimally at the beginning , and not during the activity.30.Games: Various kinds of language game activity not like other previously defined activities (e.g., board and dice games making words).31.Report: Report of student-prepared exposition on books, experiences, project work, without immediate stimulus, and elaborated on according to student interests. Akin to Composition in writing mode.


Free Techniques32.Problem solving: Activity involving specified problem and limitations of means to resolve it; requires cooperation on part of participants in small or large group.33.Drama: Planned dramatic rendition of play, skit, story, etc.34.Simulation: Activity involving complex interaction between groups and individuals based on simulation of real-life actions and experiences.35.Interview: A student is directed to get information from another student or students.36.Discussion: Debate or other form of grouped discussion of specified topic, with or without specified sides/positions prearranged.

Free Techniques32.Problem solving: Activity involving specified problem and limitations of means to resolve it; requires cooperation on part of participants in small or large group.33.Drama: Planned dramatic rendition of play, skit, story, etc.34.Simulation: Activity involving complex interaction between groups and individuals based on simulation of real-life actions and experiences.35.Interview: A student is directed to get information from another student or students.36.Discussion: Debate or other form of grouped discussion of specified topic, with or without specified sides/positions prearranged.


Free Techniques37.Composition: As in Report (verbal), written development of ideas, story, or other exposition.38.A propos: Conversation or other socially oriented interaction/speech by teacher, students, or even visitors, on general real-life topics. Typically authentic and genuine.

Free Techniques37.Composition: As in Report (verbal), written development of ideas, story, or other exposition.38.A propos: Conversation or other socially oriented interaction/speech by teacher, students, or even visitors, on general real-life topics. Typically authentic and genuine.


Some techniques will fit into more than one category. Consider the “warm-up” activity suggested by Klippel (1984,pp13-14) for beginning level class:Step1: Each student writes his/her full name of a piece of paper.

All the papers are collected and redistributed so that everyone receives the name of a person he/she does not know.

Step 2: Everyone walks around the room and tries to find the person whose name he/she holds. Simple questions can be: “Is your name......? Are you......?

Step 3: When everyone has found his/her partner, he/she introduces him/her to the group.

Some techniques will fit into more than one category. Consider the “warm-up” activity suggested by Klippel (1984,pp13-14) for beginning level class:Step1: Each student writes his/her full name of a piece of paper.

All the papers are collected and redistributed so that everyone receives the name of a person he/she does not know.

Step 2: Everyone walks around the room and tries to find the person whose name he/she holds. Simple questions can be: “Is your name......? Are you......?

Step 3: When everyone has found his/her partner, he/she introduces him/her to the group.


This exercise seems to fit into a number of possible categories. It involves question-answer, referential activity; there is some information exchange as well.; and in some ways either problem solving or games may fit here.

The purpose in referring to such a taxonomy, therefore, is not to be able to pinpoint every technique specifically. Rather, the taxonomy is more of a help to you as

An aid to raising your awareness of the wide variety of available techniques

An indicator of how techniques differ according to a continuum ranging from controlled to free

A resource for your own personal brainstorming process as you consider types of techniques for your classroom.

This exercise seems to fit into a number of possible categories. It involves question-answer, referential activity; there is some information exchange as well.; and in some ways either problem solving or games may fit here.

The purpose in referring to such a taxonomy, therefore, is not to be able to pinpoint every technique specifically. Rather, the taxonomy is more of a help to you as

An aid to raising your awareness of the wide variety of available techniques

An indicator of how techniques differ according to a continuum ranging from controlled to free

A resource for your own personal brainstorming process as you consider types of techniques for your classroom.

References

• Brown, D.H. (2001). Teaching by Principle.Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice Hall.

• Clarke,M.A.1983. The scope of approach, the importance of method, and the nature of technique. In J.E. Alatis. H.Stern,& P. Strevens (Eds.). Geogetown University Round Table on Language and Linguistics 1983. : Applied linguistics and the preparation of second language teachers (pp.106-115). Washington, D.C: Georgetown University.

• Kumaravadivelu, B. 2006. Understanding Language teaching.New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,Inc. , Publisher.

• Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. 2nd ed.Oxford: OUP

• Lightbown, P& Nina Spada.1993. How language are learned. New York: Oxford University Press.

• Prichard, Alan.2009. Ways of Learning: Learning theories and learning styles in the classroom. New York: Routledge.

• Richard, Jack C. , & Rodgers, Theodore S. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press

• Brown, D.H. (2001). Teaching by Principle.Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice Hall.

• Clarke,M.A.1983. The scope of approach, the importance of method, and the nature of technique. In J.E. Alatis. H.Stern,& P. Strevens (Eds.). Geogetown University Round Table on Language and Linguistics 1983. : Applied linguistics and the preparation of second language teachers (pp.106-115). Washington, D.C: Georgetown University.

• Kumaravadivelu, B. 2006. Understanding Language teaching.New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,Inc. , Publisher.

• Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. 2nd ed.Oxford: OUP

• Lightbown, P& Nina Spada.1993. How language are learned. New York: Oxford University Press.

• Prichard, Alan.2009. Ways of Learning: Learning theories and learning styles in the classroom. New York: Routledge.

• Richard, Jack C. , & Rodgers, Theodore S. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press

Approach method_and_technique_in_english_teaching_2014

Education

nature of language learning

terms of approach

tefltefl approach

selected approach

english learning

specified method

edward anthonys model

set of correlative assumptions