AP Final Exam Review

AP Final Exam AP Final Exam ReviewReview

Harry Harlow ExperimentHarry Harlow Experiment The young monkeys for The young monkeys for

the most part ignored the most part ignored the wire mother, even if the wire mother, even if she she had food. had food.

They became strongly They became strongly attached to the cloth attached to the cloth mother, whether she mother, whether she gave food or not. gave food or not.

The touching mattered, The touching mattered, not the feeding. Harlow not the feeding. Harlow called this contact called this contact comfort or tactile touch.comfort or tactile touch.

Attachment goes Attachment goes beyond nourishmentbeyond nourishment

Social desirability biasSocial desirability bias

A term used in scientific research to A term used in scientific research to describe the tendency of respondents to describe the tendency of respondents to reply in a manner that will be viewed reply in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others. This will generally favorably by others. This will generally take the form of over reporting good take the form of over reporting good behavior or underreporting bad behavior. behavior or underreporting bad behavior.

Amygdala [ah-MIG-dah-la]Amygdala [ah-MIG-dah-la] two almond-shaped neural clusters that are two almond-shaped neural clusters that are

components of the limbic system and are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotionlinked to emotion

Damage may cause an inability to detect the Damage may cause an inability to detect the emotional significance of facial expressions, emotional significance of facial expressions, especially expression of fear.especially expression of fear.

The Lobes of the BrainThe Lobes of the Brain

The cerebrum is two hemispheres The cerebrum is two hemispheres connected by a band of fibers called the connected by a band of fibers called the corpus callosum corpus callosum

Divided into lobesDivided into lobes Occipital- visionOccipital- vision Parietal- senses from all over the bodyParietal- senses from all over the body Temporal- hearing, memory, speakingTemporal- hearing, memory, speaking Frontal- creative thinking, planningFrontal- creative thinking, planning

Homeostasis- Our body’s tendency to maintain a balanced state to survive

Belief perseverance-- clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Stereotype threat--fear that one's behavior will confirm an existing stereotype of a group with which one identifies

Permissive parenting– children are allowed to do what they wish; no clear rules are enforced

Dissociation--conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings

• Dissociative disorder--a disorder in which a person experiences alterations in memory, identity, or consciousness

• Dissociative amnesia--the inability to recall important personal events or information; usually associated with stressful events

• Dissociative fugue--a dissociative disorder in which a person suddenly and unexpectedly travels away from home or work and is unable to recall the past

• Dissociative identity disorder--a person exhibits two or more personality states, each with its own patterns of thinking and behaving

Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

To experience emotion one must: be physically

aroused cognitively

label the arousal

Cognitivelabel

“I’m afraid”

Fear(emotion)

Sight of oncoming

car(perception of

stimulus)

Poundingheart

(arousal)

Classical Conditioning Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

stimulus that unconditionally--automatically and naturally--triggers a response

Unconditioned Response (UCR) unlearned, naturally occurring response to the

unconditioned stimulus salivation when food is in the mouth

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) originally irrelevant stimulus that, after

association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

Conditioned Response (CR) learned response to a previously neutral

conditioned stimulus

Anxiety Disorders--

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder-- uncontrollable pattern of thoughts is called obsession; repeatedly performing irrational actions, which is called a compulsion.

Post-traumatic stress disorder-- victims of traumatic events experience the original event in the form of dreams or flashbacks

Phobias– intense, irrational fear of objects, places, or even people

Predictive validity: Predicts a known association between the construct you’re measuring and something else.

Construct Validity —The extent to which an assessment corresponds to other variables, as predicted by some rationale or theory

hypochondriasis, in which a person who is in good health becomes preoccupied with imaginary ailments.

Experimental Variables• Operational definition-- defines the exact manner in which

a variable is measured-- a statement of procedures (operations) used to define research variables

• To test a hypothesis, an experimenter defines the variables of the hypothesis:– Cause: Independent variable (IV) the one experimenters

change or alter so they can observe its effects• Marijuana: Plain cigarette versus cigarette containing 5 mg of

THC (the active ingredient in marijuana)

– Effect: Dependent variable (DV) one that changes in relation to the independent variable.

• Appetite: Grams of ice cream consumed in 1 hour

• The experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV to test the hypothesis

diathesis-stress model Theory that explains behavior as both a result of biological and

genetic factors ("nature"), and life experiences ("nurture").Diathesis is the heriditary predispostion to a disorder (from the Greek diathesis=arrangement, from dia=asunder+tithenai=to place).Stress is the environmental load put on the organism.

