Appendix: Physical and Astronomical Constants Most physical and astronomical constants used in this book are given in Allen, C.W. (1973): Astrophysical Quantities, 3rd ed. (Athlone, London). We give here a few values frequently used. Velocity of light c 2.99979250 X 10 8 ms- 1 Gravitational constant G 6.670 X 10- 11 Nm2 kg- 2 Planck's constant h 6.62620 X 10- 34 J s Electron charge e 1.602192 X 10- 19 C Electron mass m. 9.10956 X 10- 31 kg Boltzmann's constant k 1.38062 X 10- 23 JK-1 Proton mass mp 1.672661 X 10- 27 kg Rydberg constant RH 109677.576 cm -1 (or Kayser) Zeeman displacement -:lv/B 1.39961 X 10 10 Hz Tesla- 1 Wavelength associated with 1 eV '\0 1.23985 X 10- 6 m 1014 Hz Frequency associated with 1 eV vo 2.417965 X Temperature associated with 1 eV 11604.8 K 10 11 m Astronomical unit Parsec Mass of Sun Radius of Sun Luminosity of Sun Blackbody Stefan-Boltzmann constant Planck function AU 1.495979 X pe 3.085678 X 10 16 m 3.3261633 light yr M0 1.989 X 10 30 kg R0 6.9599 X 10 8 m L0 3.826 X 10 26 W 5.66956 X 10- 8 Wm- 2 K-4 B>. = 2hc 2 ,\-5/(e hc /k>.T -1) Wm- 2 m- 1 sr- 1 = C1,\-5 /(eC2/>.T -1) Cl = 2hc 2 = 1.19107 X 10- 16 Wm 2 s-l C2 = hc/k = 1.43883 X 10- 2 mK B v =2hv3/c2(ehv/kT_1) Wm- 2 Hz-1 sr -1 N>. = 2c/,\4(eC2 />'T - 1) photonsm- 2 m- 1 sr- 1 Nv = 2v2/c2(ehv/kT - 1) photonsm- 2 Hz-1 sr- 1 311
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Appendix: Physical and Astronomical Constants
Most physical and astronomical constants used in this book are given in Allen, C.W. (1973): Astrophysical Quantities, 3rd ed. (Athlone, London). We give here a few values frequently used.
Velocity of light c 2.99979250 X 108 ms-1
Gravitational constant G 6.670 X 10-11 Nm2 kg- 2
Planck's constant h 6.62620 X 10-34 J s Electron charge e 1.602192 X 10-19 C
Electron mass m. 9.10956 X 10-31 kg Boltzmann's constant k 1.38062 X 10-23 JK-1 Proton mass mp 1.672661 X 10-27 kg
Rydberg constant RH 109677.576 cm -1 (or Kayser) Zeeman displacement -:lv/B 1.39961 X 1010 Hz Tesla-1
Wavelength associated with 1 eV '\0 1.23985 X 10-6 m 1014 Hz Frequency associated with 1 eV vo 2.417965 X
Temperature associated with 1 eV 11604.8 K 1011 m Astronomical unit
Parsec
Mass of Sun Radius of Sun Luminosity of Sun
Blackbody
Stefan-Boltzmann constant Planck function
AU 1.495979 X pe 3.085678 X 1016 m
3.3261633 light yr M0 1.989 X 1030 kg R0 6.9599 X 108 m L0 3.826 X 1026 W
= C1,\-5 /(eC2/>.T -1) Cl = 2hc2 = 1.19107 X 10-16 Wm2 s-l C2 = hc/k = 1.43883 X 10-2 mK B v =2hv3/c2(ehv/kT_1) Wm- 2 Hz-1 sr-1 N>. = 2c/,\4(eC2 />'T - 1) photonsm- 2 m-1 sr-1 N v = 2v2/c2(ehv/kT - 1) photonsm-2 Hz-1 sr-1
311
General Bibliography
Allen, C.W. (1973): Astropbysical Quantities, 3rd ed. (Athlone, London). Definitions of basic quantities, numerical values, useful constants. Referred to as AQ in this book.
Annual Review of Astronomy and Astropbysics, Ann. Revs., California. A yearly volume containing about ten review articles, usually excellent. Regularly provides the latest information on observational methods and instrumentation. Referred to as ARAA, volume, year in this book.
