AP/IB American History Mr. Blackmonteachers.dadeschools.net/dblackmon/APIBUSHistory... · 2013. 7. 20. · AP/IB American History Mr. Blackmon Antebellum Slavery Page 2 cotton, which

AP/IB American History Mr. Blackmon

Antebellum Slavery

(Sketch Notes)

I do not regard this hand-out as complete. There are gaps, but I need to get this duplicated. It willbe continually revised. I apologize for its weaknesses.

I. Cotton Is KingA. The South remained overwhelmingly agricultural in the antebellum period. There

was greater diversity in its crops however.B. Cash Crops

1. Indigo in South Carolina disappeared with the loss of British bounties.2. Tobacco still continued as a cash crop in Virginia and North Carolina,

spreading into Kentucky and Missouri. Tobacco had, however, severelydamaged the soil, and was certainly less profitable.

3. Rice continued as an important cash crop in the coastal regions of SouthCarolina and Georgia. Geography, of course, prevented its further spread.Rice cultivation required large capital investment in machinery andfloodgates. These tended to be some of the very largest plantations. Theseplanters are old families.

4. Sugar was produced in Louisiana. Like rice, sugar required heavy capitalinvestment for machinery, and was limited in geographical extent. As withrice, this discouraged competition from poor farmers, and encouraged thegrowth of large plantations. Louisiana sugar required tariff protection tocompete, which brought about the peculiar situation of SouthernCongressman who supported a high tariff.

5. Hemp and flax were grown in Kentucky and Missouri. Flax was used tomake linen, which was used in the most common homespun cloth, linsey-woolsey (a combination of linen and wool) and in linseed oil. Hemp wasused for rope and baling.

6. Cotton became the real driving force in the Southern economy, and really themost important single dynamic element in the entire US economy. Cottondid not require heavy machinery or a large capital outlay, nor did it evenrequire slave labor.a. The growth of cotton as a major crop is the result of three inter-

related factors:(1) The rapid growth of the British and French textile industries,

which created a very high demand for cotton.(2) The opening of large tracts of extremely fertile land which

was taken from the Southwestern Indians.(3) The introduction of the cotton gin in 1794 by Eli Whitney,

which permitted the processing of upland or short staple

AP/IB American History Mr. BlackmonAntebellum Slavery Page 2

cotton, which could be cultivated over a wide area in theSouth, as opposed to the sea island cotton, whose range waslimited.

C. The place of Cotton in the economy1. Despite explosive growth of supply, the price of cotton remained satisfactory

at about 10¢/lbs Above that level prior to the Panic of 1837, lower than thatthrough the 1840s, then higher again in the 1850s. In 1857, it stood at15¢/lbs (Tindall 559)

2. Production increased steadily.3.

Year Pounds of CottonExported

Value of CottonExported

Value of TotalU.S. Exports

Percentage ofCotton inRelation to TotalExports

1800 17,789,803 $ 5,000,000 $ 70,971,780 7%

1810 93,261,462 15,108,000 66,757,970 22%

1820 127,860,152 22,308,667 69,691,669 32%

1830 298,459,102 29,674,883 71,670,735 41%

1840 743,941,061 63,870,307 123,668,932 51%

1850 635,381,604 71,984,616 144,375,726 49%

1860 1,767,686,338 191,806,555 333,576,057 57%

(Bailey 331)

4. Cotton involved the North as well as the South, and it involved the variousregions within the South. The Upper South tended to provide slaves for thegrowing demand in the Southwest. The time period of the Cotton Kingdomfeatures dynamic east to southwest growth. Conditions are fluid and oftenraw and crude.

5. Northern businessmen provided most of the shipping for cotton. Theyinsured the cargoes. Northern factories bought whatever Europe did not.Northern factories also provided much of the manufactured goods consumedby the South--paid for by the profits generated by cotton.

D. Other Crops1. The Upper South was shifting to a more diversified economy by the eve of

the Civil War.a. One pioneer in this respect was the fire-eater Edmund Ruffin (who

fired the first shot at Ft. Sumter, and who committed suicide amid the


ruins of his burnt out plantation in 1865). Ruffin was deeplyconcerned about soil depletion, and studied soil chemistry. Heproduced an essay that described how the use of crushed marl wouldrestore the proper chemical balance of the acid Southern soils.

b. Ruffin and the Upper South, with wheat farms and farms withdiversified crops demonstrate that slavery was adaptable to cropsother than the traditional cash crops.

2. The South was largely self-sufficient in food production.a. In 1860, the South had 30% of the nation's area and 39% of the

population. It held:(1) 52% of the corn(2) 29% of the wheat(3) 19% of the oats(4) 19% of the rye(5) 10% of the Irish potatoes(6) 94% of the sweet potatoes(7) 50% of the cattle(8) 60% of the pigs(9) 45% of the horses(10) 52% of the oxen(11) 90% of the mules (the chief plow-animal)(12) 33% of the sheep (Tindall 560)

E. Manufacturing in the South1. There were some efforts at manufacturing development in South.

a. Most notable were the Tredegar Iron Works, which, under JosephReid Anderson, successfully adapted slave labor to the factory.

b. Daniel Pratt built Prattville, Alabama, and ran the town patriarchally.c. These are notable more for their isolation than anything else.

2. Manufacturing did not attract Southern capital for a variety of reasonsa. Much of the South's wealth was already tied up in slaves

($2,000,000,000 in 1860)b. Manufacturing profits were not so much higher than agricultural

profits to attract the capital.c. Manufacturing was at variance with the agricultural ideal of the

South, a tradition which went back to Jefferson and even farther backto Classical sources. The planter, however much of a capitalist hemight in truth be, still lived on the land, and often did not viewhimself as being engaged in trade. The South tended to scornmerchants and shopkeepers. This really is a clash of cultures, and onenot limited to the South. Think of Napoleon's scorn of "a nation ofshopkeepers."

3. Manufacturing in the South


a. 22% of the nation's plantsb. 17% of the nation's laborc. 20% of the nation's capital investedd. 17% of the nation's wagese. 16% of the nation's output (Tindall 563)

4. That manufacturing was concentrated mostly in the Border States and UpperSouth.

F. Profitability of Slavery1. The profitability of slavery has been the subject of extremely heated

controversy. The current consensus, however, is that an average profit was10% return on cost. (Tindall 563) That compares well with the profits onNorthern manufacturing enterprises. It was an attractive margin of profit.a. The argument that slavery was unprofitable and weakening must

somehow deal with the fact that cotton production was rising steadily,and demand for slaves increasing in 1860. The market was drivingboth phenomena, and that implies that planters were making goodprofits.

