APES SUMMER ASSIGNMENT - Weebly

APES SUMMER ASSIGNMENT

Dear AP Environmental Science Classes of 2015-2016,

Welcome to AP Environmental Science!!! Students who enroll in APES should be ready and willing to devote sufficient time, focus & energy to class assignments, including daily text readings, taking notes in and outside of class, preparing for frequent exams and quizzes, participating in laboratory and field experiments, writing reports, giving oral presentations, participating in class discussions and doing other various class assignments.

Some work over the summer is required in order to be better prepared in the fall. The purpose of these

tasks is to help prepare you for your studies for the upcoming school year. Please complete the following assignments this summer. There will be a test on the material covered in the summer assignment on the first day of school.

Part I. Chemistry Review Chemistry is a prerequisite for this class. Please write out the name of each molecule below. Write out the chemical formula and full name of each of these chemical abbreviations on a separate sheet of paper: CO2 P CO PO4 3 C6H12O6 S CH4 SO2

SO3 N2 H2SO4 Pb K As NO2 NaCl

NO3 NH3 NH4 + Rn Rn O2 Hg O3

Cl U H2 Fe C H2CO3 CaCO3 NO

H+ H2O HNO3 N2O SO4 2 H2S

Part. II. APES Math Review – You CANNOT use a calculator on any math in APES. This is a rule set by College Board. On your test you will be expected to show all work. APES Dimensional Analysis – SHOW ALL WORK 1 km = 1000 m 1 hour = 60 min 1 min = 60 s 1 m = 100 cm

1 km = 0.62 mi 1 in = 2.54 cm 1 mL = 1 cm3 1 gal = 3.8 L

1 yr = 365 days 1 wk = 7 days 1 day = 24 h 1 dozen = 12 “things”

1. Convert 2200 m to km

2. It took 1800 seconds to get to school today. How many hours is that?

3. If a car is driving 98 km/h in France, what is the speed in miles per hour?

4. Convert 3.04 m to inches.

5. How many minutes are in 4 weeks?

6. If, gasoline costs $0.293 per liter, how much would it cost to fill an 18 gallon tank?

Dimensional Analysis Word Problems – SHOW ALL WORK

7. Every three times I clean my bedroom, my mother makes me an apple pie. I cleaned my bedroom 9 times. How many apple pies does she owe me? (What? Your mother doesn't reward you for cleaning your bedroom? Aren't there child labor laws? To make up for that injustice, you may have this very easy extra credit problem.)

8. A chemistry teacher working at a golf camp during the summer found a liquid, which caused him to slice ball after ball into the water without disturbing him at all. He thought that this was an important liquid to identify so he set out to determine its density. He found that a sample of the liquid had a mass equal to 455 golf balls and occupied a volume of 620 water cups that he obtained at the 7th hole. Each golf ball massed 50 g and the water cups at the 7th hole of the golf course held 45 mL each. What is the density of the unknown liquid?

9. How much force, in g cm / s2 , is exerted by a golf ball described in problem 2 striking a tree while accelerating at 20 cm / s2 ? Show how you can solve this problem without knowing that F = m a. Explain your solution.

10. Because you never learned dimensional analysis, you have been working at a fast food restaurant for the past 35 years wrapping hamburgers. Each hour you wrap 184 hamburgers. you work 8 hours per day. you work 5 days a week. you get paid every 2 weeks with a salary of $840.34. How many hamburgers will you have to wrap to make your first one million dollars? [You are in a closed loop again. If you can solve the problem, you will have learned dimensional analysis and you can get a better job. But, since you won't be working there any longer, your solution will be wrong. If you can't solve the problem, you can continue working which means the problem is solvable, but you can't solve it. We have decided to overlook this impasse and allow you to solve the problem as if you had continued to wrap hamburgers.]

METRIC REVIEW – SHOW ALL WORK

11. 0.0450 m = _________ km

12. 5.38 x 10-15 cm = ___________ nm

13. 2.00 x 1024 L = ___________ kL

14. 7.22 kg = ____________ g

15. 8.827 mmol = ___________ mol

16. What is the average speed in miles per hour of a sprinter who runs the 100.00 meter dash in 9.92 seconds?

17. A 1.000 m strip of magnesium ribbon has a mass of 1.200 g. How many feet of ribbon are in an 8.00 oz roll?

18. A tank at Sea World is cleaned twice daily (entire volume is filtered every ½ day). The filter can clean 0.5000 L of water per second of operation. What is the volume of the tank in kL?

19. A pool of water is 20.0 ft long, 12.0 ft wide, and 250.0 cm deep. If it is completely filled with pure water, what is the mass in kg? the volume in cm3?