Hopkins, J. (1980): Glossary of Astronomy and Astropbysics, 2nd ed. (University of Chicago Press, Chicago)
Instrumentation in Astronomy. SPIE: Colloquium UI, Tucson; SPIE 172, ed. by D. Crawford (1979) Colloquium IV, Tucson; SPIE 331, ed. by D. Crawford (1982) Colloquium V, London; SPIE 445, ed. by A. Boksenberg and D. Crawford (1983) Colloquium VI, Tucson; SPIE 627, ed. by D. Crawford (1986). These colloquia give a very complete survey of new ideas and instrumentation (detectors, image processing ... ). The articles are written at the research level.
Lang, R.L. (1980): Astropbysical Formulae (Springer, New York). A basic compendium of physics, as required in astrophysics. Referred as AF in this book.
Astrophysical Observation
Carleton, N. (ed.): Metbods of Experimental Pbysics, Vol. 12, Astrophysics (Academic, New York): Vol. 12A: Optical and Infrared (1974) Vol. 12B: Radio Telescopes (1976) Vol. 12C: Radio Observations (1976). Three volumes of detailed description, at visible, infrared and radio wavelengths, of experimental methods. These volumes are especially relevant to Chaps. 3, 5, 6, but sometimes outdated.
Harwit, M. (1981): Cosmic Discovery (Harvester, Brighton). A splendid book, detailing in particular how astronomical discoveries follow the opening-up of new observational capacity.
Kitchin, C.R. (1984): Astropbysical Tecbniques (Adam Hilger, Bristol). A recent book witha similar scope to the present book; more descriptive, very complete.
313
Kuiper, G.P., Middlehurst, B. (eds.): Stars and Stellar Systems (University of Chicago Press, Chicago): Vol. I: Telescopes (1960) Vol. II: Astronomical Techniques (1962). Survey volumes, nowadays rat her dated, but still valuable for some aspects of classical optical astronomy.
Lang, K.R., Gingerich, O. (1979): A Source Book in Astronomy and Astrophysics 1900-1975 (Harvard Press). A collection of historical papers, including papers describing major observational discoveries.
Walker, G. (1987): Astronomical Observation - An Optical Perspective (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge)
Perspectives
Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1980s, Report of the Astronomy Survey Committee (National Academy Press, Washington DC 1982). This report proposed guidelines for ten years of research in the United States, both space- and ground-based.
European Space Seien ce, Horizon 2000, European Space Agency Special Publication 1070, (ESA, Paris 1984). An interesting survey of possible European space missions between now and the year 2000.
314
Bibliography to Chaps. 2-7
Chapter 2
General Reference
Valley, S. (ed.) (1965): Handbook o[ Geophysics and Space Environment (McGraw-Hill, New York). A good general reference for al1 properties and quantities associated with the atmosphere and the Earth's environment.
Structure of the Lower Atmosphere
Houghton, J.T. (1977): The Physics o[the Atmosphere (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge)
Humphreys, W.J. (1964): Physics o[ the Air (Dover, New York). A classic reference (1920), in arecent revision, giving a good description of many meteorological and atmospheric phenomena.
Atmospheric Radiation
Goody, R.M. (1977): Atmospheric Radiation (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge)
McCormac, B.M. (1971): The Radiating Atmosphere (Reidel, Dordrecht) Reach, F.E., Gordon, J.L. (1973): The Light o[ the Night Sky (Reidel, Dor
drecht)
Atmospheric Turbulence
The Journal o[ Atmospheric Seien ces publishes re cent research in the topics covered in this section.
Lumley, J.H., Panofsky, H.A. (1964): The Structure o[ Atmospheric Turbulence (Interscience, N ew York)
Roddier, F. (1981): "The Effects of Atmospheric Turbulence in Optical Astronomy", Progress in Optics, ed. by E. Wolf, Vol. XIX, p. 281. A thorough and well-referenced treatment of the fundament als.