This theory is often used to describe the pronunciation of mental disorders, like schizophrenia, that are produced by the interaction of a vulnerable hereditary predisposition, with precipitating events in the environment. This theory was originally introduced as a means to explain some of the underlying causes of schizophrenia (Zubin & Spring, 1977).

In the diathesis-stress model, a genetic vulnerability or predisposition (diathesis) interacts with the environment and life events (stressors) to trigger behaviours or psychological disorders. The greater the underlying vulnerability, the less stress is needed to trigger the behaviour/disorder. Conversely, where there is a smaller genetic contribution greater life stress is required to produce the particular result. Even so, someone with a diathesis towards a disorder does not necessarily mean they will ever develop the disorder. Both the diathesis and the stress are required for this to happen.

Negative Reinforcement-- Occurs when an aversive stimulus is prevented or eliminated following a behavior. Makes behavior more likely to recur.

Debriefing- researcher explains the study to participants after they are finished. It can reduce problems associated with the use of deception in research.

Cognitive Approach

This perspective studies the way humans store and process information; eg: might assess locus of control

Study the way a person thinks – is it negative, irrational, faulty, distorted, self-defeating, unrealistic

Treatment– rational-emotive therapy, Beck’s cognitive therapy, changing ways of thinking

Behaviorism Behaviorism

People– Skinner, Pavlov, WatsonPeople– Skinner, Pavlov, Watson Operant conditioning, classical Operant conditioning, classical

conditioning, observational learning conditioning, observational learning Reinforcement, CR, CS, shaping, Reinforcement, CR, CS, shaping,

modelingmodeling Treatments– systematic desensitization, Treatments– systematic desensitization,

extinction, modeling, counter conditioning, extinction, modeling, counter conditioning, aversion therapy, biofeedback training, aversion therapy, biofeedback training, stress inoculationstress inoculation

Psychoanalytical Psychoanalytical

Freud, Jung, Adler, Freud, Jung, Adler, Repression, suppression, unconscious Repression, suppression, unconscious

motives, motives, Freud: Stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, Freud: Stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency,

& genital): personality structure-- id, ego, & genital): personality structure-- id, ego, superego– dreams= wish fulfillmentsuperego– dreams= wish fulfillment

Treatments– free association, dream Treatments– free association, dream analysis, hypnosis, insight therapy, analysis, hypnosis, insight therapy, interpretation of resistance/transference interpretation of resistance/transference

BiologicalBiological

Chemical & endocrine imbalances, genetic Chemical & endocrine imbalances, genetic & hereditary, brain damage,& hereditary, brain damage,

Drug treatments, exercise, nutritionDrug treatments, exercise, nutrition

The Humanistic Approach

Key features (2):

• People strive for ‘actualization’

• Rogers: the self-concept consists of a perceived self and an ideal self. Psychological health is achieved when the two match

• Maslow: people have a hierarchy of needs. The goal of psychological growth is to meet the need to achieve self-actualisation

Fundamental Attribution Error

tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

Typical Age Range

Description of Stage

Developmental Phenomena

Birth to nearly 2 years SensorimotorExperiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing)

•Object permanence•Stranger anxiety

About 2 to 6 years

About 7 to 11 years

About 12 through adulthood

PreoperationalRepresenting things with words and images but lacking logical reasoning

•Pretend play•Egocentrism•Language development

Concrete operationalThinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations

•Conservation •Mathematical transformations

Formal operationalAbstract reasoning

•Abstract logic•Potential for moral reasoning

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Drive-Reduction Theory the idea that a physiological need creates an

aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

Social Facilitation improved performance of tasks in the presence

of others occurs with simple or well-learned tasks but

not with tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered

Overjustification Effect the effect of promising a reward for

doing what one already likes to do the person may now see the

reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task

Personality disorders

• Dependent Personality disorder– lack self confidence, cannot express difference of opinion with others, lets others make decisions for them. They have no true identity

• Narcissistic personality disorder– inflated sense of their own importance and a deep need for admiration. They believe that they’re superior to others and have little regard for other’s feelings. But behind this mask of ultra-confidence lies a fragile self-esteem, vulnerable to the slightest criticism.