Scientific Notation:

Convert each number from scientific notation to standard notation:

20. 1.3136 X 100 25. 1.2363 X 101

21. 8.9512 X 10-5 26. 6.865 X 109

22. 6.773 X 10-3 27. 3.293 X 101

23. 8.4573 X 10 -6 28. 5.141 X 10-9

24. 1.1998 X 108 29. 9.4322 X 1012

Convert each number from standard notation to scientific notation:

30. 794,940 32. 0.038942

31. 0.14381 33. 00000000000006153

Calculate – SHOW ALL WORK

34. (2.53 X 103)(0.24 X 104) 35. (2.53 X 103) / (0.24 X 104) 36. (2.53 X 103) + (0.24 X 104) 37. (2.53 X 103) – (0.24 X 104)

Part III. Chapter 1 and 2 Review

You are two read chapters 1 and 2 from Withgott and Brennan: Environmental Science the Science behind the Stories. These two chapters are found at the end of this document. Answer the following questions after reading each chapter.

● Chapter 1 Questions:

1. What do renewable and nonrenewable resources have in common? How are they different? Identify two renewable and two nonrenewable resources.

2. How and why did the agricultural revolution affect human population size? How and why did the industrial revolution affect human population size? Explain what environmental impacts have resulted.

3. What is the tragedy of the commons? Explain how the concept might apply to an unregulated industry that is a source of water pollution.

4. What is environmental science? Name several disciplines involved in environmental science.

5. Describe the scientific method. What is its typical sequence of steps? Explain the difference between the independent variable and dependent variable.

6. Give examples of three major environmental problems in the world today along with their causes. How are these problems interrelated? Can you name a potential solution for each?

7. How can sustainable development be defined? What is meant by the triple bottom line? Why is it important to pursue sustainable development?

● Chapter 2 Questions:

1. What are the basic building blocks of matter? Provide several examples using chemicals common in Earth’s physical or biological systems.

2. Describe two major forms of energy and give examples of each.

3. State the first law of thermodynamics. Now compare it to the second law of thermodynamics.

4. Describe three major sources of energy that power Earth’s environmental systems.

5. What substances are produced by photosynthesis? By cellular respiration? By chemosynthesis?

6. Name the primary layers that make up our planet. Which portions does the lithosphere include?

7. Describe what occurs at a divergent plate boundary. What happens at a transform plate boundary. Compare and contrast the types of processes that can occur at a convergent plate boundary.

8. Name the three main types of rocks, and describe how each type may be converted to the others via the rock cycle.

9. What causes earthquakes? What is a tsunami, and what causes them? How does a Hawaiian volcano such as Kilauea differ from a volcano in the Cascades of North America such as Mount Saint Helens?

Part IV. APES: Biome Cards Assignment

Devise a way to study the information on each of the biomes listed below. This information should include biome locations, climate conditions, and unique environmental conditions specific to a given biome (ie permafrost in the tundra), types of flora and fauna present and adaptations required by the flora and fauna to survive in the given biome.

Biomes: Tundra Temperate Grasslands Taiga/Boreal Forest Tropical Grasslands/ Savannah Temperate Deciduous Forest Chaparral Temperate Rain Forest Deserts Tropical Rainforest Swamps & Marshes/Mangroves

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lecture Outlines

Chapter 1

Environment:

The Science behind the

Stories

4th Edition

Withgott/Brennan


This lecture will help you understand:

• The meaning of the term environment

• The field and interdisciplinary nature of environmental science

• The importance of natural resources and ecosystem services

• The scientific method and the process of science

• Some pressures on the global environment

• Concepts of sustainability and sustainable development


Our island: Earth

• Earth may seem enormous

- But it and its systems are finite and limited

- We can change the Earth and damage its systems

• Environment: all the living and non-living things

around us

- Animals, plants, forests, farms, etc.

– Continents, oceans, clouds, ice caps

– Structures, urban centers, living spaces

– Social relationships and institutions


Humans are part of nature

• Humans depend on a healthy, functioning planet

• The fundamental insight of environmental science:

- We are part of the natural world, but we can also change it

- Our interactions with its other parts matter a great deal

• We depend completely on the environment for survival

- Increased health, longer lives, wealth, mobility, leisure

- But natural systems have been degraded by pollution, soil erosion, species extinction, etc.

- Environmental changes threaten long-term health and survival


Environmental science

• Environmental science is the study of:

- How the natural world works

- How the environment affects humans and vice versa

• We need to understand our interactions with the environment

- To creatively solve environmental problems

• Global conditions are rapidly changing

- We are also rapidly gaining knowledge

- The opportunity to solve problems is still available


We rely on natural resources

• Natural resources = substances and energy sources needed

for survival

• Renewable natural resources: can be replenished

- Perpetually renewed: sunlight, wind, wave energy

- Renew themselves over short periods: timber, water, soil

- These can be destroyed

• Nonrenewable natural resources: unavailable after depletion

- Oil, coal, minerals


We rely on ecosystem services

• Natural resources are “goods” produced by nature

- Earth’s natural resources provide “services” to us

• Ecosystem services: arise from the normal functioning of natural services

- Purify air and water, cycle nutrients, regulate climate

- Pollinate plants, receive and recycle wastes

• We degrade ecosystem services

- By depleting resources, destroying habitat, generating pollution

- Increased human affluence has intensified degradation


Human population growth amplifies impacts

• There are over 6.9 billion

humans

• Agricultural revolution

- Crops, livestock

- Stable food supplies

• Industrial revolution

- Urbanized society powered

by fossil fuels (oil, gas, coal)