The Ionosphere
Giraud, A., Petit, M. (1978): Ionospheric Techniques and Phenomena (Reidel, Dordrecht)
Hargreaves, J.K. (1979): The Upper Atmosphere and Solar-Terrestrial Relations (Van Nostrand, New York)
315
Ratcliffe, J .A. (1972): An Introduction to the Ionosphere and Magnetosphere (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge)
Atmospheric Transmission
Atlases of the solar spectrum with high spectral resolution give identifications of telluric lines.
De1bouille, L., Roland, G., Brault, J., Testermann, L. (1981): Spectre solaire de 1850 a 10000cm-1 (Universite de Liege, Liege). This atlas can also be obtained on magnetic tape (NOAO, Tucson, Arizona).
GEISA (1982). "Data bank for spectroscopy of mo1ecules influencing the transmission of p1anetary atmospheres." Bulletin d'Information du Centre de Donnees Stellaires. Observatoire de Strasbourg, France.
Migeotte, M., Neven, L., Swensson, J. (1957): "Le Spectre Solaire de 2.8 a 23.7 p.m." Mem. Soc. Roy. Sci. Liege 2
Particle Background
Hess, W.N. (1968): The Radiation Belt and Magnetosphere (Blaisdell, Waltham, Toronto)
Stassinopoulos, E.G. (1970): World Maps of Constant B,L and Flux Contours, NASA Special Publications 3054 (NASA, Washington DC)
Webber, W.R., Lezniak, J.A. (1974): "The comparative spectra of cosmic ray protons and helium nudei." Astrophys. Space Sci. 30, 361
Some referenees from the bibliography to Chap.5 are also relevant.
Chapter 4
Natural Vision Barlow, H.B. (1983): "Understanding Natural Vision" in Physical and Bio
logical Processing of Images, ed. by O.V. Braddick, A.C. Sleigh (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg)
Chabre, M. (1985): "From the photon to the neuronal signal." Europhys. News 16, No. 5, 1
Imbert, M. (1987): "The coding of images by the retina." Europhys. News 18, 32
Distributions and Fourier Transforms Arfken, G. (1970): Mathematical Methods for Physicists, 2nd ed. (Academic,
New York) Braeewell, R.M. (1986): The Fourier Transform and its Applications 2nd ed.,
revised (MeGraw-Hill, New York). This book is extremely useful beeause of the very large number of exercises relevant to astronomy and physics.
Champeney, D.C. (1985): Fourier Transforms in Physics (Adam Hilger, Bristol) Sehwartz, L. (1966): Mathematical Methods for Physics (Addison-Wesley, Read
ing, Mass.)
Probability, Random Variables, and Signal Processing DiGeso, V., Scarsi, L., Crane, P., Friedman, J.H., Levialdi, S. (1985): Data
Analysis in Astronomy (Plenum, New York) Frieden, B.R. (1983): Probability, Statistieal Optics and Data Testing, Springer
Sero Inf. Sei., Vol. 10 (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg) Papoulis, A. (1986): Probability, Random Variables and Stochastic Processes
(MeGraw-Hill, New York). Abasie reference for the concepts of random variables and stochastic processes and proofs of the assoeiated results, with a view to physical applications.
Thermodynamics of Radiative Fluctuations Harvey, A.F. (1970): Coherent Light (Wiley, New York) Landau, L., Lifshitz, E.M. (1980): Course on Theoretical Physics, Vol. 5: Sta
tistical Physics (Pergamon, Oxford) Olivier, B.M. (1965): "Thermal and quantum noise." Proc. IEEE 53, 436
317
Chapter 5
General References Burbidge, G., Hewitt, G. (eds.) (1981): Telescopes for the 1980s. Annual Re
views, Palo Alto, CA. Detailed descriptions of the Very Large Array (radio), Multi Mirror Telescope (visible and IR), Space Telescope (visible and UV) and the Einstein Observatory (X-rays), and the associated instrumentation.
Ford, W.K. (1979): "Digital imaging techniques." ARAA 17, 189. Review of progress in imaging detectors at a1l wavelengths.
Harvey, A.F. (1970): Coherent Light (Wiley, New York). Detailed description of photon-matter interaction and experimental arrangements, with a full bibliography.
Kittel, C. (1986): Introduction to Solid State Physics, 6th ed. (Wiley, New York). Basic reference for the underlying physics of radiation detectors at a1l photon energies.
