Applied Psychology

How can motivation be increased through the development of self-efficacy?

The central focus of this assignment is Albert Bandura’s theory of self-efficacy which

has in the past been considered one of the most useful theories to be created

(Cherian and Jacob 2013). Bandura (2012) suggests that in order to be motivated to

do something there must be a sense of belief that it can be done: self-efficacy. The

aim of this assignment is to ascertain, through theoretical perspectives, how self-

efficacy and motivation can be increased. Firstly, various theories of motivation will

be summarised to gain an insight into this key aspect of professional practice.

Academic texts such as Long et al (2011) will be referred to for clarification of

different theories. Following this, a deeper analysis of self-efficacy will be provided,

as the key focus for the assignment. A variety of sources including Bandura (1977)

and Lindon (2012) will be used to achieve this. To conclude, suggestions will be

made of how levels of self-efficacy can be increased to improve motivation.

Suggestions for this will be taken from sources such as Phan (2014) and Pardoe

(2009). Comparative viewpoints on each topic will also be explored. The knowledge

gained from this work can then be transferred to my practice and used to support the

children that I work with.

Everyone learns and develops in their own way and everyone is motivated for

different reasons (Vosniadou 2001). Motivation is a process that begins when a task

is undertaken, as a means of enabling an individual to achieve their goals, meet their

expectations of themselves and reach their targets; it is what drives a person

(Bentham and Hutchins 2012; Long et al 2011). To this end, many theories

surrounding motivation have been created.

For many years researchers have explored the possibilities of what motivates

people. Many have concluded that motivation is either intrinsic or extrinsic (Hayes

2012; Long et al 2011). Intrinsic motivation is an internal desire to carry out a task

simply to complete it, whereas extrinsic motivation is when a task is carried out in

order to receive an external reward or consequence (Long et al 2011; Vosniadou

2001). Significantly, it has been suggested that for learning motivation to be

successfully influential over a person, the motivation must be intrinsic, even if

extrinsic motivators are also present (Cohen et al 2010). Furthermore, given that

motivation is a personal quality, variances in levels of motivation should be expected

across different situations (Long et al 2011). It could be suggested that these

variances highlight how the theories of motivation complement each other as

different situations could require alternative motivators (Cohen et al 2010).

Believers in the humanistic approach to motivation suggest that in order to develop

any level of motivation to learn, a series of basic physiological needs must first be

met: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Need (Sengupta 2011). That being said, research has

displayed a lack of correlation between satisfaction of the basic needs and self-

actualization, which enables motivation (Lester 2013; Lester et al 1983). If a person’s

basic physiological needs are not being met they could be left feeling helpless.

Learned helplessness is an increasingly common problem within motivation, with

people becoming reluctant to obey or comply with behavioural and academic

expectations and feeling a lack of control over their own learning thus causing a

reduction in motivation (Cohen et al 2010).

Self-determination enables people to take control of their learning through autonomy,

alongside a sense of belonging and competence of an activity (Long et al 2011;

Ryan and Deci 2000) thus maintaining levels of motivation. Furthermore, Long et al

(2011) suggest that a person’s will or desire enables them to control how they meet

these psychological needs. The common traits often seen within the Achievement

Motivation Theory also highlight the ability for a person to take control of their own

learning and increase levels of motivation (Long et al 2011). A desire to succeed is

often found to be as strong as the determination to avoid failure (Bentham and

Hutchins 2012). Targets are often set according to judgements made on past

successes (Bentham and Hutchins 2012). Furthermore, achieving targets creates a

sense of pride, though this can fluctuate across different contexts (Long et al 2011).

With the suggestion that highly motivated people are most likely to challenge

themselves and support their progression through their Zone of Proximal

Development (Weiner 1992) I would offer that these people could have high levels of

self-efficacy.