Brain Scans

CT (computed tomography) Scan a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and

combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body; also called CAT scan

PET (positron emission tomography) Scan a visual display of brain activity that detects where a

radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to

produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain

Electroencephalogram (EEG) -- an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface these waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

Measures of Variance

Provide an index of how spread out scores of a distribution are.

Range= subtract the lowest score from the highest score.

Standard Deviation is a measure of distance. The larger the standard deviation, the more spread out the scores are.

http://www.childrensmercy.org/stats/definitions/stdev.htm

Paul Ekman• Facial expressions of emotion are not culturally

determined, but universal across human cultures and thus biological in origin

• He developed the Facial Action Coding System (FACS) to taxonomize every human facial expression

• Display rules-- Socialization establishes when it is appropriate to display a given facial expression in a given society and when it is not, thus causing individuals to actively modulate the display of emotions and other states. Ekman and Friesen coined the term display rules to describe such socially engendered forces that alter facial expression.

Hypothetical thinking-- involves the imagination of possibilities and the exploration of their consequences by a process of mental simulation. In development, it is acquired last.

Personality Inventory a questionnaire (often with true-false or

agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors

used to assess selected personality traits

Hallucinations sensory experiences without

sensory stimulation

EX 2: Case Studies or Case Histories • In depth studies of one or a few people• Often used to investigate rare or unusual conditions• EX: Studying multiple births (triplets or

quadruplets, only so many)• Data is gathered using observation methods,

interviews, and psychological testing• This is the primary type of research that Freud used • Disadvantage = results may not generalize beyond

the people being studied or to other cultures

2. Correlational research Determines the relationship or correlation between two characteristics, events, or behaviorsImportant: Does not prove that one thing causes another, just proves there is a relationshipAlmost any two things or behaviors can be tested and proven related in some wayCorrelational Study may determine 3 things:• 1. There is no relationship (very rare) • 2. Positive relationship • As one behavior increases, the other increases

*None of these things causes the other, but they are related• 3. Negative relationship • As one behavior increases, the other decreases

*Again just because you are in sports doesn’t mean you don’t do drugs, but there is a relationship

Correlation Coefficient • Measures relationships, ranges from –1 to 1• -1 is a strong negative correlation• +1 indicates a strong positive correlation• EX: -.86 (strong negative relationship)• EX: .01 (very little relationship)• EX: .94 (very strong positive relationship)

3. Experimental research methods Goals is to find facts and causes of things, Variables (properties or characteristics of some event, object or person that can take on different

values or amounts• Experiments manipulate variables

– Qualitative or Quantitative?• 1. Qualitative variables (quality can be measured, but not with numbers)• 2. Quantitative variables (can measure quantity with numbers or stats)

A. Discrete or Continuous?Discrete variables (have possible scores of discrete points on a scale)

B.Continuous variables (have a continuous scale)C. Independent Variable

Variable that is manipulated by an experimenter Produces change in the experiment Variable that you use to make predictions

D. Dependent VariableVariable that you are trying to predictFactor observed and measured for a change, DV depends on changes in the independent variableUsually a test or measurement taken at the end of the experimentIn most experiments, there are 2 Groups:

• 1. Experimental group (exposed to the IV, group that played the violent game)• 2. Control group (not exposed to the IV, group that played the non violent game, used as a

comparison)

• Cross sectional research– studying groups of people at various age levels; advantage– takes less time.

• Longitudinal research– studying a group of people intermittently at varying times (every 5 years).

Pain Gate-Control Theory

theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain

“gate” opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers

“gate” closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain

Social Relations

Mirror image perceptions– how we see “them” they see “us”

Self-serving bias– a readiness to perceive oneself favorably. Accept credit for good deeds and shuck blame for bad deeds.

