Appendix I: List of irregular verbs in English Base Past tense -ed participle abide abode, abided abode, abided verdragen, verblijven arise arose arisen ontstaan, opkomen awake awoke, awaked awoken, awaked wakker worden, wakker maken be was, were been zijn bear bore borne dragen, verdragen beat beat beaten slaan, verslaan become became become worden befall befell befallen gebeuren, overkomen beget begot begotten verwekken begin began begun beginnen behold beheld beheld aanschouwen bend bent bent buigen bereave bereft, bereaved bereft, bereaved beroven beseech besought, beseeched besought,beseeched smeken bet bet, betted bet, betted wedden bid bad(e), bid bade, bid, bidden gebieden, verzoeken bind bound bound binden bite bit bitten bijten bleed bled bled bloeden blow blew blown blazen, waaien break broke broken breken breed bred bred fokken, kweken bring brought brought brengen
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get got got krijgen give gave given geven go went gone gaan grind ground ground malen, slijpen grow grew grown groeien, worden,
verbouwen hang hung, (hanged) hung, (hanged) hangen,
(ophangen) have had had hebben hear heard heard horen heave heaved,hove heaved, hove heffen, op en neer
gaan hide hid hidden (zich) verbergen hit hit hit treffen hold held held houden hurt hurt hurt bezeren,
pijndoen keep kept kept houden kneel knelt, kneeled knelt, kneeled knielen knit knitted, knit knitted, knit breien, fronsen know knew known weten, kennen lay laid laid leggen lead led led leiden lean leant, leaned leant, leaned leunen leap leapt, leaped leapt, leaped springen learn learnt, learned learnt, learned leren leave left left laten, verlaten lend lent lent lenen let let let laten, verhuren lie lay lain liggen light lit, lighted lit, lighted aansteken,
verlichten lose lost lost verliezen make made made maken mean meant meant bedoelen meet met met ontmoeten mow mowed mown,mowed maaien pay paid paid betalen put put put leggen, zetten,
read read read lezen rid rid, ridded rid, ridded verlossen ride rode ridden rijden ring rang rung bellen, klinken rise rose risen opstaan, stijgen run ran run hardlopen saw sawed sawn, sawed zagen say said said zeggen see saw seen zien seek sought sought zoeken sell sold sold verkopen send sent sent zenden, sturen set set set zetten sew sewed sewn, sewed naaien shake shook shaken schudden shear sheared shorn, sheared scheren (van
weave wove woven weven weep wept wept wen en win won won winnen wind wound wound winden wring wrung wrung wringen write wrote written schrijven
Appendix D: Inventory of Spelling Rules
This Appendix deals with the most important spelling conventions in English, in particular with the spelling changes that occur under certain circumstances. It does not deal with English spelling in general, or with punctuation. The rules that concern us here, will be discussed under five general headings: doubling of final consonant, final-e, addition of e, final-y and final-o.
This survey is by no means complete. When in doubt, consult your dictionaries.
Rules for the pronunciation of the inflectional suffixes -s, -ed and -ing are given in Appendix III.
Doubling of final consonant
General Rule: a consonant symbol is doubled if it is final in an accented syllable, and if the vowel preceding it is spelled with a single letter. Examples:
beg - begged/begging/beggar big - bigger/biggest fat - fatter/fattest/fatty/fatten fun-funny
hot - hotter/hottest Jim-Jimmy knit - knitted/knitting
nun - nunnery permit - permitted/permitting red - redder/reddest/reddish regret - regretted/regretting/ regrettable run - running/runner snob - snobbish/snobbery wit-witty
However, there is no doubling of the final base consonant in the following examples:
sleep - sleeping/sleeper/sleepy (two vowel-letters before the consonant) hold - holding/holder (two consonants) visit - visited/visiting/visitor (preceding vowel unstressed) use - uses/used/using (ends in a vowel-letter)
338 Appendix II
The following exceptions to the general rule are worth noting:
(a) In BrE final -lor -m is normally doubled, even if the preceding vowel is unstressed. Examples:
(d) final -g in the verbs humbug and zigzag is also doubled: humbugged, humbugging and zigzagged, zigzagging.
Doubling of final-r
The general spelling rule that a consonant is doubled if it is final in an accented syllable, and if the vowel preceding it is spelled with a single letter also applies to final-r. Examples:
In accordance with the general rule, final -r is not doubled in differ, offer, sever, suffer, etc.
Reduction of double consonant
Certain words ending in a double consonant, especially -II, sometimes lose one consonant in compounds. For example:
all - almighty, almost, already, but: all right (which is usually prefer-red to alright)
fill - fulfil (ArnE. fulfill) full - beautiful, hopeful, successful, wonderful, fulsome, fulfil well - welcome, welfare; but not in: well-being, well-known roll -enrol
Note also the spelling of the words skilful and wilful, where the second -I of skill and will is dropped before the suffix.