2. Per capita income in the South was $103, which was higher than the nationalaverage, and exceeded only by Australasia, the North, and Great Britain, inthat order. (Tindall 564)

G. James Henry Hammond, a Senator and Governor of South Carolina, a rice andcotton magnate who held 400 slaves and whose copious records are an importantsource of information, smugly (and foolishly) told the Senate in 1858, "Theslaveholding South is now the controlling power of the world. Cotton, rice,tobacco, and naval stores command the world. . . . .No! You dare not make warupon cotton; no power on earth dares to make war upon cotton. Cotton is king."(MacPherson 100)

II. Social Relationships in the White SouthA. Recent textbooks (Norton, Tindall & Shi, Boyer) are devoting considerable space to

ante-bellum society in general and greater space than before on slavery in particular.I view that as a positive. In particular, spending more time on white society is sound,since slavery and race relations did not and do not exist in a vacuum. The older I get,the more I see how society is woven together into a complex pattern. Problems andevents occur within political, social, economic, and intellectual contexts, but thosedimensions are themselves inter-related.

B. As a white Southerner whose forebears fought (and died) in the Confederate armies,I do not believe that one can even approach an understanding of the South--its historyor culture--without confronting slavery and racism. Indeed, I increasingly believethat race relations are the single most important issue/factor/element in Southernhistory. That is not a comfortable perception, but truth is more important thancomfort. Truth is, in fact, more important than anything.

C. I do not, however, wish to spend too much time here on white society. Boyer's


discussion is really very good indeed, and much of this is taken from him. Tindall& Shi and Norton have discussions that are also very similar indeed.

D. Social Gradations1. Planters and Plantation Mistresses

a. The Planter class is defined by holding 20 or more slaves (There were383,637 slaveholders in 1860; about 12% of all slaveholders). (1) This was not a large group. In 1860, there were only 46,274

persons who held 20 or more slaves, or .6% of the Southernwhite population or 4% of adult white males.

(2) Only 10,658 persons held 50 or more (2.7% of slaveholders,.13% of all whites).

(3) Only 2,292 persons held 100 or more (.6%% of slaveholders,.03% of all whites).

(4) Only 312 persons held 200 or more (.08% of slaveholders,.004% of all whites).

(5) Only 11 persons held 500 or more (.0028% of slaveholders,.00013% of all whites).

(6) Only 1 person held 1000.b. The planters held half the slaves, and their holdings produced the

economic surplus--ie the wealth--of South.c. Legend portrays these people as living a life of leisure, sitting on the

verandah drinking mint juleps. This is far from true. Planters werebusinessmen. Their business dealings required constant attention.Those who were poor at it found themselves in debt. It was possibleto drop out of the planter class. It was also possible to move into it.Many of the antebellum planters, like Jefferson Davis, were nouveauriche, self-made men who were not born to wealth. Many of the oldChesapeake families were not in good financial shape. (1) A cultural civil warfare existed among the planters: a desire

for profits and wealth that was present in the South from thevery founding of Jamestown and a desire to live thepatriarchal, agrarian ideal.

(2) Sometimes they lived in mansions as beautiful as the legend,such as Auburn at Natchez. More often, especially in therawer Southwest, they were not.

d. Catherine Clinton has demonstrated conclusively that the plantationmistresses were far from the pampered, spoiled belles of legend.They had numerous and often exhausting duties in domesticmanagement.(1) Domestic management included nursing all the sick. It also

included the annual hog killing and salting. Try to imagineScarlett O'Hara up to her arms in pig, blood, and salt.


(2) Life for these women was also often isolated and lonely.e. The planters cannot be glibly classified. Eugene Genovese

emphasizes a patriarchal, pre-capitalist view of the antebellum South.Yet Stephen Duncan (who owned 1,041 slaves in 1860 and wastherefore the largest slaveholder in the South in 1860 doesn't fit themold too easily. He was originally from Pennsylvania, but owned 8plantations in Mississippi and Louisiana. Clement Eaton in The OldSouth, states that he was probably the greatest cotton planter in thesouth in the 1850's. He lived in a beautiful Greek revival mansion atAuburn, near Natchez. Twenty three of his slaves were houseservants. In one year, he produced 4,000 bales of cotton. Ironically,despite a net return on his plantations of $150,000 annually, Duncanwas an uncompromising foe of secession and the Confederacy. Hefled Natchez for New York in 1863, where an inventory revealed anet worth of $1,060,000 exclusive of his plantation holdings, mostlyin northern railroad securities and public lands in the Midwest. Some historians have seen the Civil War as a struggle between anemergent Northern capitalism and a paternalistic, agrarian South butif men like Duncan are not capitalists, then "perhaps that termrequires redefinition" (Scarborough 106)

2. Small Slaveholdersa. This comprised 88% of the slaveholders, and revealed a lot of variety.

50% of all slaveholders owned 4 or fewer slaves.b. This would include professional people, who might hold domestic

servants or artisans.c. It might include overseers.d. Many were small farmers who worked the fields along with the

slaves. Many of these men aspired to break into the planter class.They would include Nathan Bedford Forrest, who was born dirt-poorbut became a self-made millionaire (as a farmer, speculator, andslave-trader) by the outbreak of war.

3. Professionalsa. This group includes lawyers, clergy, physicians, and editors. Their

livelihood was dependant upon the planters, and therefore theybecame defenders of the slave system.

4. The Yeoman Farmersa. This is the backbone of Southern society. They held small farms, and

engaged in subsistence or local market commercial farming. If theyraised cotton, they were usually dependant on a planter for ginning.

b. The yeoman farmers were not truly poor, but were by no meanswealthy. They were fiercely independent, valued self-sufficiency,distrusted all strangers (which might include anyone farther than 50


miles away), proud, and resentful of anyone who meddled in theiraffairs.

c. They were overwhelmingly Democratic in their politics, ferventlyevangelical Protestant in religion, often at loggerheads with theplanters, but, in the last analysis, committed to white supremacy. Theappeal to Herrenvolk democracy is what kept their support forslavery. The threat of Yankee interference in their lives sent theminto the Confederate armies.

5. Poor Whitesa. Comprising about 10% of the white population, they scraped out a

meager living in marginal areas such as pine barrens, living frompastoral farming. They were renowned for their ignorance, poverty,and laziness.

b. They were prey to diseases like pellagra, hookworm, malaria whichare debilitating. They included the "dirt eaters" (from eating clay, theresult of a vitamin deficiency).

