APPENDIX B-Comparative Hematology

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APPENDIX B: Comparative Hematology

Harvey A. Ragan

According to Hawkey (1), there are over 4200 living species of mammals. Adequate hematologic characterization of these mammals has generally been done only for humans and, to a lesser extent, the common laboratory animals and some domestic species. Despite voluminous databases for these three categories, rarely are the age (young or adult), prandial state, blood collection procedures, or (for nonhuman species) the housing and environmental conditions or the strain of the species stated in literature reports.

Tables B.1 and B.2 list some hematologic variables reported by different investigators in a variety of vertebrate species. The tabulated data are representative, but certainly are not exhaustive; an attempt was made to include primarily reports describing studies involving a large number of animals, but this limitation was not always possible. Many references for the various species are not cited in the text or tables but are presented unnumbered under each species in order to offer valuable information on additional data, techniques, or procedures. Also included in the References are several extensive monographs on comparative hematology, including those of Andrew (2), Archer and Jeffcott (3), Hawkey and Dennett (4), Lawkowicz and Czerski (5), Meyer et al. (6), Mitruka and Rawnsley (7), Payne et al. (8), Sanderson and Phillips (9), Schalm et al. (10), Schermer (11), Wintrobe (12), and Wolford et al. (13). Some references contain good descriptions and illustrations of the blood cells of the various species. Because mean corpuscular volume (MCV) more commonly is measured or calculated and then used clinically and in toxicologic studies than is red cell diameter, the latter is no longer reported in these tables. However, some of the older reports and many of the monographs referenced contain this information for various species.

Many of the tabular data are from animals kept under laboratory conditions, such as dogs, miniature swine, rats, mice, or hamsters, and generally should not be considered representative of values that one may encounter from all ``normal'' animals of that species. Controlled environmental conditions in laboratories vary and may have a profound influence on the hemogram. Even animals from the same supplier but different shipments may manifest highly significant differences in hematologic values. Therefore, except in the clinical setting, use of hematologic data from intracurrent control animals is imperative for comparison with data from treated experimental groups rather than relying totally on historical data. Clinically, a database of expected normal values for the sex and age of each species should be established by individual laboratories or clinics.

With the exception of the nucleated red cells of birds, reptiles, and amphibians, circulating erythrocytes of most vertebrates are non-nucleated and similar cytologically to those of humans, with the exception of size. Some distinct differences may be present, however, such as the refractile bodies noted as inclusions in cat erythrocytes. Polychromasia of the red cells is a common finding in rats and particularly in

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TABLE B-1 -- Hematologic Values in Selected Species of Mammals

SpeciesAuthorRBC (106 /muL)HGB (g/dL)VPRC (mL/dL)MCV (fL)MCH (pg)MCHC (g/dL)Retics (%)WBC (103 /muL)Neutro (103 /muL)Lymph (103 /muL)Mono (103 /muL)Eos (103 /muL)Baso (103 /muL)Platelets (103 /muL)No. AnimalsAge/Sex

Armadillo

Cubra-Capara et al [17] 6.000.116.10.740.51.367.31.926.91.140.11.9--8.41.44.50.72.90.70.370.100.170.060.080.31------

Cubra-Capara et al [17] 5.960.216.80.539.71.468.03.728.71.242.71.6--10.11.05.70.83.50.80.530.060.140.030.050.16------

D'Addamio et al [18] 6.701.414.01.848.35.872.120.929.0--10.33.63.81.64.42.70.500.800.500.400.200.20----Adult males

D'Addamio et al [18] 6.801.513.81.848.87.171.820.328.3--7.41.43.31.43.61.00.200.100.300.200.100.10----Adult females

Bear

GrizzlySedgwick et al [19] ----40.0--------6.84.31.30.480.490.05--2Adult 1M 1F

BlackSedgwick et al [19] ----52.0--------8.95.92.10.310.290.02--2Adult 1M 1F

Caribou

McEwan et al [20] 10.402.516.81.946.75.646.15.916.51.835.82.2--3.80.81.91.41.81.10.040.200.190.080.030.20--46Adult 28M 18F

Cat

MixedMeyer et al [6] 5.0-10.08.0-15.024-4537-49--30-36--5.5-19.52.5-12.51.4-7.00.1-0.790.1-0.79rare175-500--Adult M & F

GermfreeRohovsky et al [21] 8.001.011.61.534.74.243.214.433.4--12.53.20.98.5+2.20.020.800.340.00--286 mo 17M 11F

Cattle

BeefAdams et al [22] 8.171.310.92.134641.02.8--32.10.8--9.82.86.52.72.70.80.230.210.020.040.000.01--3024 hr M & F

BeefAdams et al [22] 8.860.711.31.035339.11.912.80.832.81.6--8.71.72.91.15.10.80.620.330.020.400.000.01--193 wk M & F

MixedMeyer et al [6] 5.0-8.08.0-14.026-4237-54--26-36--4.0-12.01.5-5.03.0-7.50.1-1.500.1-1.50rare175-620--Adult females

MixedSchalm et al [10] 7.0011.035.052.014.032.70.08.02.24.50.400.700.06500----

Cheetah

Sedgwick et al [19] ----41.84.7--------12.14.87.21.52.81.30.400.111.220.350.040.06--4Adult 2M 2F

Chinchilla

Strike et al [23] 7.301.311.71.938.77.053.016.030.2--7.66.43.21.54.11.40.100.100.070.140.070.14--41Adult males

Strike et al [23] 6.600.711.71.438.35.858.017.730.5--8.06.53.61.34.31.40.100.110.040.110.030.11--52Adult females

Coyote

Hawkey [1] 6.1015.448.078.624.931.30.67.54.71.50.450.820.0824014--

Dingo

Hawkey [1] 5.514.342.577.526.633.20.710.47.22.00.520.820.0122510--

Dolphin

Hawkey [1] 3.714.539.0103.038.537.23.27.54.81.70.230.830.001325--

Dog

BeagleMichaelson et al [24] --15.81.347.13.4------1.0 0.614.63.38.41.14.51.00.580.230.890.720.00--1140.5-9 yr 46M 68F

BeagleRagan et al ( 7.050.415.60.945.22.964.02.122.20.634.60.7--10.12.36.7.22.50.80.380.260.370.220.002684834Adult males

BeagleRagan et al ( 6.980.515.91.245.83.465.51.322.80.434.80.7--8.12.15.01.62.10.80.310.210.700.420.002995834Adult females

BeagleRagan et al ( 5.160.610.51.734.24.666.22.320.41.030.81.1--10.13.46.32.92.60.90.940.590.110.210.0034314925500Adults

Marmoset MonkeyHawkey [1] 5.80-6.3012.5-15.341-5166-7821-2631-340.4-0.72-1172-83 * 12-223-50-20-2290-4304-6Adults

Owl MonkeyMalaga et al [4] 6.40.517.11.352.23.781.34.126.61.632.80.6--8.83.82.61.25.51.50.270.261.551.050.080.122959035Adult 18M 17F

Patas MonkeyHawkey et al [47] 5.950.216.11.151.13.985.74.127.01.131.50.30.70.33.30.51.40.21.70.20.110.030.000.000.020.00180354Adult males

Patas MonkeyHawkey et al [47] 5.190.213.40.344.41.285.53.825.91.330.21.00.90.24.10.41.90.32.10.20.160.090.010.010.010.01193353Adult females

Primate--cont'd

Titi MonkeyRoberts et al [47] 5.070.514.71.344.83.578.72.125.70.832.70.8--7.23.12.31.44.62.00.070.060.310.18----16>1.5 yr 10M 6F