- Sanitation and medicines

- Pesticides and fertilizers


Resource consumption exerts pressures

• Exploitation and consumption of resources is also a problem

• Garret Hardin’s tragedy of the commons: unregulated

exploitation of public resources leads to depletion and damage

– Soil, air, water

• Resource users are motivated by self interest

– They increase use until the resource is gone

• Solutions to the tragedy of the commons?

– Private ownership?

– Voluntary organization to enforce responsible use?

– Governmental regulations?


Our “ecological footprint”

• Affluence increases consumption

• Ecological footprint: the

environmental impact of a person

or population

- The area of biologically

productive land + water

- To supply raw resources and

dispose/recycle waste

• People in rich nations have much

larger ecological footprints

If everyone consumed the amount of resources the U.S.

does, we would need 4.5 Earths!


Overshoot

We are using renewable resources 30% faster than they are being replenished

Overshoot: humans have surpassed the Earth’s capacity

to support us


Environmental science

• How will resource consumption and population growth

impact today’s global society?

• Civilizations have fallen after degrading the environment

- Easter Island, Greek and Roman empires

- Once lush regions (i.e. Iraq) are now barren deserts

• Civilizations succeed or fail according to how they

interact with the environment

- Along with how they respond to problems

• Environmental science can help build a better world


The nature of environmental science

Environment impacts Humans

• Its applied goal: solving environmental

problems

• Solutions are applications of science

• An interdisciplinary field

- Natural sciences: examines the

natural world

- Environmental science programs

- Social sciences: examines values and

human behavior

- Environmental studies programs


What is an “environmental problem”?

• Whether an environmental condition is seen as a problem

- Depends on the individual and situation

• Ex.: the pesticide DDT

- In malaria-infested Africa: welcome because it kills malaria-carrying mosquitoes

- In America: not welcome, due to health risks

People also differ in their awareness of problems,

depending on who they are, where they live, what they do


Environmental science is not environmentalism

• Environmental science

– Pursues knowledge about

the environment and our

interactions with it

– Scientists try to remain

objective and free from bias

• Environmentalism

– A social movement

– Tries to protect the natural world

from human-caused changes


The nature of science

• Science: a systematic process for learning about the

world and testing our understanding of it

- The accumulated body of knowledge arising from the

dynamic process of observation, testing, and discovery

• Civilization depends on science and technology

- Science tries to understand the world and steer a safe course

• Science is essential to sort fact from fiction

- Develop solutions to the problems we face

- It must be accessible and understandable to the public


Applications of science

Restoration of forest ecosystems altered

by human suppression of fire

Policy decisions and

management practices

Energy-efficient electric car

Developing technology


Science asks and answers questions

• It is an incremental approach to the truth

• Scientists do not simply accept conventional wisdom

- They judge ideas by the strength of their evidence

• Observational (descriptive) science: information is gathered about organisms, systems, processes, etc.

- Cannot be manipulated by experiments

- Phenomena are observed and measured

- Used in astronomy, paleontology, taxonomy, genomics

• Hypothesis-driven science: targeted research

- Experiments test hypotheses using the scientific method


The scientific method: a traditional approach

• It tests ideas

- Scientists in different fields

approach problems

differently

• Assumptions:

- The universe works according

to unchanging natural laws

- Events arise from causes, and

cause other events

- We use senses and reason to

understand natural processes


The scientific method

• A scientist makes an

observation and asks

questions of some phenomenon

• Hypothesis: a statement that

tries to explain the question

• The hypothesis generates

predictions: specific statements

that can be directly tested

• The test results either support

or reject the hypothesis


Experiments test the validity of a hypothesis

• Variable: a condition that can change

• Independent variable: can be manipulated

• Dependent variable: depends on the independent variable

• Controlled experiment: the effects of all variables are controlled

- Except the independent variable whose effect is being tested

• Control: an unmanipulated point of comparison

• Quantitative data: uses numbers

• Qualitative data: does not use numbers


Hypotheses are tested in different ways

Manipulative experiments yield

the strongest evidence

• Reveals causal relationships

• Lots of things can’t be

manipulated

Natural tests show real-world

complexity

• Results are not neat and clean

• Answers aren’t black and

white


The scientific process is part of a larger process

• It guards against faulty

research

– Includes peer review,

publication,

competition for

funding


Experimental design


Experimental results, 8 year study


Control group and experimental group


Theories and paradigm shifts

• Theory: a well-tested and widely accepted explanation

– Consolidates widely-supported, related hypotheses

• Paradigm shift – a dramatic upheaval in thought

– It changes the dominant viewpoint

• Wicked problems: are complex, with no simple solution

– I.e. environmental problems


Sustainability and the future of our world

• Sustainability: we must live within our planet’s means

- So the Earth and its resources can sustain us and all life for the future

• Sustainability involves conserving resources

- Developing long-term solutions

- Keeping fully functioning ecosystems

• Natural capital: Earth’s total wealth of resources

- We are withdrawing it faster that it’s being replenished

- We must live off Earth’s natural interest (replenishable resources), not its natural capital