III. The Circle of Honor in the White SouthA. Newer textbooks like Boyer, Norton, and Tindall & Shi are including a section of

honor in the South, which is good. Boyer's discussion is very unsatisfactory,however.

B. The two men who have blazed the trail on this subject are W. J. Cash with The Mindof the South and Bertram Wyatt-Brown with Southern Honor: Ethics andBehavior in the Old South. This is not the place to try to summarize all of theirfindings but some discussion, taken from Wyatt-Brown, is in order.

C. ". . . [H]onor is essentially the cluster of ethical rules, most readily found in societiesof small communities\ties, by which judgements of behavior are ratified bycommunity consensus. Family integrity, clearly understood hierarchies of leadersand subordinates, and ascriptive features of individuals and groups are guides forthose evaluations. By 'ascription' is meant such biological determinants as race andcolor, gender, bloodlines, physique and physical skill, age, and inherited position.It cannot be too strongly emphasized that honor is not confined to any rank ofsociety; it is the moral property of all who belong within the community, one thatdetermines the community's own membership." (xv)1. Honor therefore embraced all aspects of Southern society--family and kinship

relationships, treatment of women, attitudes toward business, attitudestowards gambling and debts, dueling, marriage customs, child rearing andgender-based behavioral expectations as well as race relations.

D. Honor is an ancient ethical code, originating with Indo-European tribes. One can seeit operative in Homer or Mallory.1. One of the very interesting things to me is the realization that honor is

relevant to other areas besides the antebellum South--Latin America, forinstance. The Conquistadors lived by the same code. The factors which led


to honor surviving in the South after it had been displaced in the North--anagrarian economy, hierarchical society, and a precarious existence--were atleast equally operative in Latin America. Another group in modern timeswould be the German officer corps, and indeed, military castes around theworld tend to live by codes of honor.a. For such people, honor is not an abstraction.

2. Honor is older than slavery, and, in the South predated slavery as well asoutlasted slavery. It would be foolish to claim that slavery did not becomeenmeshed in the honor code, but it is valuable to realize that honor is not aresponse to the fact of slavery.

E. "At the heart of honor . . . lies the evaluation of the public. . . . Honor is first the innerconviction of self-worth. . . . The second aspect of honor is the claim of that self-assessment before the public. . . . The third element is the assessment of the claim bythe public. . . . In other words, honor is reputation. Honor resides in the individualas his understanding of who he is and where he belongs in the ordered ranks ofsociety. (When society has pretensions that there are no ranks, honor must necessarilybe set aside or drastically redefined to mean something else.) It is, at least intraditional terms, both internal to the claimant, so that it motivates him towardbehavior socially approved, and external to him, because only by the response ofobservers can he ordinarily understand himself." (14)1. Elements of the honor system that have had an enduring place in Southern

culture include "devotion to family and country, restrictive views of women'splace and role, attitudes about racial hierarchy, and the subordination of allto community values" (17)

2. The growth of evangelical Christianity (which has a different set of ethicalvalues and is completely internalized) and a commercial economy worked toerode honor in the North. By the Civil War, Northerners and Southerners didnot mean or understand the same thing by "honor."a. Honor was changing in the South as well, but much more slowly.

F. "The following elements were crucial in the formulation of Southern evaluations ofconduct: (1) honor as immortalizing valor, particularly in the character of revengeagainst familial and community enemies; (2) opinion of others as an indispensablepart of personal identity and gauge of self-worth; (3) physical appearance and ferocityof will as signs of inner merit; (4) defense of male integrity and mingled fear and loveof woman; (5) reliance upon oath-taking as a bond in lieu of family obligations andallegiances." (34)

G. For those interested in further study, Wyatt-Brown systematically studies themanifestations of honor in family life; male youth and honor; a young man's career,courtship and marriage; women's role and image; law, property and male domination;status, law, and sexual misconduct. He also deals with honor, shame and justice ina slave society; policing a slave society, charivari and lynch law; and gambling andcombat. He closes with a detailed study of a famous wife-killing that illustrates


many of the features of Southern honor. 1. Just in case you were wondering, I found it to be a fascinating book.

IV. Slave Population DistributionA. Slavery was not distributed evenly within the South, or evenly within the same state.

This led to real social and economic tensions within the South.1. Slaves were concentrated in the Tidewater and coastal strips of the

Chesapeake and Carolinas, the cotton growing piedmont of Carolina andGeorgia, the alluvial river bottoms of the Mississippi Valley, the sugar-growing delta of Louisiana. The percentage of slaves to total population inthese regions was very high, often an absolute majority. In South Carolinaand Louisiana, slaves made up an absolute majority of the entire population.

2. Slaves were rare in the hill and mountain country, or in any region not welladapted to staple crop production. Northeast Georgia, East Tennessee andWestern Virginia for example had few slaves. During the Civil War, theseregions were notably cool to the Confederate war effort. East Tennessee wasoutright hostile (it is not a coincidence that Andrew Johnson was a poor whiteEast Tennessean) and Western Virginia, with closer economic and culturalties to the Ohio Valley than the Chesapeake, seceded from Virginiaaltogether.

3. The Border State of Missouri is instructive. No state was more bitterlydivided, or suffered so terribly in the Civil War, than Missouri. A glance ata map of slave distribution shows why. Hemp cultivation and thereforeslavery was concentrated along the Missouri River. North or South of theMissouri there were few slaves and almost entirely yeoman farmers. St.Louis, with its huge German population, was intensely hostile to slavery.This division was apparent even before the War; Missouri was representedin Washington by both David Rice Atchison, a violent pro-slave supporter(and one of my leading villains in US history) as well as Thomas HartBenton, an outspoken opponent of slavery (whose daughter Jessie married theFree Soiler and Republican Presidential candidate John C. Frémont)

4. It is a serious mistake to envision the South as monolithic.B. Slaves as a percentage of total state population (census of 1860):

1. South Carolina 57 %2. Mississippi 55 %3. Louisiana 47 %4. Alabama 45 %5. Florida 45 %6. Georgia 44 %7. North Carolina 33 %8. Virginia 31 %9. Texas 30 %10. Arkansas 26 %


11. Tennessee 25 %12. Kentucky 20 %13. Maryland 13 %14. Missouri 10 %15. Delaware 1.5% (Stampp 32)

C. Whereas, in 1860, most Southern whites were not slaveholders (76%), and wheremost Southerners who were slaveholders were small-scale slaveholders (50% held1-4, 72% held 1-10), 50% of the slaves were held by planters (20 or more slaves,only 12% of all slaveholders). An even larger percentage than tat lived onplantations, since an appreciable number of small slaveholders were the sons ofplanters or were overseers, whose slaves would have worked on plantations as well.(Stampp 36)1. The Census of 1850 estimated that 2,500,000 slaves (out of 3,204,313) were

involved in agriculture. Of that, 60,000 in involved with hemp, 125,000 inrice, 150,000 in sugar, 350,000 in tobacco, and 1,815,000 in cotton. (Stampp50)

2. There is enormous variety to the activities and conditions of slave life in theSouth. The period covers from 1619-1865, and a region as large as WesternEurope.