Tamarin MonkeyWadsworth et al [48] 7.000.317.40.752.03.074.04.025.01.333.01.02.60.57.62.73.30.94.01.00.040.050.120.140.010.023997643Juveniles

Tamarin MonkeyWadsworth et al [48] 6.900.516.61.451.04.073.03.524.01.433.01.12.61.113.03.25.63.06.91.80.400.180.130.180.080.1240282198-35 mo females

TupaiaHuser [44] 6.820.312.90.940.81.859.85.3--32.01.4--3.21.51.90.40.80.30.150.120.300.210.050.04--4Adults

Varvet monkeyWall et al [49] 5.280.713.51.739.05.073.06.025.71.535.02.0--6.92.13.5.053.20.90.050.070.060.070.020.07--12Adult females

Rabbit

New ZealandBortolotti et al [50] 5.70.412.11.036362121.20.433.70.1--8.12.73215 * 6815--------12Adult females

New ZealandGadarowski et al [51] 5.220.1--33.40.6--------8.30.42.00.75.90.2------4031625Adult females

New ZealandHawkey [1] 45-5.89.6-13.131-4162-8218-2728-320.8-5.03.1-9.238-66 * 26-514-160-31-6230-69020--

New ZealandKabata et al [52] 6.400.414.00.643.02.065.04.021.01.032.54.024.44.06.81.21.70.84.10.50.430.220.030.030.220.03--5Adult males

New ZealandKabata et al [52] 6.00.612.70.639.02.066.02.022.01.032.83.024.04.05.60.91.90.22.70.80.360.110.070.040.260.11--5Adult females

Raccoon

Hawkey [1] 7.0012.641.560.018.229.90.45.93.61.60.300.440.001812--

Rat

Nude (rnu)Hougen et al [53] 6.290.39.20.1361581--250--3.50.42.20.11.30.10.010.01------107 wk males

Long-EvansKozma et al [54] --15.30.545.01.6----34.0--13.53.33.31.28.91.40.770.420.500.390.00--1032 wk males

Long-EvansKozma et al [54] --14.61.947.65.4----30.6--8.62.72.30.65.30.50.670.270.380.320.00--1032 wk females

BDIXLovell et al [55] 7.0914.543.761.820.533.2--5.61.53.90.150.08----68-12 wk males

LHLovell et al [55] 7.0114.945.665.121.232.6--4.81.23.50.060.03----68-12 wk males

PVGLovell et al [55] 6.1813.641.567.122.032.7--3.70.72.90.050.03----68-12 wk males

WALovell et al [55] 6.5713.842.765.021.032.3--6.90.76.10.120.00----68-12 wk males

WAG/LAXLovell et al [55] 6.8614.043.263.220.432.4--7.60.76.60.140.09----68-12 wk males

Fischer 344Ragan et al ( 7.290.713.71.041.62.558.23.318.80.633.01.25.72.48.61.51.10.47.31.50.150.190.030.050.000.00810841007 wk males

Fischer 344Ragan et al ( 7.750.714.41.043.92.857.13.418.80.632.91.44.32.59.11.80.90.48.01.70.100.180.050.060.000.007811201007 wk females





Fischer 344Smith et al [56] 7.30.313.90.538.04.9--------3.10.61.50.21.60.50.00.00.030.03----818 mo males

Fischer 344Smith et al [56] 7.60.214.40.438.11.4--------1.70.30.60.41.10.20.000.020.010.02----818 mo females

Sprague-DawleyRagan et al [57] 6.740.413.90.742.82.063.63.420.81.232.50.6--12.03.62.31.49.53.40.230.210.020.050.000.021064191308 wk males

Sprague-DawleyRagan et al [57] 6.860.414.20.643.01.763.03.120.71.432.91.0--12.03.02.01.29.92.50.110.160.070.130.010.041061217308 wk females





BuffaloSmith et al [56] 6.80.313.10.737.31.9--------2.40.81.10.41.20.50.030.030.060.05----818 mo females

WistarSmith et al [56] 8.40.514.040.844.33.5--------3.60.91.10.42.50.60.00.01.20.9----818 mo males

WistarSmith et al [56] 6.70.112.62.638.11.3--------3.00.20.80.22.20.20.00.00.030.05----818 mo females

Seal

Hawkey [1] 4.516.652.5108.035.231.41.04.42.61.40.350.020.00--7--

Sheep

SuffolkHackett et al [58] 10.900.210.80.335.01.032.19.930.9--10.00.33.00.16.50.10.250.020.240.030.050.05--102Mixed age/sex

MixedMeyer et al [6] 8.0-15.08.0-16.024.0-49.023.0-48.0--29.0-35.0--4.0-12.01.0-5.02.0-9.02.0-9.00.1-0.75rare300-800--Adults

MixedSchalm et al [10] 12.011.535.034.010.032.50.08.02.45.00.200.400.05400----

Skunk

Wintrobe [12] 1015.151.454.016.030.0--16.07.76.70.481.120.005402--

Whale

KillerHawkey [1] 416.245.0113.040.536.0--10.48.41.60.310.210.002562Adult males

Wolf

Mexican wildDrag [59] 6.653.516.771.323.332.9--15.012.01.80.610.87----23>52 wk males

Mexican wildDrag [59] 7.417.253.572.323.732.9--12.08.11.40.650.63----18>52 wk males

Zebra

Hawkey [1] 8.514.239.046.116.534.30.18.15.12.60.320.080.002145--

#Data presented as mean1 standard deviation unless a range is indicated.

Abbreviations: RBC, red blood cells; HGB, hemoglobin; VPRC, volume of packed red cells; MCV, mean corpuscular volume; MCH, mean corpuscular hemoglobin; MCHC, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration; Retics, reticulocytes; WBC, white blood cells; Neutro, neutrophils; Lymph, lymphocytes; Mono, monocytes; Eos, eosinophils; Baso, basophils.

(a) Ragan HA, Debban KH, Romsos CO, Redezke D, Weller RE, Buchanan J. Hematology and clinical chemistry values in common laboratory animals. Manuscript in preparation.*Leukocyte differential in percent.

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TABLE B-2 -- Blood Counts in Various Vertebrates Other Than Mammals

SpeciesAuthorRBC (106 /muL)HGB (g/dL)VPRC (mL/dL)MCV (fL)MCH (pg)MCHC (g/dL)WBC (103 /muL)Neutro (103 /muL)Lymph (103 /muL)Mono (103 /muL)Eos (103 /muL)Baso (103 /muL)Thrombocytes (103 /muL)

Amphibia

FrogWintrobe [12] 0.447.829.36701792730.152.60.000.21----

ToadBiswas et al [60] 0.680.0211.20.232.20.64801334.70.5----------------

AmphiumaWintrobe [12] 0.039.440.0138603290248----------7.0

Crypto-branchusWintrobe [12] 0.0713.349.074252010271.91.000.76--0.100.10--

Reptiles

AlligatorWintrobe [12] 0.678.230.045012327--------------

LizardWintrobe [12] 0.814.413.81715432--------------

SnakeWintrobe [12] 1.058.528.02678231--------------

TurtleWintrobe [12] 0.746.222.13008528--------------

Birds

DuckMagath et al [61] 3.0615.6--------23.45.714.42.50.40.3530.7

ChickenLucas et al [62] 2.9610.731.9107.736.133.528.96.820.70.330.410.5937.2

GuineaWintrobe [12] 3.691450.0136382881.61.1--5.120.16--

GooseWintrobe [12] 2.8212.744.616045296--5.5--0.48----

PigeonMagathet al [61] 3.5314.4--------16.70.690.505.880.6737

TurkeyWintrobe [12] 1.9311.239.22035829--------------

Fishes

SalmonNieminenet al [63] ----35.41.2--------------------

RainbowTroutNieminenet al [63] ----37.91.0--------------------

CarpField et al [64] 0.8410.531.33117234--------------

MackerelMartinset al [65] 3.480.811.11.647.05.413531.923.637.930.30.7132.14.660.470.0137.821.0