Self-efficacy is part of Bandura’s Social Learning Theory and is centred on a

person’s feelings of their competence (Ayers et al 2000; Lindon 2012). A person’s

perception of their ability to carry out a task is formed by the reflections on past

experiences, success in similar tasks, encouragement and persuasion from others,

and current physiological state (Bandura 1977; Lindon 2012). The conclusions drawn

from these considerations can then influence a person’s emotional reactions, thought

processes and more notably on this occasion, motivation (Cherian and Jacob 2013;

Jinks and Lorsbach 2003).

It is Bandura that names reflection, previous success, encouragement and

physiological state as informative factors of self-efficacy, yet deeper analysis also

offers “vicarious observation” and “integration of efficacy information” (Ayers et al

2000: p.40). Observing the success and failure of peers can influence self-perception

and increase or decrease motivation: “vicarious observation” (Ayers et al 2000:

p.40).

An example of this has recently taken place in the setting, where a 4-year old was

reluctant to carry out a writing task. Whilst their peers made attempts or completed

the activity the child claimed ‘I can’t do it’. Encouragement was offered, highlighting

the fact that everyone else was obeying the instructions. Next, the child was

reminded of similar tasks that had been attempted before. When the child then

became upset, still saying ‘I can’t do it, I don’t know how to’, a more nurturing

approach was taken where the child was comforted and reassured. During the

emotional exchange the child’s poor sense of self-efficacy was evident, and needed

increasing before they would make any attempt at carrying out the task. For that

reason, the child was taken aside, all focus on the activity itself was temporarily

removed and a more jovial approach was taken to improve the child’s emotional

state. Receiving reassurance that perfect results were not expected, and without the

internalised pressure of seeing all their peers engaged in the activity, the child made

an attempt to complete the task and was praised for their effort.

This example highlights that the theory of self-efficacy can be effectively combined

with Maslow’s Hierarchy of Need: once the child’s physiological needs were met,

they no longer feared failure, developed a greater sense of self-efficacy and became

motivated to carry out the task (Cherian and Jacob 2013; Lindon 2012; Long et al

2011). Moreover, it emphasises how personal the cognitive process of combining

efficacy information is and that generalised encouragement is not always enough to

increase it. Notably, Long et al (2011) state that praise and encouragement should

be given for effort rather than completion of a task, and that such an approach is

more likely to produce continuous improved results. Whereas Ayers et al (2000)

claim that encouragement is ineffective in the development of self-efficacy as merely

telling a person they can or cannot achieve something is seen as removed from the

current situation. Significantly, it also supports Bandura’s (1977) claim that self-

efficacy is a concept developed by personal beliefs, not truth or facts. Engaging with

the suggestion that observed behaviours and responses of others can influence self-

efficacy could further support or begin to refute this theory.

To gain clarity of how other people’s behaviour can influence self-efficacy, body

language, verbal and physical responses, apparent sincerity and how others engage

with activities should be considered (Lindon 2012; Long et al 2011). A support

strategy often used is, once the learning intention has been explained and the

session input has begun, deliberate mistakes are made for the children to identify

and correct. This approach has been used repeatedly and has proved particularly

successful with the low-achievers. The adults’ behaviours convey the importance of

the children’s input and the responses given show genuine pleasure in the children’s

participation and accomplishments. Enabling the children to support and correct the

adult appears to promote a genuine sense of achievement and gives them the sense

that they are in control of the learning activity, and that they are the “more

knowledgeable person” (Watson 2001: p.140). It has also proven to be a successful

approach to increasing motivation as the children have been keen to show their

learning and understanding to their peers and the adult. Enabling the children to

share their knowledge naturally in this way demonstrates to them the truth of their

ability, and their ability to succeed at a task thus improving their sense of self-

efficacy and refuting Bandura’s (1977) claim that self-efficacy is developed according

to beliefs rather than truth.

The examples of practice provided enable suggestions for increasing self-efficacy

and motivation to be relatively straight forward. A nurturing and enabling

environment where children and adults enjoy positive relationships (Early Education

2012) provide children with a sense of safety and security where they are not afraid

of failure, and are motivated to learn (Bentham and Hutchins 2012; Pardoe 2009).