3. However, insofar as a "typical" experience can be described, it is the life ofa plantation slave. This is also appropriate inasmuch as the plantation,producing a commercial crop that generated the economic surplus that fueledthe Southern economy, is the very heart of the antebellum slave system.Slavery did not exist in a vacuum. Slavery in North America was part ofwhat Philip Curtin called the "plantation complex."

4. The chief thrust of this handout will be to discuss life on the plantation: thelarge agricultural units producing cotton, rice, sugar, tobacco and hemp.

V. Slaves' Work RoutinesA. Kenneth Stampp reminds us that "slavery was above all a labor system." (Stampp

34) The institution existed to extract the labor of bondsmen for the benefit of themaster. Both Ulrich Bonnell Phillips and Eugene Genovese (operating fromdramatically different assumptions) have stressed the paternalistic element in slavery.Paternalism is surely there, but slavery is essentially a method of labor extraction forprofit. In general, that profit motive is the most important single factor in theconditions of life for the slaves.

B. Specialization of Labor1. An important advantage of plantation agriculture is the specialization of labor

which a force of 10-20 slaves, and especially any force larger than 30,permitted.

2. Although the plantations were not mechanized, they became agriculturalfactories by virtue of their organization. (Stampp 42) Economically, theywere efficient.


3. The planter class is defined as 20 or more slaves, so there is some overlapin the analysis here.

4. Planters with more than 30 slaves generally hired overseers so that theycould concentrate on "problems of marketing, finance, and general plantationadministration." (Stampp 38)

5. Overseers were charged with management of the labor force and day-to-day,routine activities. The pay for overseers varied; sometimes pay was tied toprofits, which gave the overseer a financial incentive to drive the slavesmercilessly. (Stampp 84) Overseers were frequently replaced, and were notpaid in accordance to the demands of the job. To be a good overseer, oneneeded quite a lot of practical skill as a farmer as well as excellent skills asa psychologist and man-manager. Few people with such skills took the job.(Stampp 39) It is probably fair to say that most masters would tolerate goodprofits at the expense of an abused work force more quickly than a healthywork force with lower profits.

6. Most overseers used slave drivers. These were trusted slaves who weregranted special privileges. The driver's responsibility was to see thateveryone worked steadily and to inspect the work. They maintaineddiscipline and order.

7. The rest of the work force was divided at between servants and field hands.8. Servants included cooks, chambermaids, seamstresses, laundresses,

coachmen, footmen, children's nurses, body servants, and butlers etc. Thesebondsmen held privileged positions, did not have to work as hard, but wereunder closer supervision by whites. Since servants were most likely toidentify with the masters' interests, there was often friction between servantsand field hands.a. Most domestic services in the South, whether on plantations or in the

cities, were done by slaves. Whites would not take the jobs in orderto avoid the stigma of slavery.

9. Field hands would technically include artisans: carpenters, smiths, coopers,cobblers, masons, mechanics, millers, weavers, brickmakers. (Stampp 59)These individuals had the best status of all.a. Other specialities might include ginning, ditching, tending livestock,

driving wagons. (Stampp 41)10. The key division however, were the field hands who, technically, were

unskilled labor. This is a misnomer. There was skill involved in all of theactivities. Division of labor permitted workers to become quite skilled, andthus increase productivity.a. A simple division of the field hands would be between plow gangs

and hoe gangs.b. There was little sex differentiation in the field work. Women

engaged in plowing as well as hoeing, even when well-along in


pregnancy.C. Work Day

1. The standard work day was "day clean to first dark." The entire workforcewas roused an hour or so before sunrise, and was in the field as early as theycould see. They worked until it was too dark to see clearly.

2. The work day therefore varied in length from winter to summer.a. During harvest time, slaves might be in the fields 15 or 16 hours a

day (including meal and rest time). On sugar plantations duringharvest and milling, work went on 16-18 hours per week 7 days aweek. (Stampp 77, 85)

b. Wise masters permitted a break in the middle of the day during thehot months, from 1.5 to 2 hours in May to 3 ours in August.

c. Sunday was a holiday; in many plantations, Saturday was a half day.(1) Slaves were expected, of course, to tend to their personal

chores and their gardens on their own time.3. A work day of this length was standard for all agricultural workers in the US,

slave as well as free. Americans in the antebellum era were notably hard-working.a. "Hard driving," that is, driving slaves harder than the conventional

standards of their day accepted as normal, was far more common onplantations than on farms. It is hard to determine how typical thisis, but Stampp writes "The records of the plantation regime clearlyindicate that slaves were more frequently overworked by callousedtyrants than overindulged by mellowed patriarchs." (81)

4. Unlike farming in the North, there was no time of the year when there wasnot considerable work to do. Virtually everyone was economically active allyear round.

D. Gang System and Task System1. In the gang system, hands were divided up into groups that performed

repetitious activities, with a driver to keep everyone working hard. The gangsystem was designed to discourage slacking. This was the most widely usedmethod of organizing labor.

2. The task system gave individual slaves a specific job to do. The slave couldthen set his own pace, and quit for the day when he was done. This systemwas best adapted for the rice plantations.

3. Most planters used combinations of both systems. Planting, hoeing andpicking were generally ganged. Artisans were usually tasked, as were jobslike ditching, and hauling.

4. A crucial component of the economic success of the plantation is the verylarge percentage of the work force that was economically active. Brutallyput, women and children worked who would ordinarily not have worked.

5. Children between 6 and 10 might be active as water carriers. Children were


organized into gangs between 10 and 12 to help with light tasks, such asweeding. The master, not the parent, made the decision when a child wasready to work.