TroutField et al [64] 1.018.527.23147531--------------

Rock CodWintrobe [12] 1.495.223.81593522--084.0 * 06.010.0--

FlounderWintrobe [12] 0.782.18.3410828256.00.125.60.2400--

SkateWintrobe [12] 0.101.69.995215316--------------

DogfishWintrobe [12] 0.071.47.310101951945.0------------

DogfishReznikoffet al [66] 0.394.4----112--83.54.255.50.8414.61013.5

Abbreviations: RBC, red blood cells; HGB, hemoglobin; VPRC, volume of packed red cells; MCV, mean corpuscular volume; MCH, mean corpuscular hemoglobin; MCHC, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration; WBC, white blood cells; Neutro, neutrophils; Lymph, lymphocytes; Mono, monocytes; Eos, eosinophils; Baso, basophils.

*Leukocyte differential in percent.

2757

mice, and may become evident with even minimal bone marrow stress. Tremendous variation is noted in the diameter and volume ranges of the red cells when interspecies comparisons are made. Values for red cell mass and red cell life span, although not included in the tables, may be found in many of the references. Many in-depth studies concerning hemoglobins of various animals have been performed and references are present in the Suggested Readings for the appropriate species.

The cytologic and staining characteristics of the various leukocytes often are unique for a given species and, in some cases, they differ considerably from those in humans, but their functions are similar to those of comparable human cells. For instance, in rabbits, guinea pigs, and birds, neutrophils have rather large eosinophilic granules that Ehrlich named pseudoeosinophils or heterophils, and the blood of guinea pigs contains a large number of mononuclear cells with peculiar inclusions called Kurloff corpuscles. Neutrophils are commonly doughnut- and U-shaped in the blood of mice and some other rodents, and those in rabbits are hypersegmented. Elephant blood contains an unusual type of white cell that has a bilobed nucleus and cytoplasmic staining characteristics intermediate between those of lymphocytes and monocytes. Enzyme cytochemical analysis also reveals differences in reactivity among the mammalian species. In some species, such as rats, mice, rabbits, hamsters, pigs, and cattle, the neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio is reversed from that of humans. Leukocyte differential values in the tables are reported as absolute values when the original reports contained these data, or if the conversion could validly be made; otherwise, they are cited as relative values or, in some cases, as ranges as in the original papers.

Platelet cytology in the common laboratory and domestic species is similar to that in humans, but the blood of some species may commonly manifest ``giant'' platelets. In birds and amphibians, thrombocytes, that is, nucleated cells, are present that have an appearance similar to normoblasts. The response of platelets and thrombocytes to various aggregating agents varies considerably with the species, and results should be extrapolated to humans with caution when using animal models in coagulation studies. Several of the references contain values for coagulation parameters in various species. In addition, there are some comparative coagulation studies on multiple species, including the proceedings of a Workshop on Animal Models of Thrombosis and Hemorrhagic Diseases, which contains many pertinent references for nonhuman species [14] , and studies by Didisheim et al. [15] and Rowsell and Mustard [16] .

For valid results, obtaining good-quality blood samples and then handling them appropriately before and during processing is imperative. Blood collection from animals often is left to inexperienced or inadequately trained personnel who proceed under the misconception that getting ``something red'' in the collection tube is adequate. Blood collection techniques often are unique for a given species and vary considerably depending on the species. The Suggested Readings section contains numerous citations regarding blood collection procedures for various species. Finally, rigid quality control procedures must be instituted and followed at each laboratory or clinic. A study that is otherwise well conducted may easily be invalidated if sampling techniques and quality control procedures are ignored. The last section of the Suggested Readings contains several general publications on quality control methods in the clinical pathology laboratory.

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43. Hack CA, Gleiser CA. Hematologic and serum chemical reference values for adult and juvenile baboons (Papio sp). Lab Anim Sci 1982;32:502.

44. Huser H. Atlas of comparative primate hematology. New York: Academic Press, 1970.

45. Hambleton P et al. Normal values for some whole blood and serum components of Grivet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops). Lab Anim 1979;13:89.

46. Malaga CA, Weller RE, Buschbom RL, Ragan HA. Hematology of the wild-caught karyotype V owl monkey (Aotus vociferous). Lab Anim Sci 1995;45:574-576.

47. Hawkey CM, Dean S, Hart MG. The influence of anesthetics on the haematology of the Patas monkey, Erythrocebus patas . Lab Anim 1978;12:167.

47A. Roberts J, Mendoza SP. Hematologic and serum chemistry values in Callicebus moloch cupreus . Lab Anim Sci 1989;39:163-165.

48. Wadsworth PF et al. Haematological, coagulation and blood chemistry data in red-bellied tamarin, Saguinus labiatus . Lab Anim 1982;16:327.

49. Wall HS, Warthman C, Else JG. Effects of ketamine anaesthesia, stress and repeated bleeding on the haematology of vervet monkeys. Lab Anim 1985;19:138.

50. Bartolotti A, Castelli D, Bonati M. Hematology and serum chemistry values of adult, pregnant, and newborn New Zealand rabbits (Oryctologus cuniculus). Lab Anim Sci 1989;39:437-439.

51. Gadarowski JJ, Esce JD. Acute systemic changes in blood cells proteins, coagulation, fibrinolysis and platelet aggregation after frostbite injury in the rabbit. Cryobiology 1974;21:359.

52. Kabata J, Gratwohl A, Tichelli A, et al. Hematologic values of New Zealand white rabbits determined by automated flow cytometry. Lab Anim Sci 1991;41:613-619.

53. Hougen HP, Klausen B. Effects of homozygosity of the nude (rnu) gene in an inbred strain of rat: Studies of lymphoid and non-lymphoid organs in different age groups of nude rats of LEW background at a state in the gene transfer. Lab Anim Sci 1984;18:7.

54. Kozma CK, Weisbroth SH, Stratman SL, Conejeros M. Normal biological values for Long-Evans rats. Lab Anim Care 1969;19: 746-755.

55. Lovell DP, Archer RK, Riley J, Morgan RK. Variation in hematological parameters among inbred strains of rat. Lab Anim 1981;15:243.

56. Smith D, Bronson R. Clinical chemistry and hematology profiles of the aging rat. Lab Anim 1992: 21:32-45.

57. Ragan HA, Buschbom RL, Pipes MJ, et al. Hematologic and serum chemistry studies in rats exposed to 60-Hz electric fields. Bioelectromagnetics 1983;4:79-90.

58. Hackett PL, Gaylor DW, Bustad LK. Blood constituent in Suffolk ewes and lambs. Am J Vet Res 1957;18:338-341.

59. Drag MD. Hematologic values of captive Mexican wolves. Am J Vet Res 1991;53: 1891-1892.

60. Biswas HM, Patra PB, Bonal MC. Body fluid and hematologic changes in the toad exposed to 48h of simulated high altitude. J Appl Physiol 1981;51:794.