Population & consumption

• Population growth amplifies all human impacts

- The growth rate has slowed, but we still add more than 200,000 people to the planet each day

• Resource consumption has risen faster than population

- Life has become more pleasant

- Rising consumption also amplifies our demands on the environment

• The 20 wealthiest nations have 55 times the income of the 20 poorest nations

- Three times the gap that existed 40 years ago


Ecological footprints are not all equal

• Not everyone benefits equally from rising affluence

• The ecological footprints of countries vary greatly

- The U.S. footprint is much greater than the world’s average

• In the U.S. the richest 1%

- Have 25% of all income


We face challenges in agriculture

• Technology expanded food production

– Leading to increased population and consumption

• It’s one of humanity’s greatest achievements, but it

comes at an enormous environmental cost

– Nearly half of the land surface is used for agriculture

– Chemical fertilizers and pesticides poison and change

natural systems

– Erosion, climate change and poor management

destroy millions of acres each year


Humans have changed the Earth’s landscape

Agriculture, urban sprawl, and other land uses have substantially affected most of the landscape of all nations


We face challenges in pollution

• Waste products and artificial chemicals

– Are used in farms, industries, and households

– Contaminate land, water and air

– Kill millions of people

• Humans are affecting the Earth’s climate

– Melting glaciers

– Rising sea levels

– Impacted wildlife, forests, health and crops

– Changed rainfall and increased storms

Since the Industrial Revolution, atmospheric carbon

dioxide concentrations have risen by 39%, to the

highest level in 800,000 years


We face challenges in biodiversity

• Biodiversity: the cumulative

number and diversity of

living things

• Human actions have driven

many species extinct

– Biodiversity is declining

dramatically

– We are setting in motion a

mass extinction event

Biodiversity loss may be our biggest problem; once

a species is extinct, it is gone forever


The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

• The most comprehensive scientific assessment of the

condition of the world’s ecological systems

• In 2005, 2000 of the world’s leading scientists from

100 nations reported :

– Humans have drastically altered ecosystems

– These changes have contributed to human well-

being and economic development, but at a cost

– Environmental degradation could get much worse

– Degradation can be reversed, but it requires work


Our energy choices will affect our future

• The lives we live today are due to fossil fuels

– Machines

– Chemicals

– Transportation

– Products

• Fossil fuels are a one-time bonanza

– Supplies will certainly decline

We have used up ½ of the world’s oil supplies; how

will we handle this imminent fossil fuel shortage?


Sustainable solutions abound

• Renewable energy and efficiency

• Organic agriculture

• Legislation and technology to reduce pollution

• Protect species and their habitat

• Recycling, decreasing waste

• Decrease greenhouse gas emissions

We must develop solutions that

protect both our quality of life

and the environment


Are things getting better or worse?

• Many people think environmental conditions are better

– Cornucopians: human ingenuity will solve any

problem

• Some think things are much worse

– Cassandras: predict doom and disaster

• How can you decide who is correct?

– Are the impacts limited to humans, or are other

organisms or systems involved?

– Are the proponents thinking in the long or short term?

– Are they considering all costs and benefits?


Sustainable development

• Involves environmental protection, economic well-being

and social equity

• It does not threaten economic and social needs

- Humans cannot exist without an intact, functioning

ecosystem

• Sustainable development: the use of resources to satisfy

current needs

- Without compromising future availability of resources


Sustainable development

• The poor suffer the most from environmental degradation

• Development: purposeful changes to improve the quality

of life

• Sustainable development: resources satisfy current

needs

- Without compromising future availability of resources

- It is not ever increasing economic gain

- It values and prioritizes environmental protection

- Human-made capital cannot substitute for natural

capital


Will we develop in a sustainable way?

• The triple bottom line:

sustainable solutions that meet

- Environmental protection

- Economic goals

- Social equity

• Humans must apply knowledge

from the sciences to

- Limit environmental impacts

- Maintain functioning

environmental systems

We must make an ethical commitment to current and

future generations


Conclusion

• Environmental science helps us understand our

relationship with the environment

- It informs our attempts to solve and prevent problems

• Identifying a problem is the first step in solving it

• Solving environmental problems can move us towards

health, longevity, peace and prosperity

- Environmental science can help us find balanced

solutions to environmental challenges


QUESTION: Review

The term “environment” does NOT include:

a) Animals and plants

b) Oceans and rivers

c) Structures and urban centers

d) All of the above are included in this term.