Final-e
General Rule: Final mute -e is dropped before a suffix beginning with a vowel, but retained before a suffix beginning with a consonant. Thus, final -e is dropped in the following examples:
The following exceptions to this rule are worth noting:
(a) Final-e is retained in words ending in -ce or -ge before a suffix beginning with a or o. This is done to indicate that -ce and -ge are to be pronounced /s/ and /d3/ respectively. Examples:
(d) Some adjectives ending in -able have two forms, one with and one without the mute -e of the base. Examples:
like -likeable/likable live -liveable/livable size - sizeable/sizable
Addition of-e
General Rule: in bases ending in sibilants the -s suffix is spelled -es instead of -s, unless the base is already spelled with a mute -e. Examples:
brush - brushes gas- gases kiss - kisses
match - matches touch - touches wish - wishes
In the following words the -s suffix (which is the marker of the plural of regular nouns and of the third person singular present tense of verbs) is regularly spelled -s, either because the final consonant is not a sibilant or because the base is spelled with a mute -e:
Note that in the verbs do and go e is also added before -s: does and goes. The genitive -s suffix never takes an extra e in the spelling. Even with nouns
ending in a sibilant, the genitive suffix is spelled -'s or' (apostrophe) in the singular, and' in the plural of regular nouns. For example:
Katz'(s) theory Burns'(s) poems Wilkins'(s) latest book
Achilles' heel The United States' military power
342 Appendix II
Final-y
There are three general rules that are relevant here:
(1) final-y + -s suffix changes into -ies, (2) final-y + -ed suffix changes into -ied, and (3) final-y + -er or -est suffix changes into -ier or -iest,
if final-y is preceded by a consonant. Otherwise -y is retained. Thus:
Exceptions are: lay -laid, pay - paid, say - said.
(3) Post-consonantal-y + -er or -est becomes -ier or -iest. Examples:
angry - angrier/angriest dry - drier/driest
Appendix II 343
Also: fly - flier (or flyer), carry - carrier (where -er is the agentive suffix).
But: gay - gayer/gayest grey - greyer/greyest
Also: employ - employer, play - player, pray - prayer.
Note that the adjectives sly, shy, spry and wry have comparative/superlative forms with y (e.g.: wryer/wryest) or with i (e.g.: wrier/wriest).
It is worth noticing that final -y also becomes i before many other suffixes, including -ly, -able, -less, -ness and -ment, but not before -ing or -ish. Examples:
Note that in the spelling of boyish and greyish the -y is regularly retained, since it is preceded by a vowel.
Final-o
Nouns ending in -0 take either -s or -es in the plural. There is no general rule for the distribution of these spellings, apart from the fact that after a vowel (e.g. embryos, folios, radios) and in proper names (e.g. Eskimos, Filipinos, Navahos) the spelling is always -os. An exception is Negro - Negroes. Thus, post--consonantal final -0 may change into either -os or -oes, while some nouns in -0 may have both spellings. Here are some examples:
344 Appendix II
-os -oes
concerto concertos disco discos dynamo dynamos kimono kimonos kilo kilos photo photos piano pianos pro pros radio radios solo solos tango tangos buffalo buffalos buffaloes cargo cargos cargoes motto mottos mottoes tornado tornados tornadoes volcano volcanos volcanoes echo echoes embargo embargoes go goes (as in He had several
Verbs ending in -0 usually have -es in the third person singular of the present tense. They regularly take -ed for the past tense or the past participle, and -ing for the present participle. Examples:
radio - radioes/radioed/radioing torpedo - torpedoes/torpedoed/
torpedoing
Appendix ill: The pronunciation of the -s, -ed and -ing suffixes
The -s suffix
There are some general rules for the pronunciation of the -s suffix, which may be used in English as the marker of:
(1) the plural of regular nouns (2) the genitive singular of nouns (3) the third person singular of the present tense indicative of verbs
The -s suffix is pronounced either IIzI, lsi or Izl depending on the final phoneme of the base (i.e. the distribution of the three sounds is phonologically conditioned) :
lIz!: when the base ends in a sibilant, i.e. after Is, z, J, 3, tJ, d3/, e.g.:
The third person singular present tense of the verbs do and say is irregular: does/d A z/and says/sez/.