6. Men and women were classed as "prime field hands" at about 18.7. Old women were cooks, fed poultry, mended clothes, nursed the sick, and

ran nurseries for the small children. Note that child rearing is thereforesomething of a communal effort. Parents were divorced from many elementsof child rearing.

8. Old men would tend stock, garden, and clean stables.9. Old or disabled slaves might be active spinning and weaving. (Stampp 57-58)

VI. Coercion and Control of Plantation SlavesA. The antebellum South was remarkably successful at controlling its slave population,

especially when one looks at the incidence of open revolt in the Caribbean and inBrazil. The methods of control were, in fact, quite sophisticated in their totality.

B. Kenneth Stampp (from whom I am taking the bulk of this discussion) makes threecrucial observations:1. The power of the master over the slave was virtually absolute. (141)

a. Owners were forbidden to deliberately kill or maliciously mutilate aslave, but proving such a case, even if such a charge were actuallyfiled, was extremely difficult in theory and very rare in practice.

2. "Masters were not all alike." (Stampp 141)3. "Slaves were not all alike either." (Stampp 142)

C. Therefore, while there will be enormous variations in anecdotal examples, certainpatterns do seem to emerge, based on the fundamentals of the institution itself, ratherthan the individuals involved in a specific situation.

D. In general, bondsmen submitted to coercion, but they did not submit willingly, nordid they often submit completely. (Stamp[ 144)

E. Fundamental Steps1. "Establish and maintain strict discipline." (Stampp 144) Slaves were never

to exercise their will or judgement in the face of a positive order.2. "The second step was to implant in the bondsmen themselves a consciousness

of personal inferiority." (Stampp 145) White Southerners attempted toimplant a strong sense of racial inferiority in the slaves themselves. Anybehavior which, in Frederick Douglass' words, implied "impudence" wasswiftly punished. To the extent that the white master caste can cause theservant caste to adopt its values for their own--to internalize the slaveholders'code--, the masters have gained the strongest and most effective possiblemethod of group control.

3. "The third step in the training of slaves was to awe them with a sense of theirmaster's enormous power." At the heart of slavery, at the heart of all slavery,lies naked force. Slavery cannot survive without the whip (literally; when theuse of the whip was outlawed in Brazil, the institution began disintegrating


quickly.) Stampp takes a quote from a North Carolina woman to entitle hischapter: it was necessary to "make them stand in fear." (Stampp 146)

4. "The fourth step was to persuade the bondsmen to take an interest in themaster's enterprise and to accept his standards of good conduct." (Stampp147)a. It is surprising how often this succeeded, but perhaps it would not

surprise a psychologist. Jefferson Davis left the management of hisplantation completely in the hands of his former body servant, JamesPemberton. Davis also had the very unusual practice of leaving alldiscipline on the plantation in the hands of tribunals of fellow slaves.(Stampp 151-2, 171-2)

5. "The final step was to impress Negroes with their helplessness, to create inthem 'a habit of perfect dependence' upon their masters." (Stampp 147)

F. Practices1. Overseers were expected to be present on the plantation and in the fields all

the time. He was expected to search cabins regularly.2. Slaves were not permitted out of their cabins after curfew (8:00 or 9:00 pm)3. Slaves were not permitted off of the plantation without a pass. All whites in

the neighborhood were expected to enforce this rule.4. Slaves were isolated from working with free blacks or even whites. 5. Slaves were not permitted to marry a free black and were discouraged from

marrying anyone not on the same plantation.6. Slaves were not allowed to sell anything without permission, have liquor, or

quarrel with each other. (Stampp 147-50)7. Great effort was made to secure the cooperation of all local whites,

slaveholder and nonslaveholder as well. Any white could seize a runaway.G. Running Away and Its Consequences

1. Since all blacks in the South were presumed slave unless they could proveotherwise, and since all slaves moving about had to have passes, and since allwhites were authorized to stop, interrogate and seize a runaway, a successfulescape was not easy.

2. It was much easier to escape from the Upper South but if caught, the probablepunishment would be to be sold "down the river." This was a terribleconsequence, since conditions of servitude were usually much harsher, andthe slave would be torn from friends and family.a. Slaveholders in the Upper South tended to sell any slave down the

river whom they suspected o considering running away.b. Selling someone away from friends and family was probably the most

severe deterrent.3. Religion

a. After the Baptist and Methodist denominations made their peace withslavery at the beginning of the 19th century, many plantation owners


encouraged the growth of religion among slaves. They were taughta highly edited version of Christianity that stressed obedience andrewards in the hereafter. The Southern churches sold their birthrightsfor a mess of potage.(1) Eugene Genovese has demonstrated that the growth of

Christianity among the slaves had some very unexpectedconsequences. Black preachers brought a different messagethan white preachers did. The slaves measured their mastersby the standards of the Bible, and found them wanting.

4. Incentivesa. Intelligent masters tried to use minimum force and obtain good results

by the use of positive incentives. For people who have little, everylittle privilege assumes great importance. Masters displayed greatcreativity in providing incentives.(1) One common method was to allow slaves their own garden

plots to supplement their diet. Surpluses could then be soldfor cash to provide slaves with small luxuries. Some masterspurchased all surpluses themselves; others acted as bankers.At least one enterprising master built his own store and gaveslaves an account. (He could then deduct from the slaves'credit for misbehavior)

(2) Gifts at Christmas were common, especially of clothing.Some time off at Christmas, with a feast, was normal.

(3) Celebrations were held at corn shuckings or weddings aswell. (Stampp 164-9)

5. Punishmentsa. Many different forms of physical punishment were used.

(1) Stocks(2) Chains, collars, and irons(3) Mutilation (more common in the 18th century, declined in

19th, but never disappeared) (Stampp 188)(4) The Whip, the most common punishment.

(a) Probably few slaves escaped the whip at some time orother. Males and females were whippedindiscriminately.

(b) It is worth noting that flogging was a commonpunishment in North and South for slave or free in the17th and 18th centuries. However, by the 19thcentury, whipping was no longer used on free persons;it was now regarded as cruel. The whip is nowreserved for those of servile status.