General Intelligence (g) factor that Spearman and others believed

underlies specific mental abilities measured by every task on an intelligence test

Factor Analysis statistical procedure that identifies clusters of

related items (called factors) on a test used to identify different dimensions of

performance that underlie one’s total score

Freud’s Elements of the Personality

ID• Unconscious energy• Basic drives• Sexual and aggressive instincts• Immediate gratification• Pleasure Principle• Instinctual/biological• Libidinal Energy

Elements of the Personality

EGO• Partially conscious • Cope with real world• Gratifies ID in realistic ways • Reality Principle• Logical/Rational• Struggles to reconcile ID &

Superego

Elements of the Personality

SUPEREGO• Partially conscious• Ideal behavior• Moral Principle• Conscience

Personality Structure

Freud’s idea of the mind’s structure

Id

Superego

Ego Conscious mind

Unconscious mind

Assessing the Unconscious

Rorschach Inkblot Test the most widely used projective test a set of 10 inkblots designed by

Hermann Rorschach seeks to identify people’s inner

feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots

Social Influence

Group Polarization enhancement of a group’s prevailing attitudes

through discussion within the group Can increase prejudice, internet new medium Good for self-help group situations

Groupthink mode of thinking that occurs when the desire

for harmony in a decision-making group overrides realistic appraisal of alternatives

Fed by overconfidence, conformity, self-justification, & group polarization.

• Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation coming from within, not from external rewards; based on personal enjoyment of a task

• Extrinsic Motivation: Based on obvious external rewards, obligations, or similar factors

Industrial and Organizational Psychologists – Industrial psychologists focus on people and work. Organizational psychologists study the behavior of people in organizations, such as business firms. Industrial psychology and organizational psychology are closely related. Psychologists in these fields are often trained in both areas.

• Industrial and organizational psychologists are employed by business firms to improve working conditions and increase worker output. They may assist in hiring, training, and promoting employees. They may also devise psychological tests for job applicants and conduct research into the factors that contribute to job satisfaction. In addition, some industrial and organizational psychologists have counseling skills and help employees who have problems on the job.

• Split Brain --a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them– Image projected to the left visual field of a

split-brained patient will be processed in the right visual cortex.

Operant Conditioning type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if

followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment

Shaping operant conditioning procedure in which

reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal

Law of Effect Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable

consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Memorizing lists

Primacy effect- Remembering the first four or five items in a list because you have more time to rehearse them

Recency effect- Recalling the last four or five items because they were still in short-term memory

When memorizing a list of words you are most likely to forget the words in the middle of the list.

Cones near center of retina fine detail and color vision daylight or well-lit conditions

Opponent-Process Theory- opposing retinal processes enable color vision

“ON” “OFF”red greengreen red blue yellow yellow blue black whitewhite black

Binocular cue retinal disparity

images from the two eyes differ closer the object, the larger the disparity

Gestalt--an organized whole tendency to integrate pieces of

information into meaningful wholes Grouping Principles

proximity--group nearby figures together similarity--group figures that are similar continuity--perceive continuous patterns closure--fill in gaps connectedness--spots, lines, and areas are

seen as unit when connected

Social Relations

Ingroup Bias tendency to favor one’s own group

Scapegoat Theory theory that prejudice provides an outlet for

anger by providing someone to blame Just-World Phenomenon/ Hypothesis

tendency of people to believe the world is just

people get what they deserve and deserve what they get

What Are Phonemes?

PHONEME - shortest segment of speech, which, if changed, would change the

meaning of a spoken word.

/bit/ /bait/ /beet/

Only 60 phonemes necessary to account Only 60 phonemes necessary to account for all worlds’ languages!for all worlds’ languages!English requires 48 phonemes.

Hawaiian requires only 11!

What Are Morphemes?

MorphemeMorpheme - the shortest unit of spoken or writtenlanguage that carries meaning

Some morphemes are phonemes(e.g., “I” and “a”)

Most are combos of 2 or more phonemes

Some morphemes are words(e.g., “bat”)

Attention: Process that transfers information from

sensory memory to short-term memorySelective Attention

focus of conscious awareness on particular stimulus (ex: cocktail party effect– ability to hear only one voice among many)

Kohlberg’s Moral Ladder

As moral development progresses, the focus of concern moves from the self to the wider social world.

Morality of abstractprinciples: to affirm

agreed-upon rights andpersonal ethical principles

Morality of law andsocial rules: to gainapproval or avoid

disapproval

Morality of self-interest:to avoid punishment

or gain concrete rewards

Postconventionallevel

Conventional level

Preconventional level

Carol Gilligan’s Critique of Kohlberg

Gilligan argues that Kohlberg’s rule-oriented conception of morality has an orientation toward justice, which she implies is due to stereotypical male thinking, whereas girls and women are more likely to approach moral dilemmas with a “care” orientation (Matthews, 1994).

Gilligan argues that moral reasoning of males is primarily based on rational abstract principles, whereas the moral reasoning of females is based on relationships and the social context.