61. Magath TB, Higgins GM. The blood of the normal duck. Folia hematol 1934;51:230.

62. Lucas AM, Jamroz C. Atlas of Avian Hematology. Monograph 25, Washington, DC: US Dept. of Agriculture, 1961.

63. Nieminen M, Pasanen P, Laitinen M. Effects of formalin treatment on the blood composition of salmon (Salmo salar) and rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). Comp Biochem Physiol 1983;76: 265.

64. Field JB et al. A study of the blood constituents of carp and trout. J Biol Chem 1942;148:261.

65. Martins JM, Pitombeira MS. High leukocyte count in fishes. Rev Bras Pesquisas Med Biol 1968;1:89.

66. Reznikoff P, Reznikoff DG. Hematologic studies in the dogfish (Mustelus canis). Biol Bull 1934;66:115.

Suggested Readings

Baillie AJ, Sim AK: Activation of the fibrinolytic enzyme system in laboratory animals and in man: A comparative study. Thromb Haemost 1971;25:499.

Dunaway PB, Lewis LL. Taxonomic relation of erythrocyte count, mean corpuscular volume, and body-weight in mammals. Nature 1965;205:481.

Eccleston E. Normal hematologic values in rats, mice and marmosets. In Comparative clinical hematology. RK Archer, LB Jeffcott, eds. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific 1977.

Finch CA, Ragan HA, Dyer IA, Cook JD. Body iron loss in animals. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1978;159:335.

Fowler JSL. Animal clinical chemistry and hematology for the toxicologist. Arch Toxicol 1982;5:152-159.

Green RA. Hemostasis and disorders of coagulation. Vet Clin North Am 1981;11:289.

Holman HH. A negative correlation between size and number of the erythrocytes in cows, sheep, goats and horses. J Pathol 1952;64: 379.

Irons RD. Toxicology of the blood and bone marrow. New York: Raven, 1985.

Jensen EC. Comparative veterinary hematology: A bird's eye view. Am J Med Tech 1981;47:985-990.

Jones TC, Ward JM, Mohr U, Hunt RD (eds). Hematopoietic system. International Life Sciences Institute Monograph on pathology of laboratory animals. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1990.

Kaplan HM. Sex differences in the packed cell volume of vertebrate blood. Science 1954;120:1044.

Keller P, Freudiger U. Atlas of hematology of the dog and cat. Berlin: Paul Parey, 1983.

Kitchen H. Easley CW. Structural comparison of the hemoglobins of the genus equus with those of ruminants. J Biol Chem 1969; 244:6533.

McGrath J. Assessment of hemolytic and hemorrhagic anemias in preclinical safety assessment studies. Toxicol Pathol 1993;21:158-163.

Rowley AF, Ratcliffe HA. Vertebrate Blood Cells. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988.

Tvedten HW. Reference values in small animal clinical diagnosis by laboratory methods. In: Willard, Tvedten, Turnwald, eds. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1994.

Mammals: Miscellaneous and Rare Mammals and Articles Describing More Than One Species

Adams WH et al: Hematologic observations on the yak (38613). Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1975;148:701.

Andreasen CB, Gerros TC, Lassen ED. Evaluation of bone marrow cytology and stainable iron content in healthy adult llamas. Vet Clin Pathol 1994;23:38-42.

Campbell T. Hematology of birds, reptiles, and fish. Topics Vet Med 1992;3:4-8.

Kaplan HM: Techniques of collection in ectotherms of body fluids, excreta and vital products for laboratory examination. Lab Anim Sci 1968;18:131.

Kiehl AR, Schiller CA. A study of manatee leukocytes using peroxidase stain. Vet Clin Pathol 1994;23: 50-53.

Marvin HN, Lug DD: The survival of radiochromium-tagged erythrocytes in pigeons, ducks and rabbits. Acta Haematol (Basel) 1957;18:239.

Prado JC, Kloetzel JK. Normal hematologic values of various age groups of Calomys callosus (Rodentia cricetidae). Lab Anim Sci 1995; 45:558-560.

Runkel D et al. The tryptic peptides of coyote (Canis latrans) hemoglobin. Biochem Genet 1974;12:467.

Tvedten H, Korcal D. Automated differential leukocyte count in horse, cattle, and cats using the Technicon H-1E hematology system. Vet Clin Pathol 1996;25:14-22.

Armadillo

Lewis JH, Doyle AP. Coagulation, protein and cellular studies on armadillo blood. Comp Biochem Physiol 1964;12:61.

Moore DM: Venipuncture sites in armadillos (Dasypus noveminctus). Lab Anim Sci 1983;33:384.

Camel

Cohen WD, Terwilliger NB. Marginal bonds in camel erythrocytes. J Cell Sci 1979;36:97-103.

Lin KTD et al. Studies on camel hemoglobin. Biochim Biophys Acta 1976;434:110.

Cat

Altman NH et al. Intraerythrocytic crystalloid bodies in cats. Blood 1972;39:801.

Baumgartner HR, Thoenen H. Tranzer JP: Accumulation of 5-hydroxydopamine in 5-HT storage organelles of cat platelets and concomitant changes in platelet aggregation. Experiential 1969; 25:857.

Cramer DV, Lewis RM. Reticulocyte response in the cat. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1972;160:61.

Gilmore CE, Gilmore VH, Jones TC. Bone marrow and peripheral blood of cats: Technique and normal values. Pathol Vet 1964;1:18.

Jain NC. A staining technique to demonstrate erythrocyte refractile bodies in cat blood. Br Vet J 1969;125:437.


Landsberg JW: The blood picture of normal cats. Folia Haematol 1940;64:169.

Perkins PC, Grindem CB. Evaluation of six cytometric methods for reticulocyte enumeration and differentiation in the cat. Vet Clin Pathol 1995;24:37-43.

Prasse KW, Kaeberle ML, Ramsey FK. Blood neutrophilic granulocyte kinetics in cats. Am J Vet Res 1973;34:1021.

Sawitsky A, Meyer LM. The bone marrow of normal cats. J Lab Clin Med 1947;32:70.

Schryver HF. The bone marrow of the cat. Am J Vet Res 1963; 24:1012.

Cattle

Abt DA et al. Circadian and seasonal variations in the hemogram of mature dairy cattle. Cornell Vet 1966;56:479-520.

DeFilippi LJ, Hultquist DE. The green hemoproteins of bovine erythrocytes. J Biol Chem 1978;253:2946; 1978;253:2954.

Estergreen VL, Van Demark NL. Adrenalectomy of the calf and its effects on various blood constituents. J Dairy Sci 1961;44:928.

Ferguson LC et al: On variation in the blood cells of healthy cattle. J Infect Dis 1945;76:24.

Gartner RJW, Ryley JW, Beattie AW. The influence of degree of excitation on certain blood constituents in beef cattle. Aust J Exp Biol Med Sci 1965;43:713-724.

Kaneko JJ, Mills R. Hematological and blood chemical observations in neonatal normal and porphyric calves in early life. Cornell Vet 1970;60:52.

Osburn BL, Glenn BL. Acquired Pelger-Huet anomaly in cattle. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1968;152:11.

Schroeder WA, et al. Amino acid sequence of the a-chain of bovine fetal hemoglobin. Arch Biochem Biophys 1967;120:124.

Tennant B, Asbury AC, Laben RC, et al. Familial polycythemia in cattle. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1967;150:1493-1509.

Wingfield WE, Tumbleson ME. Hematologic parameters as a function of age in female dairy cattle. Cornell Vet 1973;63:72.