McKay, C.D. (1986): "CCD's in astronomy." ARAA 24, 255
References for Spectral Regions and Techniques
Radiofrequencies
Blum, E.J. (1981): "Radioastronomy at millimeter wavelengths." Adv. Electron. Electron Phys. 56, 97
Pipher, J. (1976): "Instrumentation for infrared astronomy." ARAA 16, 335 The Scientinc Importance of Submillimeter Observations, ESA Workshop 1982,
European Space Agency, Special Publication 189, Paris Wolfe, W.L., Zissis, G.J. (eds.) (1978): The Infrared Handbook (Environmen
tal Research Institute of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI). Excellent coverage of theoretical and practical references for the 1-1000 Jlm region.
Wynn-Williams, C.G., Becklin, E. (eds.) (1987): Infrared Astronomy with Arrays. (Institute of Astronomy, Univ. of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii)
318
Visible and Ultraviolet Baluteau, U.P., d'Odorico, S. (eds.) (1986): The Optimization of the Use of
CCD Detectors in Astronomy. ESO-OHP Workshop (E~opean Southern Observatory, Garching)
Beynon, J.D., Lamb, D.R. (1980): Charge-Coupled Devices and their Applications (McGraw-Hill, New York)
Cappaccioli, M. (ed.) (1984): Astronomy with Schmidt-Type Telescopes (ReideI, Dordrecht). Review of recent progress in photography of faint objects.
Dereniak, E.L., Crowe, D.G. (1984): Optical Radiation Detectors (Wiley, New York)
Duchesne, M., Lelievre, G. (eds.) (1976): "Applications astronomiques des recepteurs d'image a reponse lineaire." Intern. Astron. Union, Colloq. 40
Eccles, M.J., Elizabeth-Sim, M., Tritton, K.P. (1983): Low Light Level Detectors in Astronomy (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge). Fairly qualitative description of detectors used in the visible.
Furenlid, 1., Hoag, A.A. (1978): "Signal-to-Noise of Photographic Emulsions" in Modern Techniques in Astronomical Photography, ed. by R.M. West, J.L. Heudier (European Southern Observatory, Geneva)
Janesick, J. et al. (1984): SPIE 501, 2 Livingstone, W.C. (1973): "Image tube systems." ARAA 11, 95. A good refer
ence though now a little dated in view of technical progress. Smith, A.G., Hoag, A.A. (1979): "Advances in astronomical photography at
low light level." ARAA 17, 43 Timothy, J.G. (1983): "Optical detectors for spectroscopy." Prog. Astron. Space
Phys. 95, 810
x- and Gamma-Ray Astronomy Fichtei, C.E., Thombka, J. (1981): Gamma-Ray Astrophysics (NASA Special
Publication 453, Washington DC) Giacconi, R., Gursky, H. (1974): X-Ray Astronomy (Reidel, Dordrecht) Hillier, R. (1984): Gamma Ray Astronomy (Clarendon, Oxford) Longair, M.S. (1981): High-Energy Astrophysics (Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge). Pages 68-100 deal with detectors. Paul, J. (1979): "L'astronomie'Y a haute energie"; Thesis, Universite Paris VII.
Detailed description of the sky-mapping COS-B satellite. Peterson, L.E. (1975): "Instrumental techniques in X-ray astronomy." ARAA
Brillet, A., D amour , T., Tourrenc, P. (1983): "Introduction to gravitational wave research." Ann. de Phys. 10,201
Deruelle, N., Piran, T. (eds.) (1983): Gravitational Radiation, Smnmer School in Theoretical Physics, Les Houches (North-Holland, Amsterdam)
Cosmic Rays
Cesarsky, C.J.: "Cosmic-ray confinement in the galaxy." ARAA 18, 289 Hillas, A.M. (1984): "The origin of ultra high energy cosmic rays." ARAA 22,
425
Chapter 6
Theory of Image Formation
Born, M., Wolf, E. (1980): Principles of Optics, 6th ed. (Pergamon, Oxford). A fundamental reference work, giving the complete theory of diffraction and the basis principles of some optical instruments.