She bases her criticism on two things. First, that Kohlberg only studied privileged white boys and men causing, in her opinion, a biased opinion against women. Second, in his stage theory of moral development, the male view of individual rights and rules was considered a higher stage than women’s point of view of development in terms of its caring effect on human relationships.

Memory Short-Term Memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly

limited in capacity look up a phone number, then quickly

dial before the information is forgotten

Long-Term Memory the relatively permanent and limitless

storehouse of the memory system

Milgram Experiment Milgram wanted to see if participants would

administer painful shocks to others merely because an authority figure had instructed them to do so. 60+% administered the highest level of shock

Researchers at Swarthmore College hypothesized that Milgram’s subjects could inflict pain because they served in military or were working class. They used young, liberal, highly educated subjects: 88% administered the highest level of shock.

Phenylketonuria (PKU) A rare condition in which a baby is born without the ability to properly

break down an amino acid (protein) called phenylalanine. Phenylketonuria (PKU) is inherited, which means it is passed down

through families. Both parents must pass on the defective gene in order for a baby to have the condition. This is called an autosomal recessive trait.

Phenylalanine plays a role in the body's production of melanin, the pigment responsible for skin and hair color. Therefore, infants with the condition often have lighter skin, hair, and eyes than brothers or sisters without the disease. Other symptoms may include: Delayed mental and social skills Head size significantly below normal Hyperactivity Jerking movements of the arms or legs Mental retardation Seizures Skin rashes Tremors Unusual positioning of hands

Defense Mechanisms Repression

the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness– cannot retrieve the memories

Projection defense mechanism by which people disguise

their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

Rationalization defense mechanism that offers self-justifying

explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one’s actions

Psychoactive Drugs

Opiates opium and its derivatives

(morphine and heroin) opiates depress neural

activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

Physiology of hunger p. 428-430

Body chemistry affects hunger: Glucose- when low we feel hungry insulin- hormone that diminishes

glucose by storing it as fatBrain monitors blood chemistry

(hypothalamus) Lateral hypothalamus– initiates hunger Ventromedial hypothalamus– depresses

hunger

Latent Learning learning that occurs, but is not apparent

until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Rats explored maze for 10 days. Then they were reinforced with food at the end of the maze. They quickly demonstrated their prior learning and did as well as rats who had always been reinforced.

Transduction conversion of one form of energy to

another in sensation, transforming of

stimulus energies into neural impulses

In vision, transduction happens in the retina.

Semantic vs. Episodic Memory

Episodic Chronological recollections of personal

experiences Like an autobiography

Semantic General knowledge, not tied to time when

learned Like an encyclopedia

Renee Baillargeon

Found 4 month old infants will look longer at a ball if it appears to roll through a solid barrier, demonstrating that babies seem to grasp basic physical laws intuitively.

This challenged Piaget’s theory of object permanence in Sensorimotor Stage (cognitive development)

Social Psychology

• Bystander effect– the tendency of a person to be less likely to give aid if other people are present.

• Social loafing– tendency for people to work less hard when sharing the workload with others than when they are working alone.

Classical Conditioning

Biological processes• Certain species are biologically

predisposed to learn a particular association if it enhances their survival.

Generalization tendency for stimuli similar to CS

to elicit similar responses EX: dog trained to salivate to bell

can be trained to salivate to light instead

Rational Emotive Therapy (cont)

The main purpose of REBT is to help clients to identify and replace absolutist philosophies, full of ‘musts’ and ‘shoulds’, with more flexible ones; part of this includes learning to accept that all human beings (including themselves) are fallible and learning to increase their tolerance for frustration while aiming to achieve their goals.

Three primary insights: While external events are of undoubted influence, psychological

disturbance is largely a matter of personal choice in the sense that individuals consciously or unconsciously select both rational beliefs and irrational beliefs at (B) when negative events occur at (A)

Past history and present life conditions strongly affect the person, but they do not, in and of themselves, disturb the person; rather, it is the individual’s responses which disturb them, and it is again a matter of individual choice whether to maintain the philosophies at (B) which cause disturbance.

Modifying the philosophies at (B) requires persistence and hard work, but it can be done.

Schizophrenia• Defined as a class of disorders marked by

delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and deterioration of adaptive behavior

• It primarily involves disturbances in perception and thought, with corresponding loss of the ability to function.