Chinchilla

Paolini RV, Rossman JE, Patel V, Stanievich JF. A reliable method for large volume blood collection in the chinchilla. Lab Anim Sci 1993;43:524-525.

Tappa B, Amao H, Takahashi A. A simple method for intravenous injection and blood collection in the chinchilla (Chinchilla laniger). Lab Anim 1989;23:73-75.

Deer

Houston TE et al. Crystallography and oriented single crystal electron microscopy of deer hemoglobin. II. A hemoglobin that exhibits matchstick-shaped erythrocytes. Biochim Biophys Acta 1978;535:413.

Kitchen H et al. Hemoglobin polymorphism in white-tailed deer. Subunit basis. Blood 1967;29:867.

Simpson CF, Taylor WJ. Ultrastructure of sickled deer erythrocytes. I. The typical crescent and holly leaf forms. Blood 1974;43:899.

Whitten CF. Innocuous nature of the sickling (pseudosickling) phenomenon in deer. Br J Haematol 1967;13:650.

Wong SC, Huisman THJ. Viscosity and gelation studies in deer hemoglobins. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1975;150:581.

Dog

Calvo W, Fliedner TM, Herbst EW, Fache I. Regeneration of blood-forming organs after autologous leukocyte transfusion in lethally irradiated dogs. I. Distribution and cellularity of the bone marrow in normal dogs. Blood 1975;46:453.

Carter JM, Brobst D. A comparison of the pH of canine capillary, arterial, and venous blood. J Comp Lab Med 1969;3:19-24.

Clernmons RM, Meyers KM. Acquisition and aggregation of canine blood platelets: Basic mechanisms of function and differences because of breed origin. Am J Vet Res 1984;45:137.

Deavers S et al. Changes in red cell volume, venous hematocrit and hemoglobin concentration in growing beagles. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1971;137:299.

Deubelbeiss KA et al. Marrow erythroid and neutrophil cellularity in the dog. J Clin Invest 1975;55:825.

Deubelbeiss KA et al. Neutrophil kinetics in the dog. J Clin Invest 1975;55:833.

Dodds WJ, Packham MA, Rowsell HC, Mustard JF. Factor VII survival and turnover in dogs. Am J Physiol 1968;213:36.

Ederstrom HE, DeBoer B. Changes in the blood of the dog with age. Anat Rec 1946;94:663.

Ewing GO. Familial nonspherocytic hemolytic anemia of basenji dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1969;154:503.

Feldman BF, Madewell BR, O'Neill S. Disseminated intravascular coagulation: Antithrombin, plasminogen and coagulation abnormalities in 41 dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1981;179:151.

Hai NP. Technical notes on long-term vascular access for more than 12 months in conscious dogs. J Pharmacol Meth 1982;7:57.

Hall DE: Blood coagulation and its disorders in the dog. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1972.

Harvey JW, Simpson CF, Gaskin JM. Cyclic thrombocytopenia induced by a rickettsia-like agent in dogs. J Infect Dis 1978;137:182.

Hovell GJR. Jugular puncture in the dog. Vet Rec 1968;21:289.

Huggins RA et al. Growth in beagles: Changes in body weight, plasma volume, and venous hematocrit. Pediatr Res 1971;5:193.


Lund JE. Hemoglobin crystals in canine blood. Am J Vet Res 1974; 35:575.

Madewell BR, Feldman BF, O'Neill S. Coagulation abnormalities in dogs with neoplastic disease. Thromb Haemost 1980;44:35.

Meyer LM, Bloom F. The bone marrow of normal dogs. Am J Med Sci 1943;206:637.

Middleton DJ, Watson ADJ. Activated coagulation times of whole blood in normal dogs and dogs with coagulopathies. J Small Anim Pract 1978;19:417.

Mulligan RM. Quantitative studies on the blood and bone marrow of newborn mongrel puppies. Anat Rec 1945;91:161.

Pinkerton PH, Fletch SM, Brueckner PJ, Miller DR. Hereditary stomatocytosis with hemolytic anemia in the dog. Blood 1974;44 557.

Pryor WH, Bradbury RP. Haemobartonella canis infection in research dogs. Lab Anim Sci 1975;25:566-569.

Reese MA, McDonald TP, Jones JB. Platelet function studies in dogs with cyclic hematopoiesis. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1976;153:324.

Stokol T, Parry BW, Mansell PD. Factor VIII activity in canine von Willebrand disease. Vet Clin Pathol 1995;24:81-90.

Swisher SN, Young LE. The blood grouping systems of dogs. Physiol Rev 1961;41:495.

Tvedten H, Haines C. Canine automated differential leukocyte count: Study using a hematology analyzer system. Vet Clin Pathol 1994;23:90-96.

Van Loon EJ et al. Hematology of the peripheral blood and bone marrow of the dog. J Lab Clin Med 1943;28:1575.

Wilkerson RD, Conran PB, Greene SL. Activated coagulation time test: A convenient monitor of heparinization for dogs used in cardiovascular research. Lab Anim Sci 1984;34:62.

Woodward KT, Berman AR, Michaelson SM, Odland LT. Plasma, erythrocyte, and whole blood volume in the normal beagle. Am J Vet Res 1968;29:1935-1944.

Yale CE, Balish E. Blood and serum chemistry values of gnotobiotic beagles. Lab Anim Sci 1976;26:633.

Dolphins, Whales, and Seals

Lincoln DR et al. Studies on the hemoglobins of pinnipeds. Blood 1973;41:163.

Medway W, Gerac JR. Hematology of the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). Am J Physiol 1964;207:1367.

Elephant

Simon KJ. Hematological studies on elephants. Indian Vet J 1961; 38:241.

Ferret

Bleakley SP. Simple technique for bleeding ferrets (Mustela putorius furo). Lab Anim 1980;14:59.

Fox JG, Hemes K, Memi SM. Retro-orbital technique for blood collection from the ferret (Mustela putorius furo). Lab Anim Sci 1984; 34.198.

Marini RP, Jackson LR, Esteves MI, et al. Effect of isoflurane on hematologic variables in ferrets. Am J Vet Res 1994;55:1479-1483.

Goat

Blunt MH et al: The production of haemoglobin C in adult sheep and goats. Aust J Exp Biol Med Sci 1969;47:601.

Fitzsimmons WM, Sansom BF, Sellwood SA, Mathews PRJ. Blood transfusion and red cell survival in the goat. Br Vet J 1967;123: 192-196.

Lewis JH. Comparative hematology: Studies on goats. Am J Vet Res 1976;37:601-605.

Nienhuis AW, Bunn HF. Hemoglobin switching in sheep and goats. Science 1974;185:946. J Biol Chem 1978;253:5025.

Wrightstone RN et al. The structure of goat hemoglobins. Arch Biochem Biophys 1970;138:451.

Guinea Pig

Bullock CP. Repetitive blood sampling from guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus). Lab Anim Sci 1983;33:70.

Hochman D, Blanchard J. Simplified method for intravenous dosing and serial blood sampling of unanesthetized guinea pigs. J Pharm Sci 1983;72:975.

Hudson G. Eosinophil populations in blood and bone marrow of normal guinea pigs. Am J Physiol 1960;198:1171.

Lopez H, Novia J. A technique for repeated collection of blood from the guinea pig. Lab Anim Sci 1977;24:522.

Sawitsky A, Meyer LM. Bone marrow of normal guinea pigs. Blood 1948;3:1050.