This nurturing approach to supporting children’s learning and development not only

supports Bandura’s (1977) theory of self-efficacy by meeting children’s physiological

needs, but also Maslow’s Hierarchy of Need (Sengupta 2011) by ensuring that the

basic needs are met to enable self-actualisation and motivation.

Feigning mistakes and creating a jovial approach for children to learn provides the

opportunity to clearly assess children’s abilities and adapt learning activities to suit

their needs. This will enable appropriate and meaningful learning to take place,

working toward achievable targets and goals (Hayes 2012; Robins 2012).

Furthermore, letting the children become the “more knowledgeable person” (Watson

2001: p.140) convinces them that they are successful learners and enables them to

develop a ‘can do’ attitude (Hayes 2012). Creative and imaginative learning of this

manner encourages engagement, arousal, interest, awe, wonder and genuine

emotional responses. All of these factors support the provision of a rich and

supportive learning environment that will promote self-efficacy and motivation.

Alongside from these specific approaches to teaching and learning, it is also

important to ensure that any feedback, praise or reward given to a child will support

their development of self-efficacy and motivation. Any feedback or praise given

should be related to the effort made and the learning processes, rather than the end

result (Lindon 2012; Long et al 2011; Robins 2012). Furthermore, despite the

mention of consequences as an extrinsic motivator (Long et al 2011) they should be

avoided wherever possible (Hayes 2012). Motivation is much more likely to increase

at the thought of receiving a warm and encouraging response from another person,

rather than the need to avoid a punishment (Hayes 2012). As a parent, I find this

insight very interesting and will endeavour to be mindful of it at home as well as in

the setting.

It has been noted within this assignment that Bandura’s (1977) theory of self-efficacy

complements Maslow’s Hierarchy of Need (Sengupta 2011). With more time and

opportunity for deeper research and analysis I feel confident that other theories of

motivation would also complement that of Bandura (1977). It highlights to me the

importance of understanding a variety of theories and approaches to learning, to

ensure that all children are supported according to their own needs.

References

Ayers, H., Clarke, D. and Murray, A. (2000) Perspectives on Behaviour: a practical

guide to effective interventions. Second Edition. Abingdon, David Fulton Publishers.

Bandura, A. (1977) Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioural change.

Psychological Review. [Online] 84 (2), 191-215. Available from: EBSCOhost.

[Accessed: 18 May 2013].

Bandura, A. (2012) On the Functional Properties of Perceived Self-efficacy:

Revisited. Journal of Management. 38 (1), 9-44. [Online] Available from: SAGE

Journals. [Accessed 1 March 2015].

Bentham, S. and Hutchins, R. (2012) Improving Pupil Motivation Together: Teachers

and Teaching Assistants Working Collaboratively. [e-book] Oxon, Routledge.

Available from: Dawsonera. [Accessed 1 March 2015].

Cherian, J. and Jacob, J. (2013) Impact of self-efficacy on motivation and

performance of employees. International journal of business and management. 8

(14), 80-88. [Online] Available from: CCSE. [Accessed 25 January 2015].

Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (2010) A Guide to Teaching Practice.

Revised Fifth Edition. [e-book] Oxon, Routledge. Available from: MyiLibrary.

[Accessed 15 February 2015].

Hayes, D. (2012) Foundations of a Primary Teacher. Fifth Edition. [e-book]. Oxon,

Routledge. Available from: Dawsonera. [Accessed 25 January 2015].

Jinks, J. and Lorsbach, A. (2003) Introduction: Motivation and self-efficacy belief.

Reading and writing quarterly: Overcoming Learning Difficulties.19 (2), 113-118.

[Online] Available from: Taylor and Francis. [Accessed 27 January 2015].

Lester, D. (2013) Measuring Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Psychological Reports.

113 (1), 15-17. [Online] Available from: EBSCOhost. [Accessed 1 March 2015].

Lester, D., Hvezda, J., Sullivan, S. and Plourde, R. (1983) Maslow’s Hierarchy of

Needs and Psychological Health. Journal of General Psychology. 109 (1), 83-85.