(c) The severity of whipping depended upon the number


of strokes to the type of whip. A "rawhide" was amore severe instrument than a strap. James H.Hammond regarded 15 to 20 lashes as generallysufficient, but they could range much higher.Plantation mistresses were sometimes more prone toorder a flogging than the masters (there is someinteresting psychological speculation on why).(Stampp 174-6)

(5) In some cases where a slave was accused of a serious crimesuch s murder or rape, lynch law took over. Mobs of angrywhites took the law into their own hands (this is form of theSouthern Code of Honor). The lucky slave would be hanged.Many were burned at the stake. Stampp quotes oneMississippian relating that 2,000 slaves were forced towitness a man being burned at the stake. (Stampp 191) I haveseen a photograph of a similar incident from Texas in the1893 with at least 1000 whites visible in the photo. (Garraty589)

H. Cruelty1. By its very nature, slavery encouraged cruelty by granting one man

absolute control over others.2. Masters were restrained by several factors.

a. The patriarchal ideal, to which many planters aspired, emphasizedtreating one's "people" humanely. Stampp, who is not verysympathetic to the planters, notes that a surprising number of themseem to have practiced this ideal with success.(1) Planters who were known to be cruel (that is, exceeding the

standards accepted by the community) faced public censure--aforce which, in the honor bound South, where private worthwas inextricably bound up with public estimation, could bepotent indeed.

b. Too severe punishment would damage one's investment. Slavessardonically noted that they were treated as well as anyone wouldtreat a good mule. One of the reasons why cruelty was rarelypunished in the courts was the assumption that no one woulddeliberately ruin his own investment.

3. It is obvious (even theoretically) that those sanctions are not enough. No one,not even contemporary Southern slaveholders, pretended that no crueltyexisted. Those who were hot-tempered, reckless, with ungovernable passions(qualities often associated with the Southern planter) or naturally sadisticfound much scope and little restraint in the slave system.

4. Physical cruelty is an inherent part of the slave system.


5. This does not even begin to touch on issues of mental cruelty and sexualabuse that are also inherent in slavery. Nor does it touch the fundamental,institutional cruelty involved in telling any human being that they and theirchildren are owned by another person (however benevolent, patriarchal, andkind).

VII. Diet, Clothing, and Housing of Plantation SlavesA. Diet

1. The intent of the great majority of slaveholders was to provide an adequatediet. The problem with that intent is that ignorance of what constitutes ahealthy and proper diet was widespread. Therefore, even well-meaningslaveholders often provided an inadequate diet.

2. The food was generally adequate in bulk, but imbalanced and monotonous.(Stampp 282)

3. Typical food allowance was a peck of corn meal and 3-4 lbs of salt pork orbacon per week per person. (Stampp 282)

4. In many cases, but not always, this diet was supplemented by vegetables fromtheir gardens, by fish or wild game, and molasses.

5. The diet would not be fundamentally different than that eaten by poorerwhites. (Indeed, there is a lot of continuity between the traditional cookingof white and black Southern families. I recall how amused my mother wasin the mid 1960s when "soul food" became suddenly fashionable--it waslargely the cooking she had always done.) The differences would be inquantity, quality, and opportunities for variety.

6. Most slaveholders provided pots and frying pans for food preparation.7. Some plantations expected slaves to cook meals in their cabins after work.

Others provided communal meals with one slave designated as the cook.8. Usually, the slaves prepared their own noon meals and carried them to the

fields in buckets.9. Lack of variety and vitamins made the slaves susceptible to nutrition related

diseases.B. Clothing

1. The slaves were not well-clothed.2. James H. Hammond provided his slaves with 2 shirts and 2 woolen pants

and a jacket for the males in the fall, and 2 shirts and 2 cotton pants in thespring; for women, he provided 6 yards of woolen and 6 yards of cotton clothwith needle, thread, and buttons in fall, and 12 yards of cotton cloth in spring.Every adult received one pair of shoes per year and a heavy blanket everythird year. Children were dressed in long shirts. (Stampp 291) That seemsto have been fairly typical.

3. The cloth was cheap material, produced largely in New England, called"Negro cloth" for sale to the plantations.

4. So many observers noted the shabby appearance of the field hands that it is


clear that this was not adequate clothing for persons engaged in heavy laborall year.

C. Housing1. Housing should not be regarded as truly adequate. This is due more to

ignorance of the relationship between clean, snug housing and health morethan deliberate indifference.

2. Typically, plantation slaves were housed in slave cabins. They were small,often crudely built of logs with clapboard sidings, with clay chinking. Floorswere packed dirt. They were, in short, not much different from the log cabinsof the early settlers. They were often leaky and drafty. The combination ofwet, dirt, and cold made them excellent disease environments.a. Southern doctors constantly admonished planters to improve their

housing.3. Slave quarters were not really thought of as centers for a vital family life.

The slaves were in the fields most of the time, and communal activities tookup time. They are really places to sleep.

D. Mortality1. The South was a more deadly disease environment for everyone, white or

black, slave or free. The weather was hotter, winters shorter and not assevere (but severe enough that records show slaves freezing to death in anygiven year), frontier conditions often prevailed, there were large areas ofswamp and marsh (especially in areas used for rice and sugar cultivation).Physicians were in short supply, and medical knowledge poor. No one had aconcept about the bacterial transmission of disease, or insect borne disease.It is a pretty depressing situation.

2. Life expectancy for all Southerners was lower than that of Northerners.3. Life expectancy for slaves was lower than that of Southern whites.4. Most slaveholders attempted to provide adequate medical care for their

slaves. Often this duty devolved upon the plantation mistress. Often,physicians were kept on retainer. The problem is the abysmal level ofmedical knowledge. Sometimes, when reading accounts of treatment, onewonders if the patient would have been better off without treatment at all.

5. Diseases like malaria and yellow fever were serious problems. Africans fromWest Africa carry a resistance to some types of malaria in their blood (thetrait is related to sickle cell anemia; one writer I have consulted in fact usesa definition of "Negro" based entirely on the presence or absence of that trait,and which would exclude Bushmen, Hottentots, and groups like the Zulufrom East Africa; it is not a definition that most Americans wouldcomprehend.) That resistance provided part of the excuse for enslavingAfricans, but it is relative, not absolute.a. Both malaria and yellow fever were serious killers. Malaria is also

debilitating. William MacNeill has done some study on the long term


effects of endemic malaria upon local populations.6. Asiatic cholera, a disease of dirt, reached the US in 1832 and periodically

swept through the nation. Dysentery was another common killer.7. Pulmonary disease such as pneumonia and tuberculosis was common.8. Tetanus was common and almost always fatal.9. Diseases of malnutrition such as pellagra, beri beri and scurvy were present.10. Women had more stillbirths, spontaneous abortions, and deaths in child birth

than whites. (Stampp 306) One would presume that the general povertycoupled with the constant heavy labor even if pregnant are the causes.