Smith E. Certain characteristics of the leukocytes of guinea pig blood with particular reference to the Kurloff body. Blood 1947; (Suppl 1):125.

Whorton JA. Collecting blood via the anterior vena cava in the guinea pig. Lab Anim 1982;11:66.

Hamster

Cruz WO, Ubatuba F. Blood picture of adult golden hamster (Cricetus auratus) after castration. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1947;65:321.

Ottis K, Tauber OE. Blood platelet counts of the golden hamster, Cricetus auratus . Blood 1952;7:948.

Steward MO et al. Hematological findings in the golden hamster (Cricetus auratus). J Exp Med 1944;80:189.

Yasuokochi Y. Multiple hemoglobins in the golden hamster. Biochim Biophys Acta 1970;221:1.

Horse

Bunn HF, Kitchen H. Hemoglobin function in the horse. Blood 1973;42:471.

Kitchen H. Easley CW. Structural comparison of the hemoglobins of the genus equus with those of ruminants. J Biol Chem 1969;244: 6533.

Marcelese NA, Figueiras HD, Kremenchuzky S, et al. Red cell survival time in the horse determined with diisopropyl-phosphofluoridate-P32 . Am J Physiol 1966;28:281-282.

Marcelese NA et al. Erythrokinetics in the horse. Am J Physiol 1965;209:727.

Rawlings CA, Byars TD, Van Noy MK. Activated coagulation test in normal and heparinized ponies and horses. Am J Vet Res 1975; 36:711.

Mink

Meyers KM et al. Characterization of platelets from normal mink and mink with the Chediak-Higashi syndrome. Am J Hematol 1979; 7:137.

Mouse

Boggs DR. The total marrow mass of the mouse: A simplified method of measurement. Am J Hematol 1984;16:277-286.

Ehrenstein GV. The life span of the erythrocytes of normal and of tumour-bearing mice as determined by glycine-C14 . Acta Physiol Scand 1958;44:80.

Fantoni A et al. Globin composition and synthesis of hemoglobins in developing fetal mice erythroid cells. Science 1967;157:1327.

Frankenberg L. Cardiac puncture in the mouse through the anterior thoracic aperture. Lab Anim 1979;13:311.

Frith CH, Suber RL, Umholtz R. Hematologic and clinical chemistry findings in control BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice. Lab Anim Sci 1980;30:835.

Harleman JH. The haemoglobin types of mice. Lab Anim 1977; 11:105.

Harrison SD, Burdshaw JA, Crosby RG, et al. Hematology and clinical chemistry reference values for C57Bl/6xDBA/2 F1 mice. Cancer Res 1978;38:2636-2639.

Hodge DE, Shalev M. Dual cannulation: A method for continuous intravenous infusion and repeated blood sampling in unrestrained mice. Lab Anim Sci 1992;42: 320-322.

Lewis VJ, Thacker WC, Mitchell SH, Baer GM. A new technic for obtaining blood from mice. Lab Anim Sci 1976;26:211.

Ragan HA, Pipes MJ, Kaune WT, Phillips RD. Clinical pathologic evaluations in rats and mice chronically exposed to 60-Hz electric fields. In: Biological Effects of Extremely Low Frequency Electromagnetic Fields. Conf-781016, NTIS, Springfield, VA, pp. 297-325, 1979.

Riley V. Adaptation of the orbital bleeding technic to rapid serial blood studies. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1960;104:751.

Rugh R, Somagyi G. Pre- and postnatal normal mouse blood cell counts. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1968;127:1267.

Russell ES et al. Comparison of normal blood picture of young adults from 18 inbred strains of mice. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1951; 78:761.

Thompson RB et al. Haemoglobin variants in a species of wild mice--Peromyscus rnaniculatus . Nature 1966;210:1063.

van Putten LM. The life span of red cells in the rat and the mouse as determined by labeling with DFP32 in vivo. Blood 1958;13:789.

Opossum

Moore DM. A simple technique for blood collection in the opossum (Didelphis virginiana). Lab Anim 1984;18:52.

Robinson ES, VandeBerg JL. Blood collection and surgical procedures for the laboratory opossum (Monodelphis domestica). Lab Anim Sci 1994;44:63-68.

Waterman MR, Stenzel P. Physical and chemical properties of opossum hemoglobin. Biochim Biophys Acta 1974;359:401.

Pig

Brown JR, Tyeryar EA, Harrington DG, Hilmas DE. Femoral venipuncture for repeated blood sampling in miniature swine. Lab Anim Sci 1978;28:339.

Bush JA, Jensen WN, Cartwright GE, Wintrobe, MM. Blood volume studies in normal and anemic swine. Am J Physiol 1955; 181:9-14.

McClellan RO, Vogt GS, Ragan HA. Age-related changes in hematological and serum biochemical parameters in miniature swine. In: Swine in Biomedical Research. Seattle: Frayn Printing, 1965:597-610.

Ragan HA. Platelet agglutination induced by ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid in blood samples from a miniature pig. Am J Vet Res 1972;33:2601-2603.

Ragan HA, Gillis MF. Restraint, venipuncture, endotracheal intubation, and anesthesia of miniature swine. Lab Anim Sci 1965; 25:409-419.

Smith CA, Fichen MD. Non-surgical cannulation of the vena cava for chronic blood collection in mature swine. Lab Anim Sci 1991; 41:274-278.

Primates (Nonhuman)

Abildgaard CF, Harrison J, Johnson CA. Comparative study of blood coagulation in nonhuman primates. J Appl Physiol 1971; 30:400.

Banucot NA, Jolly CJ. Haemoglobin polymorphism in the orangutan and an animal with four major haemoglobins. Nature 1966; 210:640.

Boyer SH et al. Hemoglobins A and A2 in New World primates: Comparative variation and its evolutionary implications. Science 1969;166:1428.

Burns KF et al. Compendium of normal blood values for baboons, chimpanzees, and marmosets. Am J Clin Pathol 1967;48:484.

Calhoun ML. A cytological study of costal marrow. Am J Vet Res 1954;15:181; 15:395; Am J Vet Res 1955;16:297.

Guilietti M, La Torre R, Pace M, et al. Reference blood values of iron metabolism in cynomolgus macaques. Lab Anim Sci 1991; 41:606-608.

Hampton JW, Mathews C. Similarities between baboon and human blood clotting. J Appl Physiol 1966;21:1713.

Hearn JP, Lunn SF, Burden IJ, Pildher MM. Management of marmosets for biomedical research. Lab Anim 1975;9:125.

Hill RL et al. Evolution of hemoglobin in primates. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1963;50:885.

Jones ES et al. The effect of diet on the hemoglobin, erythrocyte, and leukocyte content of the blood of the Rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta). Blood 1947;2:154.

Kitchen H et al. Hemoglobin types of adult, fetal, and newborn subhuman primates: Macaca speciosa . Arch Biochem Biophys 1968; 123:227.

Loeb WF, Mackey B. A comparative study of platelet aggregation in primates. J Med Prim 1973;2:195-205.

Malaga CA, Weller RE, Buschbom RL, Ragan HA. Hematology of the wild-caught karyotype I owl monkey (Aotus nancymai). Lab Anim Sci 1990;40:205-206.

Nute PE, Stamatoyannopoulos G. The ontogenesis of hemoglobins in Macaca nemestrina . Blood 1971;38:108.

Oxnard CE, Smith WT, Torres I. Vitamin B deficiency in captive monkeys and its effect on the nervous system and the blood. Lab Anim 1970;4:1.238.