QUESTION: Review

Which of the following is correct about the term “environmental science”?

a) It is a social movement to protect the environment.

b) It studies how the natural world works.

c) It usually does not include human activities.

d) It is a declining science.


QUESTION: Review

If you add various amounts of fertilizer to plants in a laboratory, the fertilizer would be a ______ variable.

a) Correlative

b) Natural

c) Independent

d) Rare


QUESTION: Review

What is the definition of “sustainable development”?

a) Using resources to benefit future generations, even

if it means lower availability now.

b) Letting future generations figure out their own

problems.

c) Using resources to satisfy current needs without

compromising future availability.

d) Letting each country decide what is its best interest.


QUESTION: Weighing the Issues

What do you think of the Millennium Ecosystem

Assessment?

a) It is a well-supported report on the Earth’s ecological

systems.

b) It abuses science to draw special conclusions.

c) It suggests much more study is needed on

environmental problems.

d) It concludes that humans really aren’t causing many

environmental problems.



Do you think it is ethical for the United States to have

the largest ecological footprint in the world?

a) Yes, because we find the most new technologies

and resources.

b) Yes, because the footprint of the United States is

not really that large.

c) Definitely not; people in the United States need to

reduce their footprint.

d) It does not matter; it’s not that important.


QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data

According to this graph, what was responsible for

population growth over the last 500 years?

a) Fossil fuels

b) Increased food

c) The Black plague

d) Education



What happens if test

results can not reject a

hypothesis?

a) The scientist

formulates a new

hypothesis.

b) It shows the test failed.

c) The hypothesis was

supported

d) The predictions may

not have been correct.


Lecture Outlines

Chapter 2

Environment:The Science behind the Stories

4th Edition

Withgott/Brennan


This lecture will help you understand:

• The fundamentals of matter and chemistry

• Energy and energy flow• Photosynthesis, respiration,

and chemosynthesis• Plate tectonics and the rock

cycle• Geologic hazards and ways

to mitigate them


Central Case Study: Clean green energy beneath our feet

• Hot rocks deep underground turn water into steam

• The Geysers: geothermal power plants in North California produce electricity for millions

• Wastewater pumped into the ground replenished depleted steam

• Extracting steam may cause earthquakes


Chemistry

• Chemistry: studies types of matter - Along with how they interact

• Chemistry is crucial for understanding:- How gases contribute to global climate change- How pollutants cause acid rain- The effects on health of wildlife and people- Water pollution- Wastewater treatment- Atmospheric ozone depletion - Energy issues


Matter is conserved

• Matter = all material in the universe that has mass and occupies space- The law of conservation of matter: matter can be

transformed from one type of substance into others- But it cannot be destroyed or created

• Because the amount of matter stays constant- It is recycled in nutrient cycles and ecosystems- We cannot simply wish pollution and waste away


Atoms and elements

• Element = a fundamental type of matter - A chemical substance with a given set of properties

• Atoms = the smallest components that maintain an element’s chemical properties

• The atom’s nucleus (center) has protons (positively charged particles) and neutrons (particles lacking electric charge)- Atomic number = the number of protons

• Electrons = negatively charged particles surrounding the nucleus


The structure of an atom


Chemical building blocks

• Isotopes = atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons

• Isotopes of an element behave differently

• Mass number = the combined number of protons and neutrons

• Atoms that gain or lose electrons become electrically charged ions


Radioactive decay of isotopes

• Rocks and water are heated within the Earth• Radioactive isotopes decay until they become non-

radioactive stable isotopes- Emit high-energy radiation

• Half-life = the amount of time it takes for one-half of the atoms to give off radiation and decay- Different radioscopes have different half-lives ranging

from fractions of a second to billions of years- Uranium-235, used in commercial nuclear power, has

a half-life of 700 million years


Molecules and compounds

• Molecules = combinations of two or more atoms- Oxygen gas = O2

• Compound = a molecule composed of atoms of two or more different elements- Water = two hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen

atom: H2O- Carbon dioxide = one carbon atom with two oxygen

atoms: CO2


Atoms are held together with bonds

• Atoms bond because of an attraction for each other’s electrons

• In some bonds, atoms share electrons equally (e.g. H2)• Atoms may share electrons unequally

- The oxygen in water attracts hydrogen’s electrons • Ionic compounds (salts) = an electron is transferred

- Table salt (NaCl): the Na+ ion donated an electron to the Cl– ion

• Solutions = a mixture of substances with no chemical bonding (e.g. air, ocean water, petroleum, ozone)


Ionic bonds


Covalent bonds


Water’s chemistry facilitates life

• Hydrogen bond = oxygen from one water molecule attracts hydrogen atoms of another