Bruhat, G., Kastler, A. (1954): Optique (Masson, Paris) Harburn, G., Taylor, C.A., Welberry, T.R. (1979): Atlas of Optical Transforms
(Bell, London). Interesting visual illustrations of Fourier transforms. Harvey, A.F. (1970): Coherent Light (Wiley, New York) Mertz, L. (1965): Transformations in Optics (Wiley, New York). Original treat
ment, often directly concerned with astronomy. Roddier, F. (1988): "Interferometric imaging in astronomy." Phys. Rep. In press
Telescopes
Burbidge, G., Hewitt, A. (eds.) (1981): Telescopes for the 1980s (Annual Reviews, Palo Alto, CA). Reference work for aseries of large instruments (Very Large Array, Space Telescope, Multi Mirror Telescope ... ).
Danjon, A., Couder, A. (1983): Lunettes et Telescopes (Blanchard, Paris). Reissue of a classic book, confined to the visible.
Ficht el , C.E., Trombka, J.I. (1981): Gamma Ray Astrophysics, NASA Special Publication 453 (NASA, Washington DC). A handbook of gamma-ray astronomy.
Hiltner, W. (ed.) (1962): Stars and Stellar Systems (University of Chicago Press, Chicago). Now somewhat dated, but gives much information about classical problems in the visible and radio range.
King, H.C. (1979): The History of the Telescope, 2nd ed. (Dover, New York)
320
Future Telescopes: Ground-Based (Visible and Infrared)
Aseries of conferences have been devoted to this subject since the 1970s, in particular: Barr, L. (ed.) (1986): Advanced Technology Optical Telescopes, SPIE 628 Burbidge, G., Barr, L. (eds.) (1982): Advanced Technology Optical Telescopes.
SPIE 332 Hewitt, A. (ed.) (1980): Optical and Infrared Telescopes for the 1990s (Kitt
Peak National Observatory) d'Odorico, S., Swings, J.P. (1986): ESO's Very Large Telescope (ESO, Gareh
ing) Reiz, A. (ed.) (1974): Conference on Research Programs for the New Large
Telescopes (ESO-SRC-CERN, Geneva) Swings, J.P., Kjär, K. (1983): European Southern Observatory's Very Large
Telescope (ESO, Garehing) Ulrich, M.H., Kjär, K. (eds.) (1981): Scientific Importance of High Angular
Resolution at Infrared and Optical Wavelengths (ESO, Garehing) Ulrich, M.H. (ed.) (1984): Very Large Telescopes: Their Instrumentation and
Programs. Intern. Astron. Union, Colloq. 79 (ESO, Garehing) Ulrich, M.H. (ed.) (1988): Very Large Telescopes and Their Instrumentation
(ESO, Garehing)
Future Telescopes: Space Missions (All Wavelengths)
Suitable references are the Phase Areports and the feasibility studies produced by the European Space Agency and NASA for each proposed new mission, notably: Infrared Space Observatory (ISO), FIRST, XMM, etc.
Image Formation in a Turbulent Medium
Roddier, F. (1981): "The Effects of Atmospheric Turbulence in Optical Astronomy" in Progress in Optics, Vol. XIX, p. 281. This article treats very clearly the formalism and main results needed for studying atmospheric effects.
Tatarski, VJ. (1961): Wave Propagation in a Turbulent Medium (McGraw-Hill, New York)
Woolf, N.J. (1982): "High resolution imaging from the ground." ARAA 20, 367. Concepts and techniques central to the development of very large groundbased telescopes.
Treatment of Images
Bracewell, R. (1979): "Computer image processing." ARAA 17, 113 Dainty, J.C., Shaw, R. (1974): Image Science (Academic, New York) Ford, W.K. (1979): "Digital imaging techniques." ARAA 17, 198 Henbest, N., Marten, M. (1983): The New Astronomy (Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge). A beautifully illustrated book showing that images are ubiquitous in all branches of astronomy, whatever the wavelength.
321
Pearson, T.J., Readhead, A.C.S. (1984): "Image formation by self-calibration in radio astronomy." ARAA 22, 130. A good summary of image reconstitut ion methods which start from a partial knowledge of the image Fourier transform.
Chapter 7
General References
Born, M., Wolf, E. (1980): Principles of Optics, 6th ed. (Pergamon, Oxford). Gives the basic principles of interferometers, Michelson, Fabry-Perot, .... Particularly useful for ultraviolet, visible, infrared and submillimetric domruns.