Schiffer SP, Gillett CS, Ringler DH. Activated coagulation time for Rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Lab Anim Sci 1984;34:191.

Switzer JW et al. Hematologic changes associated with pregnancy and parturition in Macaca mulatta . Lab Anim Sci 1970;20:930.

Walcott GJ, Valentine JA, Cebul RD. Induction of anaemia in monkeys. Lab Anim 1973;7:297.

Weber HW et al. The baboon in medical research: Baseline studies in fourteen hundred baboons and pathological observations. In: Defining the laboratory animal. Washington DC National Academy of Sciences, 1971.

Rabbit

Dietz AA. Composition of normal bone marrow in rabbits. J Biol Chem 1946;165:505.

Ishibashi S et al. Evidence for dimorphism in rabbit hemoglobins. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1968;128:879.

King JE, Ackerman GA. Erythropoiesis in the bone marrow of the fetal rabbit. Anat Rec 1967;157:589.

Paulsen R, Valentine JL. A procedure for intravenous administration of drugs and repeated arterial blood sampling in the rabbit. Lab Anim 1984;13:34.

Perry-Clark LM, Meunier LD. Vascular access ports for chronic serial infusion and blood sampling in New Zealand white rabbits. Lab Anim Sci 1991;41:495-497.

Pintor PP, Grassini V. Individual and seasonal spontaneous variations of haematological values in normal male rabbits. Acta Haematol (Basel) 1957;17:122.

Smith GN, Mollison PL. Normal red cell survival in the rabbit. Scand J Haematol 1973;11:188.

Sutherland DA et al. The life span of the rabbit erythrocyte. Acta Haematol (Basel) 1959;21:36.

Tillman P, Normal C. Droperidol-fentanyl as an aid to blood collection in rabbits. Lab Anim Sci 1983;33:181.

Rat

Angelov O et al. A comparison of two methods of bleeding rats: The venous plexus of the eye versus the vena sublingualis. J Appl Toxicol 1984;4:258.

Archer RK, Riley J. Standardized method for bleeding rats. Lab Anim 1981;15:25.

Belcher EH, Harris EB. Studies of red cell life span in the rat. J Physiol (Lond) 1959;146:217.

Berlin N: A simple method for repeated bone marrow aspirations in rats. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1948;69:53.

Bickhardt K, Buttner D, Muschen U, Plonait H. Influence of bleeding procedure and some environmental conditions on stress-dependent blood constituents of laboratory rats. Lab Anim 1983; 17:161.

Burke WT, Harris C. Total cell counts of the bone marrow of normal albino rats from 1 to 50 weeks of age. Blood 1959;14:409.

Cameron DG, Watson GM. Femoral bone marrow biopsy in the albino rat. Blood 1948;3:292.

Cocchetto DM, Bjornosson TD. Methods for vascular access and collection of body fluids from the laboratory rat. J Pharm Sci 1983; 72:465.

Dameron GW, Weingand KW, Duderstadt JM, et al. Effect of bleeding site on clinical laboratory testing of rats: Orbital venous plexus versus posterior vena cava. Lab Anim Sci 1992;42:299-301.

Datta MC, Dukes PP. Comparison of the effects of crude and purified erythropoietin on the synthesis of hemoglobin in rat bone marrow cell cultures. Exp Hematol 1982;10:689.

Frith CH, Ward JM, Chandra M. The morphology, immunochemistry, and incidence of hematopoietic neoplasms in mice and rats. Tox Path 1993;21:206-218

Garrick LM et al. Rat haemoglobin heterogeneity. Biochem J 1975; 149:245.

Gilman JG, Datta MC. Rat hemoglobin heterogeneity: Genetic variation affecting hemoglobin preparations. Hemoglobin 1982; 6:439.

Godwin KO et al. Haematological observations in healthy (SPF) rats. Br J Exp Pathol 1964;45:514.

Khan KNM, Komocsar WJ, Lazzaro NC, et al. Effect of bleeding site on clinical pathologic parameters in Sprague-Dawley rats: Retro-orbital plexus versus abdominal aorta. Contemp Top 1996:35:63-66.

Marit GB, Young SM, Hadick CL. Anatomic and physiologic characterization of the WF/PmWP-``f2 '' (Fuzzy) rat. Lab Anim Sci 1995;45:184-190.

Mohr U. International classification of rodent tumours. Part I--The rat. 4. Haematopoietic system. IARC Scientific Publications No. 122. Lyon, France, 1993.

Putcha L, Bruckner JV, Muralidhara S, Feldman S. A simple method for repetitive blood sampling from rats. J Pharm Meth 1982; 8:145.

Quimby FH et al. Total white cell counts of peripheral and heart blood of the rat. Science 1948;107:447.

Ragan HA, Pipes MJ, Kaune WT, Phillips RD. Clinical-pathologic evaluations in rats and mice chronically exposed to 60-Hz electric fields. In: Biological effects of extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields. Conf-781016, NTIS. Springfield, VA, 1979: 297-325.

Reese ME. An Investigation of the Effects of tobacco smoke and nicotine on rat blood platelet functions. Ph.D. Thesis. Ann Arbor University Microfilms, 1974

Shek PN, Howe SA. A novel method for the rapid bleeding of rats from the tail vein. J Immunol Meth 1982;53:255.

Snitily MU, Gentry MJ, Mellencamp MA, Preheim LC. A simple method for collection of blood from the rat foot. Lab Anim Sci 1991; 41:285-287.

Tarbutt RG. Cell population kinetics of the erythroid system in the rat. The response to protracted anaemia and to continuous gamma irradiation. Br J Haematol 1969;16:9.

Tarbutt RG. A study of erythropoiesis in the rat. Exp Cell Res 1967; 48:473.

Upton PK, Morgan DJ. The effect of sampling technique on some blood parameters in the rat. Lab Anim 1975;9:85.

Urizar RE, Cerda J, Dodds WJ, et al. Age-related renal, hematologic, and hemostatic abnormalities in FH/Wjd rats. Am J Vet Res 1984;45:1624-1631.

van Putten LM: The life span of red cells in the rat and the mouse as determined by labeling with DFP32 in vivo. Blood 1958;13:789.

Wiegmann TB, Antzer D. Use of an extracorporeal anterior venous shunt and capillary tubes for frequent micro-blood sampling in rats. J Pharm Meth 1983;9:7-18.

Williams DM, Gillett R, Linder JE. Light and electron microscope alkaline phosphatase cytochemistry of rat bone marrow leukocytes. J Histochem Cytochem 1979;27:665.

Winocour PD et al. Changes in the properties of platelets from rats with experimentally induced shortened platelet survival. J Lab Clin Med 1983;101:175.

Sheep

Battaglia FC et al. Exposure to high altitude of sheep with different haemoglobins. Q J Exp Physiol 1969;54:423.

Blunt MH, et al. The production of haemoglobin C in adult sheep and goats. Aust J Exp Biol Med Sci 1969;47:601.

Georgi JR, Hertzendorf II. Simultaneous erythrocyte and plasma volume measurements in sheep using iron-59. Cornell Vet 1964; 54:510.

Morgan Dl, Upton PK. The effect of sampling technique on acid-base balance and other parameters in the sheep. Lab Anim 1975; 9:93.

Nienhuis AW, Bunn HF. Hemoglobin switching in sheep and goats. Science 1974;185: 946;J Biol Chem 1978;253:5025.

Todd JR, Ross JG. Biochemical and haematological changes in the blood of normal sheep following repeated phlebotomy. Br Vet J 1968; 124:353-361.