• Water’s strong cohesion allows transport of nutrients and waste

• Water absorbs heat with only small changes in its temperature- Which stabilizes water,

organisms, and climate


Additional properties of water

• Less dense ice floats on liquid water- Insulating lakes and ponds in winter

• Water dissolves other molecules that are vital for life


Water structure


Hydrogen ions determine acidity

• The pH scale quantifies the acidity of solutions- Ranges from 0 to 14

• Acidic solutions: pH < 7 • Basic solutions: pH > 7 • Neutral solutions: pH = 7 • A substance with pH of 6

contains 10 times as many hydrogen ions as a substance with pH of 7


Matter is composed of compounds

• Organic compounds = carbon (and hydrogen) atoms joined by bonds and may include other elements - Such as nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorus

• Inorganic compounds = lack the carbon–carbon bond• Polymers = long chains of carbon molecules

- The building blocks of life


Carbon skeletons


Polysaccharides


Hydrocarbons

• Hydrocarbons = contain only carbon and hydrogen- The simplest hydrocarbon is methane (natural gas)- Hydrocarbons can be a gas, liquid, or solid

• Fossil fuels consist of hydrocarbons- Some can be harmful to wildlife


Macromolecules: building blocks of life

• Macromolecules = large-sized molecules• Three types of polymers are essential to life

- Proteins- Nucleic acids- Carbohydrates

• Lipids are not polymers, but are also essential- Fats, oil, waxes


Proteins: long chains of amino acids

• Produce tissues, provide structural support, store energy, transport material

• Animals use proteins to generate skin, hair, muscles, and tendons

• Some are components of the immune system or hormones

• They can serve as enzymes = molecules that promote chemical reactions


Nucleic acids direct protein production

• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) carry hereditary information of organisms

• Nucleic acids = long chains of nucleotides that contain sugar, phosphate,and a nitrogen base

• Genes = regions of DNA that code for proteins that perform certain functions


DNA and RNA structure


DNA double helix


Carbohydrates and lipids

• Carbohydrates = atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

• Sugars = simple carbohydrates of 3–7 carbons- Glucose = provides energy for cells

• Complex carbohydrates build structures and store energy- Starch = stores energy in plants- Animals eat plants to get starch- Chitin = forms shells of insects and crustaceans- Cellulose = in cell walls of plants


We create synthetic polymers

• Plastics = synthetic (human-made) polymers- Best known by their brand names (Nylon, Teflon,

Kevlar)• Many are derived from petroleum hydrocarbons• Valuable because they resist chemical breakdown• But they cause long-lasting waste and pollution

- Wildlife and health problems, water quality issues, harmful to marine animals, waste issues

• We must design less-polluting substances and increase recycling


Energy fundamentals

• Energy = the capacity to change the position, physical composition, or temperature of matter- Involved in physical, chemical, biological processes

• Potential energy = energy of position- Nuclear, mechanical energy

• Kinetic energy = energy of motion- Thermal, light, sound, electrical, subatomic

particles• Chemical energy = potential energy held in the bonds

between atoms


Potential vs. kinetic energy

Changing potential energy into kinetic energy produces motion, action, and heat


Energy is conserved but changes in quality

• First law of thermodynamics = energy can change forms, but cannot be created or destroyed

• Second law of thermodynamics = energy changes from a more-ordered to a less-ordered state- Entropy = an increasing state of disorder

• Inputting energy from outside the system increases order


People harness energy

• An energy source’s nature determines how easily energy can be harnessed- Fossil fuels provide lots of efficient energy - Sunlight is spread out and difficult to harness

• Energy conversion efficiency = the ratio of useful energy output to the amount needing to be input- Only 16% of the energy released is used to power

the automobile – the rest is lost as heat- 5% of a lightbulb’s energy is converted to light- Geothermal’s 7–15% efficiency is not bad


The sun’s energy powers life

• The sun releases radiation from the electromagnetic spectrum- Some is visible light

• Solar energy drives weather and climate, and powers plant growth


Using solar radiation to produce food

• Autotrophs (primary producers) = organisms that produce their own food- Green plants, algae,

cyanobacteria• Photosynthesis = the process of

turning the sun’s diffuse light energy into concentrated chemical energy- Sunlight converts carbon

dioxide and water into sugars


Photosynthesis produces food

• Chloroplasts = organelles where photosynthesis occurs- Contain chlorophyll = a light-

absorbing pigment- Light reaction = splits water

by using solar energy- Calvin cycle = links carbon

atoms from carbon dioxide into sugar (glucose)

6CO2 + 6H2O + the sun’s energy C6H12O6 (sugar) + 6O2


Light and pigments


Cellular respiration releases chemical energy

• It occurs in all living things• Organisms use chemical energy from photosynthesis• Heterotrophs = organisms that gain energy by

feeding on others- Animals, fungi, microbes- The energy is used for cellular tasks