11. Infant mortality, depressingly high for everyone in the 19th century (fewfamilies escaped the loss of a child; usually more than one child; this wasalways a greater problem in the South than the North and contributed to moreextended families as opposed to the highly nucleated families of NewEngland.)a. Infant mortality among the slaves was awful--consistently twice the

rate of whites. (Stampp 320)12. "The combination of lower living standards, greater exposure, heavier

labor, and poorer medical care gave slaves a shorter life expectancy and ahigher mortality rate than whites. The census of 1850 reported average agesof 21.4 for Negroes and 25.5 for whites at the time of death. In 1860, 3.5 percent of the slaves and 4.4 per cent of the whites were over sixty; the deathrate was 1.8 per cent for the slaves and 1.2 per cent for the whites." (Stampp318)

13. Despite this, the slave population of the US grew by 23% per decade(implying substantially higher rates of pregnancy for slave women than forwhites). In fact, the slave population of the US is the only slave populationin modern times to grow as a result of natural increase.a. There is considerable controversy over whether the treatment of

slaves was worse in the US or in the Caribbean and Latin America.

b. Population growth by natural increase is a very strong argument that,as bad as it was, it was still worse in the Caribbean and LatinAmerica. I will come back to this in my hand out on slavery in LatinAmerica.

VIII. Slave Family LifeA. Slaves struggled with remarkable success to establish a "normal" family life in the

face of extreme difficulties.1. The fundamental problem is that slaves could not control their own destiny.

Husbands could be sold away from wives, children away from mothers, at thewhim of the owner.

B. US law did not recognize the legality of a slave marriage. Nevertheless, mostowners encouraged marriages that were recognized as binding within the slave


community. 1. The owner would have several motivations. A pecuniary motive is that the

birth of children would increase his investment.2. Another motivation was the happiness of the slaves. Family life eased the

burdens of slavery and hence produced better workers.3. Furthermore, a slave who had a family to lose would be less likely to rebel

against authority.4. It is my view that the chief factor which permitted the natural growth of the

slave population in the US as opposed to the Caribbean or Brazil is theallowance of slave families.

C. The ceremony might be marked by jumping over a broom stick. Ominously, slavepreachers usually used the formula "till death or distance do you part."

D. The forcible disruption of families was an ugly reality. The Union Army inMississippi and Louisiana in 1864-5 recorded thousands of slave marriages (ieliberated slaves sought re-marriage and registration to establish legal recognition):25% of the men registered reported having been forcibly separated from a wife.(Norton 295) Boyer reports that one historian estimated that a slave would witnessthe sale of eleven family members. (372-3)1. Family members were sold away sometimes out of sheer greed. The

Chesapeake and Upper South had a surplus of slaves, and the CottonKingdom had a shortage. The result was a thriving inter-state slave trade,represented by firms such as Franklin and Armfield.

2. Other reasons involved financial distress of the planter. This was notinfrequent. Many planters were not very good businessmen, and foundthemselves heavily in debt. The easiest way to liquidate debt was to sellslaves.

3. A third, and probably most common, was the death of the planter. Estateswould then be probated, and divided among heirs. Debt would be liquidated.a. Planters often noted with gratification the grief slaves often expressed

at a planter's funeral as evidence of their love and loyalty. I suspectthat fear at the changes that would occur had more to do with it.

E. The ideal was a nucleated family: father, mother and children. 1. Strong emphasis was placed on wider kinship circles: grandparents, cousins,

aunts, uncles, etc. Fictive kinships were created: designating friends as auntsor uncles.

2. This is both a cultural inheritance from West African family practices andalso a practical response to the precarious position of the nuclear family.

3. Their persecuted status fostered a sense of group solidarity and support.Individuals who sided with whites were ostracized.

F. There were shifts in sexual mores from the European norm. Young women did notface disapproval if they were pregnant or bore a child before marriage, but wereexpected to marry soon afterward. Infidelity was severely censured.


1. Women were especially vulnerable, however, to the sexual advances of themaster, his sons, or any other white male.a. Whites convinced themselves that slaves were naturally promiscuous

and sensual--an obviously highly convenient rationalization.b. Southern child rearing practices tended to emphasize that males must

demonstrate their manhood in various ways (hunting, riding,gambling, quarreling)--including sexual success. The combination ofthese mores and a captive female population could lead to only oneresult.

c. The census of 1860 reported 412,000 mulattoes (persons of mixedEuropean and African ancestry) in the United States, which isroughly 10% of the total. (Tindall 580)

d. Mary Boykin Chesnut bitterly ironic comment is often quoted in thiscontext: "Like the patriarchs of old, our men live all in one housewith their wives and concubines. And nay lady is ready to tell youwho is the father of all the mulatto children in everybody'shousehold but her own."

IX. Slave ReligionA. As one would expect, there were substantial elements of African folk religion in the

belief systems of the slaves. In some areas, these continued folk beliefs are still quitepowerful, such as the Gullah regions of South Carolina. The Uncle Remus tales,written by Joel Chandler Harris based on folk tales he heard as a boy, are derivedfrom African folk tales, and represent a living literary tradition. It is a subject morefor the cultural anthropologist than the historian.

B. Attitudes toward Christianity among the slaves was drastically revised by EugeneGenovese's great Roll Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made.1. The slave did not swallow the variation of Christianity the white preachers

provided. The churches in the South were the most inter-racial institution inthe region (all the denominations accepted slave membership; free and slaveworshiped in the same building) but the official position was to defendslavery.

2. Slave preachers became important figures in black society. Slaves wouldfrequently meet at night in secret for prayer meetings, and developeddistinctive styles of worship.

3. Their theology stressed a God of justice, and stressed both personal and groupsalvation.

4. Worship provided emotional support and bonding.C. The Negro spiritual provides a keen insight into their theology, and also provided at

times a code of communication. This is one of the areas in which Genovese excels.1. African American music, of course, is the origin of rag time, cake walk, jazz,

and rock and roll. As such, the line of development, beginning with thespirituals, can hardly be overemphasized as a factor in the development of


American (and world) popular culture. Elvis Presley, as the saying goes, wasa white man singing a black man's song.

2. Harriet Tubman used the spiritual "Go Down Moses" to communicatewhether a break would be made or not by using variations of the stanzas.Whites never paid much attention to the words and thus missed the messageentirely.