Vertebrates Other Than Mammals

Amphibians and Reptiles

Alleman AR, Jacobson ER, Raskin RE. Morphological and cytochemical characteristics of blood cells from desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii). Am J Vet Res 1992;53:1645-1651.

Baranowski-Smith LL, Smith DJ. A simple method of obtaining blood samples from mature frogs. Lab Anim Sci 1983;33:386.

Bardsley JE, Harmsen R. A simple and inexpensive methodology for the care and maintenance of experimental laboratory frogs. Lab Anim 1972;6:95.

Bergman RAM. The erythrocyte of snakes. Folia Haematol 1957; 75:92.

Broyles RH, Frieden E. Sites of haemoglobin synthesis in amphibian tadpoles. Nature 1973;241:207.

Caxton-Martins AE. Cytochemistry of blood cells in peripheral smears of some West African reptiles. J Anat 1977;124:393.

Edwards JA, Justus JT. Hemoglobins of two urodeles: Changes with metamorphosis. Pros Soc Exp Biol Med 1969;132:524.

Friar W. Turtle red blood cell packed volumes, sizes, and numbers. Herpetologica 1977;33:167.

Friar W. Sea turtle red blood cell parameters correlated with carapace lengths. Comp Biochem Physiol 1977;56A:467.

Friedmann GB et al. Determination of the red blood cell count and haemoglobin content of urodele blood. Anat Rec 1969;163:55.

Gottdenker NL, Jacobson ER. Effects of venipuncture sites on hematologic and clinical biochemical values in desert tortoises (Gopherus agassizii). Am J Vet Res 1995;56:19-21.

Herman CA, Caputo F, Magliola L, deRoos R. An improved cannulation technique for prolonged blood sampling of the American bullfrog. Lab Anim Sci 1978;28:335.

Krishamoorty RV, Shakunthala N. Increased RBC count and pulmonary respiration in cold-adapted frogs. J Exp Biol 1974; 61:285-290.

Ryerson DL. Separation of the two acidophilic granulocytes of turtle blood with suggested phylogenetic relationships. Anat Rec 1943;85:25.

Sullivan B. Oxygenation properties of snake hemoglobin. Science 11967;57:1308.

Sullivan B, Riggs A. The subunit dissociation properties of turtle hemoglobins. Biochem Biophys Acta 1967;140:274.

Birds

Campbell TW. Avian hematology and cytology. Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1988.

D'Amelio V. The globins of adult and embryonic chick hemoglobin. Biochim Biophys Acta 1966;27:59.

Dorrestein GM, Blaauboer BJ, Miltenburg NA, Deley PP. A modified method of blood sampling from birds. Lab Anim 1978; 12:193.

Dupont CH. The site of hemoglobin synthesis in the avian erythrocyte. Biochem Med 1973. 8:228.

Fraser R et al. The multiple hemoglobins of the chick embryo. J Cell Physiol 1972;80:79.

Johnston PM. Hematocrit values for the chick embryo at various ages. Am J Physiol 1955;180:361.

Ottesen J. Life-span of red and white blood corpuscles of the hen. Nature 11948 62:730.

Rodnan GP et al. The life span of the red blood cell and the red blood cell volume in the chicken, pigeon, and duck as estimated by the use of Na2 Cr51 O4 . Blood 1957;12:355.

Fishes

Amend DF, Smith L. Pathophysiology of infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus disease in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) : Early changes in blood and aspects of the immune response after injection of IHN virus. J Fish Res Board Can 1974;31:1371-1378.

Bannai S et al. Studies on hemoglobin from the hagfish Eptatretus burgeri . J Biol Chem 1972;247:505.

Binotti I et al: Studies on the functional properties of fish hemoglobins. II. The oxygen equilibrium of the isolated hemoglobin components from trout blood. Arch Biochem Biophys 1971;142:274.

Blaxhall PC. The haematological assessment of the health of freshwater fish: A review of selected literature. J Fish Biol 1972; 4:593-604.

Buhler DR. Studies on fish hemoglobins. J Biol Chem 1963; 238:1665.

Catton WT. Blood cell formation in certain teleost fishes. Blood 1951;6:39.

Coburn CB Jr, Fischer BA. Red blood cell hematology of fishes: A critique of techniques and a compilation of published data. J Marine Sci 1973;2:37.

Dohi Y et al. The self-association and oxygen equilibrium of hemoglobin from the lamprey, Entoshenus japonicus. J Biol Chem 1973;248:2354.

Hawkins R, Mawdesley-Thomas LE. Fish haematology--a bibliography. J Fish Biol 1972;4:193-232.

Katz M. The number of erythrocytes in the blood of the silver salmon. Trans Am Fish Soc 1951;80:184.

McLeay DJ, Gordon MR. Leucocrit: A simple hematological technique for measuring acute stress in Salmonid fish, including stressful concentrations of pulpmill effluent. J Fish Res Board Can 1977;34:2164-2175.

Powers DA. Hemoglobin adaptations for fast and slow water habitats in sympatric catostomid fishes. Science 1972;177:360.

Rumen NM, Love WE. The six hemoglobins of the sea lamprey (Petromyzlm marinus). Arch Biochem Biophys 1963;103:24.

Srivastaga AK. Studies on the hematology of certain freshwater teleosts. Anat Anz 1968;123:233; Folia Haematol 1968;90:4.

Stokes EE, Firkin BG. Studies of the peripheral blood of the Port Jackson shark (Heterodontus portusjacksoni) with particular reference to the thrombocyte. Br J Haematol 1971;20:427.

Van Dam L, Scholander PF. Concentration of hemoglobin in the blood of deep sea fishes. J Cell Comp Physiol 1953;41:1.

Weber RE et al. The hemoglobin system of the primitive fish Amia calva : Isolation and functional characterization of the individual hemoglobin components. Biochim Biophys Acta 1976;434:18.

Nonvertebrates

George WC, Nichols J. A study of the blood of some crustacea. J Morphol 1948;83:425.

Keilin D, Ryley JF. Haemoglobin in protozoa. Nature 1953;172:451.

Thompson PE, English DS. Multiplicity of hemoglobins in the genus Chironomus (tendipes). Science 1966;152:75.

Quality Control

Bishop J, Nix ABJ. Comparison of quality control rules used in clinical chemistry laboratories. Clin Chem 1993;39:1638-1649.

Carakostas MC, Banerjee AK. Interpreting rodent clinical laboratory data in safety assessment studies: Biological and analytical components of variation. Fund Appl Tox 1990;15:744-753.

Cembrowski GS, Westgard JO. Quality control of multichannel hematology analyzers. Am J Clin Pathol 1985;83:337-345.

Henry JB, Giegel JL, eds. Quality control in laboratory medicine. New York: Masson, 1977.

Howitz PJ, Howitz JH. Laboratory quality assurance. New York: McGraw-Hill 1987.

Levey S, Jennings ER. The use of control charts in the clinical laboratory. Am J Clin Pathol 1950;20:1059-1066.

Stewart CE, Koepke JA, Thurrell T. Basic quality assurance practices for clinical laboratories. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott, 1987.

Westgard JO, Klee GG. Quality management. In: Burtis CA, Ashwood ER, eds. Tietz textbook of clinical chemistry. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1994:548-592.

Westgard JO, Barry PL, Hunt MR, Groth T. A multi-rule Shewart chart for quality control in clinical chemistry. Clin Chem 1981; 27: 493-501.

APPENDIX B-Comparative Hematology

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