C6H12O6 (sugar) + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy


Photosynthesis and cellular respiration


Geothermal energy powers Earth’s systems

• Other sources of energy include:- The moon’s gravitational pull- Geothermal heat powered by

radioactivity• Radioisotopes deep in the planet

heat inner Earth• Heated magma erupts from

volcanoes- Drives plate tectonics- Warm water can create geysers


Geothermal energy powers biological communities• Hydrothermal vents = host

communities that thrive in high temperature and pressure- Lack of sun prevents

photosynthesis • Chemosynthesis = uses

energy in hydrogen sulfideto produce sugar

6CO2 + 6H2O + 3H2S C6H12O6 (sugar) + 3H2SO4


Geology

• Physical processes at and below the Earth:- Shape the landscape- Lay the foundation for environmental systems and

life- Provide energy from fossil fuels and geothermal

sources• Geology = the study of Earth’s physical features,

processes, and history- A human lifetime is just the blink of an eye in

geologic time


The geologic record


Our plant consists of layers

• Core = solid iron in the center- Molten iron in the outer core

• Mantle = less dense, elastic rock- Aesthenosphere: very soft or

melted rock- Area of geothermal energy

• Crust = the thin, brittle, low-density layer of rock

• Lithosphere = the uppermost mantle and the crust


Plate tectonics

• Plate tectonics = movement of lithospheric plates- Heat from Earth’s inner layers drives convection

currents- Pushing the mantle’s soft rock up (as it warms) and

down (as it cools) like a conveyor belt- The lithosphere is dragged along with the mantle- Continents have combined, separated, and

recombined over millions of years• Pangaea = all landmasses were joined into 1

supercontinent 225 million years ago


The Earth has 15 major tectonic plates

Movement of these plates influences climate and evolution

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Earth’s crust is created and destroyed• Divergent plate boundaries

- Magma rises to the surface - Pushing plates apart- Creating new crust- Has volcanoes and

hydrothermal vents• Transform plate boundaries

- Two plates meet, slipping and grinding

- Friction spawns earthquakes along strike-slip faults


Tectonic plates can collide

• Convergent plate boundaries = where plates collide• Subduction = the oceanic plate slides beneath

continental crust (e.g. the Cascades, Andes Mountains)- Magma erupts through the surface in volcanoes

• Continental collision = two plates of continental crust collide- Built the Himalaya and Appalachian Mountains


Plate tectonics produces Earth’s landforms

• Tectonics builds mountains- Shapes the geography of oceans, islands, and

continents- Gives rise to earthquakes and volcanoes- Determines locations of geothermal energy sources

• Topography created by tectonics shapes climate- Altering patterns of rain, wind, currents, heating,

cooling- Thereby affecting the locations of biomes- Influencing where animals and plants live


The rock cycle

• Rock cycle = the heating, melting, cooling, breaking, and reassembling of rocks and minerals

• Rock = any solid aggregation of minerals• Mineral = any element or inorganic compound

- Has a crystal structure, specific chemical composition, and distinct physical properties

• Rocks help determine soil characteristics- Which influences the region’s plants community

• Helps us appreciate the formation and conservation of soils, minerals, fossil fuels, and other natural resources


Igneous rock

• Magma = molten, liquid rock • Lava = magma released from the

lithosphere • Igneous rock = forms when

magma cools• Intrusive igneous rock = magma

that cools slowly below Earth’s surface (e.g. granite)

• Extrusive igneous rock = magma ejected from a volcano (e.g. basalt)


Sedimentary rock

• Sediments = rock particles blown by wind or washed away by water

• Sedimentary rock = sediments are compacted or cemented (dissolved minerals crystallize and bind together)- Sandstone, limestone, shale

• Lithification = formation of rock (and fossils) through compaction and crystallization


Metamorphic rock

• Metamorphic rock = great heat or pressure on a rock changes its form

• High temperature reshapes crystals - Changing rock’s appearance

and physical properties• Marble = heated and

pressurized limestone • Slate = heated and pressurized

shale


Geologic and natural hazards

• Some consequences of plate tectonics are hazardous• Plate boundaries closely match the circum-Pacific belt

- An arc of subduction zones and fault systems- Has 90% of earthquakes and 50% of volcanoes


Earthquakes result from movement

• Earthquake = a release of energy (pressure) along plate boundaries and faults

• Can be caused by enhanced geothermal systems- Drill deep into rock, fracture it- Pump water in to heat, then

extract it• Can do tremendous damage to life

and propertyBuildings can bebuilt or retrofittedto decrease damage


Volcanoes• Volcano= molten rock, hot gas, or

ash erupts through Earth’s surface- Cooling and creating a

mountain• In rift valleys, ocean ridges,

subduction zones, or hotspots (holes in the crust)

• Lava can flow slowly or erupt suddenly

• Pyroclastic flow: fast-moving cloud of gas, ash, and rock - Buried Pompeii in A.D. 79