X. Slave ResistanceA. Rebellion was futile. It was also, in comparison with the Caribbean and Latin

America, rare. There are only three significant slave rebellions.1. Gabriel Prosser 1800 near Richmond , Virginia, organized a plot to seize

Richmond and slaughter whites. The plot was betrayed and broken up beforeit began. 25 slaves were executed.

2. Denmark Vesey in 1822 in Charleston led a plot to seize vessels in the harborand sail for Santo Domingo. Vesey had been a slave who won $1500 in alottery and purchased his own freedom (his owner sued for possession of thelottery winnings, and lost) He became a carpenter, purchased his ownfamily's freedom. Again, the plot was betrayed. 35 slaves were executed.

3. The Nat Turner Revolt in Virginia in 1831 is the only one that actually tookshape. Turner was a visionary slave preacher. His group began bymassacring whites; 55 whites were murdered. The militia struck hard, and17 slaves were executed. Numbers of other slaves were killed by the militiaon suspicion.

4. Reasons for few rebellions, none successfula. Effectiveness of positive means of control: better general treatment

than the Caribbean, especially presence of families. Most slave werenot as desperate as in Latin America.

b. Slaves were not a large majority anywhere. The whites were in anoverall majority, very much unlike the Caribbean.(1) I might also add that, at least so far in my reading, I am

unimpressed by the military qualities of white Caribbeanplanters. The white Southerner was a formidable fighter, asGeorge McClellan could attest.

(2) The response by whites even to a hint of a slave rebellion wasinstant, crushing, and often cruel. Local militias were notsqueamish about shedding blood and indifferent as to whethereveryone executed was actually guilty or not.

5. Flighta. As described above, flight was difficult, and not all that often

successful. Those with the best chance were in the Upper South,were urban slaves (especially artisans who sold their own time), andmulattoes.

b. It is not really known how successful the Underground Railroad was.


No accurate figures are available.c. More common was a runaway to visit family members. These were

sometimes temporary in duration.6. Passive Resistance

a. The most common resistance was passive. This involvedmalingering (trying to do as little work as they could get away with,or doing the work poorly) and theft. Both are featured prominentlyin the plantation records. Arson and poisoning also show up in therecords.(1) Theft from the corn crib or smokehouse was both for the

purpose of supplementing their diet and to purchase luxurieslike tobacco, molasses, or whiskey.

(2) Arson and poisoning were retaliatory acts againstmistreatment.

b. Eugene Genovese has developed the insight that the planter wasdependant upon the slaves just as the slaves were dependant uponhim. The relationship was unequal, but not one-sided. The slaves,recognizing that their range of action was circumscribed, used whatleverage they possessed to win concessions that would grant them asmuch autonomy as possibly. In a rural society, where communitiesare small and all relationships are intensely personal, this was verypossible.

XI. Non-Plantation Slave Life [in progress]XII. Free Blacks in the South [in progress]XIII. Leading Historians and Interpretations

A. Ulrich Bonnell Phillips1. Complete social system in which paternalism and capitalism went hand in

hand. Slavery is a system of educationB. Kenneth Stampp

1. A system of labor that rested upon the simple element of force. "Negroes are,after all, only white men with black skins."

C. Stanley Elkins1. Stressed the harshness of slavery and argued it had a devastating impact on

the black personality--the Sambo stereotype. Implicit in his work is the beliefthat slavery victimized blacks by stripping them of their African heritage,making them dependent on whites, and preventing them from forming acohesive family structure.

D. black nationalists1. Sambo stereotype undermines search for a usable past that emphasized black

pride and achievement in the face of white oppression.E. George Rawick

1. Slaves were not passive; blacks created a way of life that fused their African


heritage with the social forms and behavior of the SouthF. Fogel and Engerman

1. Plantations were highly efficient: slaves were hard-working individuals whointernalized capitalist values; slave-owners encouraged black families, didnot use indiscriminate force, did not abuse black women, and providedadequate food, clothing, shelter

G. Eugene Genovese1. "Paternalism" the key to understanding slave system, which linked slaves and

masters by mutual obligations and responsibilities, which slaves couldmanipulate. Slave religion emphasized.

H. Herbert Gutman1. Blacks developed a sophisticated family and kinship network that transmitted

Afro-American heritage from generation to generationI. Ira Berlin

1. Focuses on colonial slavery, and distinguishes 3 systems: Northernnonplantation; Chesapeake plantation; Carolina and Georgia plantation.Undermines generalizations.


Works Cited

Bailey, Thomas A. and Kennedy, David M. The American Pageant. 7th Ed. New York: D.C.Heath, 1983.

Boyer, Paul S.; Clark, Clifford Jr.; Kett, Joseph F.; Purvis, Thomas; Sitkoff, Harvard; Woloch,Nancy. The Enduring Vision: A History of the American People. New York: D.C. Heath.1990.

Current, Richard N., Williams, T. Harry, Freidel, Frank, and Brinkley, Alan. American History: ASurvey. 6th Ed. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1979.

Garraty, John A. The American Nation. 5th Ed. New York: Harper & Row, 1983.

Norton, Mary Beth, et al. A People and a Nation. 3rd Ed.

Scarborough, William K. "Slavery: The White Man's Burden." Perspectives and Irony in AmericanSlavery. Owens, Harry P. Ed. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi, 1976.

Stampp, Kenneth. The Peculiar Institution. New York: Random House, 1956.

Tindall, George Brown and Shi, David E. America: A Narrative History. 3rd Ed. New York:W.W. Norton, 1992.

Wyatt-Brown, Bertram. Southern Honor: Ethics and Behavior in the Old South. New York:Oxford University Press, 1982.


Works Consulted

This should not by any means be considered an exhaustive bibliography. This does not, for instance,touch the issue of slavery in the Caribbean and Latin America, nor, really, colonial North America.Comparative studies are likewise absent from this list, except for Tannenbaum.

Cash, W. J. The Mind of the South. New York: Random House, 1941.

Clinton, Catherine. Plantation Mistress: Woman's World in the Old South. New York: PantheonBooks, 1982.

Genovese, Eugene. Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made.

Parish, Peter. Slavery: History and Historians. New York: Harper & Row, 1989.

Phillips, Ulrich Bonnell. American Negro Slavery. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press,1918.

Tannenbaum, Frank. Slave and Citizen. Boston: Beacon Press, 1946.

Weinstein, Allen, Gatell, Frank Otto, and Sarasohn, David, Editors. American Negro Slavery: AReader. 3rd Ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1979.

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