Bruhat, G., Kastler, A. (1954): Optique (Masson, Paris). Classic treatise giving much material on spectrometers.
Harvey, A.F. (1970): Coherent Light (Wiley, New York). Contains many referenceSj useful for heterodyne detection particularly in the visible, infrared and submillimetric regions.
Wolfe, W.L., Zissis, G.J. (eds.) (1978): The Infrared Handbook (Environmental Research Institute of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI). Amine of information and practical and technological references for all infrared instrumentation.
Fourier Spectroscopy
Connes, P. (1970): "Astronomical Fourier spectroscopy." ARAA 8, 209
Echelle Spectroscopy
Chaffee, F., Schroeder, D. (1976): "Astronomical applications of echelle spectroscopy." ARAA 14,23
x- and Gamma-Rays
Peterson, L. (1975): "Instrumental techniques in X-ray astronomy." ARAA 13, 423. Gamma-ray spectroscopy nowadays uses the intrinsic spectral selectivity of the detectors. The reader should refer to Chap. 5 for further discussion.
Atomic transitions 28 Auroral zones 54 Autocorrelation 91
spectrometer 305 - of a stochastic process 105 - theorem 92 Autocovariance of a stochastic process 105
Background signal 118 Band profile 32 Bandpass 120 Barrier zone 154 Beam etendue 59,279 Bed of nails 88 Bin 135 Binary pulsar 6 Blackbody radiation 62 Blaze of a grating 283 Bolometers 153 Bolometric magnitude 64 Bouger's line 66 Bounded support 93 Box-car function 84 Bragg crystal spectrometer 299
Calibration sources 58 standards 66
- , ultraviolet 75 - , X-ray 75 Calorimeters 153 Carbon dioxide 27 Carcinotron 192 Cassegrain focus 239 Centrallimit theorem 102 - moments 100 Cerenkov effect 200 Characteristic function 100 Charge coupled device (CCD) 169 - injection device (CID) 169 Chi-squared 101 Chopper 145 Circadian cycle 27 Circular pupil 223 CLEAN algorithm 264 Cloud 48 Coded mask 250 Coherence 131 - degree of electromagnetic field 210 - etendue 216 - of field from circular source 216 - length 211 Collection system 116 Collimating mirror 284 Colour indices 65 - temperature 79 Column of precipitable water 26
Dark signal 118 Data bank 19 - handling 19 Daylight observations 40 Deconvolution 263,279 Degree of mutual coherence 210 Degrees of freedom 102 Densitometer 119 Depletion zone 154 Detection limits 123 - threshold 118 Detector 117, 146 - quantum efficiency (DQE) 159 Diffraction 81 - at infinity 219 - limit 227 Digitising on one bit 143 Digitization 126 - step 130 Diode 153 Dirac comb 85 - distribution 85 Discharge tube 68 Discrimination of weak astronomical source
35 Dispersion 100 Distortion 227 Distribution function 97,104 Domain of isoplanicity 220 Double sideband (DSB) detection 189 DQE in presence of a dark current 206 DUMAND project 201 Dynamic range 130
Lambert's law 63 Latent image 151 Lateral rejeetion 71 Latitude 54 Law of large numbers 111 Leptons 4 LIDAR 35 Light gathering power 279 Linear filter 127 Loeal oseillator 183, 188, 192 Loeal Standard of Rest (LSR) 275 Long-exposure image 255 Luminosity 61
Magnetograph 288 Magnetosphere 53 Magnitude system 63 Maser amplifier 191 Mass absorption eoefficient 152 Maximum entropy 265 Mean intensity 59 - of a stochastie proeess 105 - value 99 Median 99 Metal-insulator-supereonductor (MIS) 169 Metal-oxide-semieonduetor (MOS) 169 Meteorites 3 Michelson interferometer 244,291 Michelson's experiment 271 Mieroehannel plate 163,195 - - amplifiers 148 Mierophotometer 18,163 Millimetre astronomy 38 Millimetrie interferometers 234 Minimum detectable power 186 MIS eapacitanee 170 Mixer 153,188 Mixing ratio 26 Modulation transfer function (MTF) 158,