Volcanoes have environmental effects

• Ash blocks sunlight• Sulfur emissions lead to sulfuric acid

- Blocking radiation and cooling the atmosphere• Large eruptions can decrease temperatures worldwide

- Mount Tambora’s eruption caused the 1816 “year without a summer”

• Yellowstone National Park is an ancient supervolcano- Past eruptions were so massive they covered much

of North America in ash- The region is still geologically active


Landslides are a form of mass wasting• Landslide = a severe, sudden mass wasting

- Large amounts of rock or soil collapse and flow downhill

• Mass wasting = the downslope movement of soil and rock due to gravity- Rains saturate soils and trigger mudslides- Erodes unstable hillsides and damages property- Caused by humans when soil is loosened or exposed

• Lahars = extremely dangerous mudslides - Caused when volcanic eruptions melt snow- Huge volumes of mud race downhill


Mass wasting events can be colossal and deadly


Tsunamis

• Tsunami = huge volumes of water are displaced by:- Earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides

• Can travel thousands of miles across oceans• Coral reefs, coastal forests, and wetlands are damaged

- Saltwater contamination makes it hard to restore them

• Agencies and nations have increased efforts to give residents advance warning of approaching tsunamis- Preserving coral reefs and mangrove forests

decreases the wave energy of tsunamis


One dangerous tsunami

• On December 26, 2004 an earthquake off Sumatra triggered a massive tsunami that hit Indonesia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, India, and African countries- Killed 228,000 and displaced 1–2 million more


We can worsen impacts of natural hazards

• We face and affect other natural hazards: floods, coastal erosion, wildfire, tornadoes, and hurricanes

• Overpopulation: people must live in susceptible areas• We choose to live in attractive but vulnerable areas

(beaches, mountains)• Engineered landscapes increase frequency or severity of

hazards (damming rivers, suppressing fire, mining)• Changing climate through greenhouse gases changes

rainfall patterns, increases drought, fire, flooding, storms


We can mitigate impacts of natural hazards

• We can decrease impacts of hazards through technology, engineering, and policy- Informed by geology and ecology

• Building earthquake-resistant structures• Designing early warning systems (tsunamis, volcanoes)• Preserving reefs and shorelines (tsunamis, erosion)• Better forestry, agriculture, mining (mass wasting)• Regulations, building codes, insurance incentives

discourage developing in vulnerable areas• Mitigating climate change may reduce natural hazards


Conclusion

• Solving environmental problems depends on understanding matter, chemistry, and energy

• Physical processes of geology (e.g. plate tectonics, the rock cycle) are centrally important- They shape terrain and form the foundation of

living system• Geologic processes can threaten us• Matter, energy, and geology are tied to every

significant process in environmental science


QUESTION: Review

Which of the following parts of an atom has a positive charge?

a) Protonb) Neutronc) Electrond) Hydrogen


QUESTION: Review

Isotopes are:a) Atoms that share electronsb) The result of an atom transferring an electron to

another atomc) Atoms of the same element but with a different

number of neutrons d) Where an atom has lost a neutron


QUESTION: Review

Which of the following is NOT a reason water is essential for life?

a) Water can absorb large amounts of heat without changing temperature.

b) Waste and nutrients can be transported in water.c) Ice floats on liquid water, so fish survive cold

winters.d) Water usually cannot dissolve other molecules, so

it stays pure.


QUESTION: Review

Which of the following is NOT a carbohydrate?a) Chitinb) Starchesc) Glucosed) They are all carbohydrates


QUESTION: Review

According to the first law of thermodynamics:a) Energy cannot be created or destroyed b) Things tend to move toward a more disorderly statec) Matter can be created, but not energyd) Kinetic energy is the most efficient source of energy


QUESTION: Review

Which of the following organisms is a heterotroph?a) Roseb) Pine treec) Deep-sea tubewormd) None of these


QUESTION: Review

Which action created the Himalaya Mountains?a) Divergent plate boundariesb) Continental collisionc) Transform plate boundariesd) A strike-slip fault


QUESTION: Review

Which type of rock is formed through compaction or cementation?

a) Igneous rockb) Metamorphic rockc) Sedimentary rockd) Minerals


QUESTION: Review

Which natural disaster is defined by ‘a severe, sudden mass wasting’?

a) An earthquakeb) A volcanoc) A landslided) A tsunami



Should people be allowed to live in areas that have a high chance of a natural disaster (e.g. earthquake, tsunami)?

a) Yes, people should be allowed to live anywhere they want.

b) Yes, but they should be forced to carry heavy insurance.

c) No, some areas should not be lived in.



A molecule of the hydrocarbon naphthalene contains:

a) 10 carbon atoms and 8 hydrogen atoms

b) 8 carbon molecules and 10 hydrogen enzymes

c) Carbon and hydrogen DNA

d) Two different ions



Which is the most basic material?

a) Soft soapb) Rainwaterc) Acid raind) Lemon juice

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