Note that the pronunciation of the plural -s suffix of regular nouns does not differ from that of the genitive singular -s suffix (spelled's):
judgesljudge's, boyslboy's and athleteslathlete's
Note also that the genitive plural of regular nouns ending in -s, marked by an apostrophe, is not pronounced, e.g.: soldiers' songs. Thus, Is~uld3~zI corresponds to soldiers (plural), soldier's (genitive sing.) and soldiers' (genitive plural). However, the genitive plural of irregular nouns like men, women, children, is men's, women's, children's. The zero genitive is also sometimes used with Greek names of more than one syllable (Socrates' life, Euripides' tragedies, Achilles' heel), and in other names ending in Izl, such as Burns', Dickens', by the side of Burns's, Dickens's. The pronunciation of these genitive forms is as follows, the less common variants being given in brackets:
The -ed suffixes (for the past tense and the -ed participle) of all regular verbs are pronounced IIdl, It I or Idl depending on the nature of the final phoneme of the base:
IIdl : when the final phoneme of the base is It I or I dl, e. g. :
dated, devoted, ended, folded, hated, wanted
It! : when the final phoneme of the base is voiceless and is not Itl, i.e. Ip, k, f, e, s, J, tJ/, e.g.:
The -ing suffix is always realized as IIfJ/, e.g.: dropping, flashing, laughing, liking, travelling, xeroxing. The final nasal is sometimes realized as alveolar Inl instead of velar IfJ/. Such forms with 1101 are generally regarded as substandard.
Spelling rules
See Appendix II for the spelling changes that occur when words take the -s, -ed or -ing suffix.
Select Bibliography
Aarts, F. and J. Aarts, English Syntactic Structures. Functions and Categories in Sentence Analysis, Oxford, 1982. Workbook, Oxford, 1984.
Beukema, F.H. and G.H. Rigter, Conscious Command, Apeldoorn, 1981.
Geerts, G., W. Haeseryn, J. de Rooij and M.e. van den Toorn, Algemene Nederlandse Spraakkunst, Groningen, 1984.
Huddleston, R., Introduction to the Grammar of English, Cambridge, 1984.
Koning, P.L. and P.J. van der Voort, An English Grammar for Student Teachers, Groningen, 1984.
Kruisinga, E., An English Grammar for Dutch Students, 2 vols., Utrecht, 1916.
Levend Nederlands, Department of Linguistics, University of Cambridge/Afde ling Toegepaste Taalwetenschap, Vrije Universiteit te Amsterdam; Cambridge, 1975.
Quirk, R., S. Greenbaum, G. Leech and J. Svartvik, A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, London, 1985.
Shetter, William Z., Introduction to Dutch, Leiden, 1984.
Van Ek, J.A. and N.J. Robat, The Student's Grammar of English, Oxford, 1984. Workbook, Meppel, 1985.
Wekker, H. and L. Haegeman, A Modern Course in English Syntax, Beckenham, Kent, 1985.
Zandvoort, R.W., A Handbook of English Grammar, Groningen, 1945.
INDEX
Absolute degree -> degrees of comparison Absolute superlative -> degrees of comparison Abstract noun -> noun Achterzetsel263 Active sentence -> sentence Active voice -> voice Adjective 38-39,239-254
as noun phrase head 38 attributive 68, 69, 239-241 comparison of 38, 39,246-254 disyllabic 38,39,248 dynamic 232, 242-243 gradable 247 in postmodification 68,69,147,242 monosyllabic 248 non-gradable 247 predicative 69,239-241 stative 232,242-243
marginal modal 29-30, 190 modal 26, 29, 165,169-194 order 170 primary 30-32,61-62,165,166,169 semi-33, 165,195 of passive voice 62, 166-167 of perfective aspect 62, 63, 166 of progressive aspect 61, 62, 166
Auxiliary of the passive voice -> auxiliary Auxiliary of the perfective aspect -> auxiliary Auxiliary of the progressive aspect -> auxiliary Avoidance of repetition 168
Bare infinitive -> verb forms Base 14,19 Basis of comparison -> comparisop bedrijvende vorm 273 Benefactive object -> object Bound morpheme -> morpheme by-phrase 81,103,273,277,278
Cleft sentence ~ sentence Clefting 292-293 Closed past time ~ time Code 27, 167-169 Collective noun ~ noun Common case ~ case Common noun ~ noun Comparative degree ~ degrees of comparison Comparison 38-40, 246-254, 260-261
basis of 247-248 of adjectives 38--39,246-254 of adverbs 40, 260-261 periphrastic 39, 40, 248
Object attribute 77, 90, 91-94, 281 Objective case --> case one, ones --> pro-form One-word verb --> verb Open past time --> time Ordinal numeral--> numeral
Parts of speech 16-18 Participle --> verb forms Partitive 115-116 Passive imperative 278 Passive sentence --> sentence Passive voice --> voice Past future tense --> tense past-in-the-past 215 Past future perfect tense --> tense Past perfect tense --> tense Past tense --> tense
and adjective phrases 101 and clauses 100 and noun phrases 101 and verb phrases 101 do, does, did 50, 152-153,247-248,295,297 one, ones 152,161-162,241,295,298-300 so 49-50, 152, 295,297-298 zero 299