[Online] Available from: EBSCOhost. [Accessed 1 March 2015].

Lindon, L. (2012) Understanding Child Development 0-8 years. Third Edition.

London, Hodder Education.

Long, M., Wood, C., Littleton, K., Passenger, T. and Sheehy, K. (2011) The

Psychology of Education. Second Edition. Oxon, Routledge.

Pardoe, D. (2009) Towards Successful Learning. Second Edition. London,

Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.

Phan, H. (2014) Self-efficacy, reflection, and achievement: A short-term longitudinal

examination. The journal of educational research. 107 (2), 90-102. [Online] Available

from: Taylor and Francis. [Accessed 15 February 2015].

Robins, G. (2012) Praise, motivation and the child. [e-book] Oxon, Routledge.

Available from: Dawsonera. [Accessed 27 January 2015].

Ryan, R. and Deci, E. (2000) Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic

motivation, social development and well-being. American psychologist. 55 (1), 67-78.

[Online] Available from: EBSCOhost. [Accessed 27 July 2014].

Tan, J. (2013) Dialoguing written reflections to promote self-efficacy in student

teachers. Reflective Practice: International and Multidisciplinary Perspectives, 14 (6),

814-824. [Online]. Available from: Taylor and Francis Online. [Accessed 22 February

2015].

Vosniadou, S. (2001) How Children Learn. International Bureau of Education.

Educational Practices Series-7. Brussels, International Academy of Education.

Watson, J. (2001) Social Constructivism in the Classroom. Support for Learning. 16

(3), 140-147. [Online] Available from: Wiley Online Library [Accessed 25 November

2012].

Weiner, B. (1992) Human Motivation: Metaphors, theories and research. California,

SAGE Publications.

Formative Assessment

The level to which an individual is motivated to learn can be influenced in different

ways. Physical and psychological rewards, known as extrinsic and intrinsic

motivators, are regularly seen in use in educational settings and in homes. Examples

of this are stickers, prize boxes and smiley face reward systems. This behavioural

approach to motivation and learning has influenced theories by people such as

Pavlov, Thorndike and Watson who all believed that providing a “stimulus” increases

motivation and will be remembered for future activities (Pound 2006). Humanist

motivators such as Maslow believe that an enabling environment that supports

children’s basic and individual needs, promotes motivation and learning (Maslow

1943 cited by Faragher and Goddard 2012). The contrasting inspiration of Maslow’s

Hierarchy of Need is the Drive Reduction Theory by Hull (Cherry no date). Hull

suggested that motivation is increased by the reduction of “drives” such as hunger,

thirst and temperature (Cherry no date). Another perspective is that people are

motivated to participate and learn when there is an end-goal to be achieved (Elliot

and Dweck 1998). The main focus of this report will be cognitive motivation: the

thoughts and feelings of a learner that motivate them to try and succeed.

One of the most acclaimed theories in modern psychology, is the suggestion that in

order to be motivated and able to learn there must be a strong sense of “self-

efficacy” (Betz et al 1996 cited by Cherian and Jacob 2013). At least this was

believed to be the case in 1996, after nineteen years it may no longer be. Self-

efficacy is the theory produced by Albert Bandura that is centred on a person’s

perception of themselves and their ability to succeed at a task (Lindon 2012). It is a

perception that is developed through the combination of an individual’s thinking and

the behaviours observed by others (Lindon 2012). The observed behaviours may

stem from praise received, an assessment of work or a reward given, when focusing

on positive aspects of motivation. Alternatively, if these behaviours are not observed

or are perceived to be insincere, it could have a negative impact and reduce

motivation, developing the belief that failure is inevitable (Lindon 2012). These

responses form a psychological evaluation of the success of the learning experience

and inform the level of self-efficacy (Lindon 2012; Cherian and Jacob 2013). This

can then influence the levels of motivation, perseverance and participation (Cherian

and Jacob 2013).

It is not just others’ observed behaviours that can alter levels of self-efficacy; Wood

and Attfield (2005) examine self-concept. A secure sense of identity and a

continuously developing understanding of personal strengths and weaknesses are

also contributing factors (Wood and Attfield 2005). Someone with a poor concept of

themselves, could manifest a strong emotional response to learning and

demonstrate a loss of control over appropriate behaviours, leading to a feeling of

bewilderment and lack of motivation (Wood and Attfield 2005; Cherian and Jacob

2013).

An example of this took place recently when a class was asked to complete an

unaided writing task. Looking around at peers who were successfully writing, mark-

making, drawing or making no attempt provided no support to a child who was

unsure of their ability. The child did not ask for help, or voice their problems, and

when approached and asked about their learning they replied with “I can’t do it, I

don’t know how to.” The child was reminded of past successes and encouraged to

simply have a go, with the offer of a sticker for trying. The child became more

enthusiastic at this stage yet when they tried again they became upset and asked for

mummy. The staff made every attempt to support the child; providing “vicarious

experiences” through modelling, and offering “verbal persuasions” in the form of

genuine encouragement and positive feedback (Margolis and McCabe 2006). In this

instance the child repeatedly attempted to avoid completing the task and was keen

to give up immediately when challenged. It was when they were sat alone after

everyone else had completed the task that the child had another go. As this was

noticed the child received great praise for trying, with emphasis placed on the

process rather than the result. Receiving praise for their attempts at the learning,

enabled the child to develop a clearer understanding of their strengths, which

encouraged them to persevere until they had completed the task and could receive a

sticker.

The example given highlights that with appropriate support, encouragement, clear

and positive feedback, intrinsic motivators, and a simple sticker, an extrinsic

motivator, self-efficacy can be improved, motivation increased and learning

enhanced.

Peer Review

Most frequently commented on was my use of commas. This is an issue that has

previously been identified by my proof-reader and I am continuously trying to reduce

the number of punctuation errors made. My poor use of commas meant that several

complex sentences were noticed in the work, making some elements of the work

difficult to read. In addition to that, there were some sentences that need to be

rewritten entirely to ensure that the meaning is clear. Some descriptive and

conversational language was also noticed that would need to be reconsidered within

a summative piece of work. The suggestion was also made that the example of

practice given could be made more personal by stating that it took place in my

current setting. Another issue that has previously been highlighted to me is my

paragraphing: there was a suggestion of one additional paragraph break within the

piece. Aside from these issues, general feedback regarding my writing style was

complimentary.

Assessments made whilst referring to the marking grid and learning outcomes were

overall positive. An area clearly in need of more work is the conclusion. The general

consensus was that the areas requiring more detail and clarity were held back due to

the small word count available for this piece of work. I on the other hand, feel that

had I been more organised and focused on the piece I could have achieved all

criteria to a much higher standard. I am very aware of this and fully intend to improve

this for the summative assessment.

Some questions were raised regarding some of the citations and direct quotations

used in the piece. These issues have now been clarified by the module tutor and I

will ensure to remove the italics from the direct quotes and include page numbers

within the corresponding citation. Additionally, I will ensure that any multiple citations

will be ordered alphabetically.

I found this exercise to be quite difficult to participate in, but the feedback received I

am sure will prove invaluable during the construction of my next piece of work.

Criticism received from peers is more difficult to accept than criticism received from

tutors, perhaps because I grew up believing that I should do what the teacher tells

me and not my friends.

References for Formative Assessment

Cherian, J. and Jacob, J. (2013) Impact of self-efficacy on motivation and

performance of employees. International Journal of Business and Management. 8

(14), 80-88. [Online] Available from: Canadian Centre of Science and Education.

[Accessed 25 January 2015].

Cherry, K. (no date) Drive Reduction Theory. [Online] Available from:

http://psychology.about.com/od/motivation/a/drive-reduction-theory.htm [Accessed

26 January 2015].

Elliot, E. and Dweck, C. (1988) Goals: An approach to motivation and achievement.

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 54 (1), 5-12. [Online] Available from:

EBSCOhost. [Accessed 13 May 2013].

Faragher, S. and Goddard, G. (2012) Teaching and Learning. In: Walton, A. and

Goddard, G. Supporting Every Child: A course book for Foundation Degrees in

Teaching and Supporting Learning. Second Edition. London, Learning Matters.

Lindon, J. (2012) Understanding Child Development 0-8years. Third Edition. London,

Hodder Education.

Pound, L. (2006) How children learn: from Montessori to Vygotsky – educational

theories and approaches made easy. London, Practical Pre-school Books.

BAPP 3015 Student Feedback Form

Student Number (Student to fill in)

11011468

Intended Learning Outcomes1. Demonstrate an ability to compare and critique a range of applied psychological perspectives (e.g. those applied to the developing learner; teaching and learning; motivation; professional relationships, etc.)

2. Demonstrate an ability to synthesise their knowledge and skills in the analysis of practical, professional problems and situations.

3. Demonstrate a continuing commitment to, and a concern for, their own personal and professional development.

Module Assessment Criteria

The Intended Learning Outcomes of the module must be evidenced through the assignment. These have been related to the assessment criteria for the degree and are presented in the table below.

Please note that poor standards of presentation, grammar, spelling etc. will impact your overall grade. Those eligible for sensitive marking will of course be treated in the manner that the guidance for this requires of the marker.

A B C D Fail E-H

Engagement Develops independent interpretations of psychological perspectives and how these may be related to practice.

Demonstrates an active attempt to develop meaning from psychological perspectives and how these may be related to practice.

Demonstrates an attempt to collect expert opinion on psychological perspectives and discusses how these may relate to practice.

Demonstrates transmission of received material to discuss psychological perspectives and how these may relate to practice.

Work which fails to attain a pass standard can fall into a variety of different categories. Such work normally demonstrates partial awareness and comprehension of the task, is largely descriptive, offers unsubstantiated opinion as evaluation, has some factual inaccuracy and is dependent upon a restricted range of sources. Further details of E-H grades in relation to process and outcomes can be found in the BAPP Generic Grade Descriptors in the Course Handbook

Learning activity

Advanced student autonomy and independence of learning.

Student autonomy and independence in learning.

Students demonstrate comprehension of the task and an ability to collate a range of expert opinion

Students demonstrate an expression of opinion based on what may be perceived the ‘correct’ answer.

Developing judgments

Able to develop and sustain an advanced line of academic reasoning extending beyond the concepts taught demonstrating creative and original elements.

Forms, builds and sustains a clear line of academic reasoning throughout while dealing with complex situations.

Students report or recapitulate the material in a structured and relevant manner, with some partial evaluation of it.Some recognition of the complexity of academic

Students report or recapitulate material and expert opinion rather than transforming it. A tendency to reduce academic debate to provide

debate. polarised answers.

Interpretation to inform conclusions

The work demonstrates evidence of ability to synthesise evidence and to evaluate conflicting interpretations of it to reach a novel, independent, personal resolution.

Evidence of ability to synthesise and assess conflicting interpretations to reach an independent coherent resolution.

The work demonstrates relevance to the task and provides a range of responses through analysis and explanation or a range of opinions.

Demonstrates an underlying belief that there is a single outcome to the task set; and evaluation is about the expression of opinion based on the received ‘correct’ answer.

Use of sources A full range of recent and relevant sources are articulately used to develop an advanced line of reasoning in a clear, coherent and systematic manner.

A wide range of recent and relevant sources are ordered to develop an explicit line of reasoning in a clear, coherent and systematic manner.

A range of recent and relevant sources are used in sequential and/or freestanding manners, which are related to provide a clear and coherent line of reasoning.

A gathering of some sources which are referenced in a way that allows the reader to locate them and in turn are used to illustrate the core line or reasoning.

Additional tutor comments

Strengths

Areas for development

Mark awarded

Marking tutor

Date

Moderator