• Cognitive processes are severely disrupted.

• Positive symptoms: Hallucinations, disorganized and delusional talk, inappropriate laughter, tears, or rage.

• Negative symptoms: toneless voices, expressionless faces, mute

http://www.learner.org/vod/vod_window.html?pid=788

Sensation- Thresholds

Absolute Threshold minimum stimulation needed to detect

a particular stimulus 50% of the time Difference Threshold

minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time

just noticeable difference (JND)

Sleep Disorders

Insomnia persistent problems in falling or

staying asleep Narcolepsy

uncontrollable sleep attacks Sleep Apnea

temporary cessation of breathing momentary reawakenings

Sample- the small group out of the total population you wish to study.

Neuroleptics-- Antipsychotic medications used for Schizophrenia; linked to the side effect of tardive dyskensia.

Desirable test-retest correlation

Neural Communication

Neurotransmitter molecule

Receiving cellmembrane

Receptor site onreceiving neuron

Agonist mimicsneurotransmitter

Antagonistblocksneurotransmitter

Social Thinking

Cognitive Dissonance Theory we act to reduce the discomfort

(dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent

example- when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes

HeuristicsHeuristics Representativeness HeuristicRepresentativeness Heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypesprototypes

may lead one to ignore other relevant informationmay lead one to ignore other relevant information Availability HeuristicAvailability Heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memoryavailability in memory

if instances come readily to mind (perhaps if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such because of their vividness), we presume such events are commonevents are common

Example: airplane crashExample: airplane crash

Different dimensions or axes

Each axis reflects a different aspect of a patient’s case: Axis I- used to classify current symptoms Axis II- used to describe developmental and long-

standing personality disorders or maladaptive traits; specific developmental disorders for children such as mental retardation, autism, etc.

Axis III- used to describe physical disorders or general medical conditions that are relevant to treatment

Axis IV- current stress level (based on the past year) Axis V- adaptive functioning: 3 major areas– social

relations, occupational functioning, & use of leisure time

Emotion-Lie Detectors

Polygraph machine commonly used in attempts to

detect lies Not widely used in courtrooms because

the type of arousal measured is much the same for several emotions including lying– so it is not always reliable.

measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion perspiration cardiovascular breathing changes

Thinking

Algorithm methodical, logical rule or

procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

contrasts with the usually speedier–but also more error-prone--use of heuristics

The Cerebral Cortex Aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding)

Broca’s Area an area of the left frontal lobe that directs

the muscle movements involved in speech Wernicke’s Area

an area of the left temporal lobe involved in language comprehension and expression

Contemporary Research-- The Trait Perspective

Trait a characteristic pattern of behavior a disposition to feel and act, as assessed

by self-report inventories and peer reports Personality Inventory

a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors

used to assess selected personality traits

The Trait Perspective

Hans and Sybil Eysenck use two primary personality factors as axes for describing personality variation

UNSTABLE

STABLE

cholericmelancholic

phlegmatic sanguineINTROVERTED EXTRAVERTED

MoodyAnxious

RigidSober

PessimisticReserved

Unsociable

Quiet

SociableOutgoing

TalkativeResponsiveEasygoing

LivelyCarefree

Leadership

PassiveCareful

Thoughtful

Peaceful

ControlledReliable

Even-temperedCalm

TouchyRestlessAggressive

ExcitableChangeable

ImpulsiveOptimistic

Active

The Trait Perspective

Empirically Derived Test a test developed by testing a pool

of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups

such as the MMPI

The Trait PerspectiveThe “Big Five” Personality FactorsTrait Dimension DescriptionEmotional Stability Calm versus anxious

Secure versus insecure Self-satisfied versus self-pitying

Extraversion Sociable versus retiring Fun-loving versus sober Affectionate versus reserved

Openness Imaginative versus practical Preference for variety versus

preference for routine Independent versus conforming

Agreeableness Soft-hearted versus ruthless Trusting versus suspicious Helpful versus uncooperative

Conscientiousness Organized versus disorganized Careful versus careless Disciplined versus impulsive

Social ThinkingSocial Thinking

Cognitive Dissonance TheoryCognitive Dissonance Theory we act to reduce the discomfort we act to reduce the discomfort

(dissonance) we feel when two of our (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistentthoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent

example- when we become aware that example- when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudeschanging our attitudes

Social Relations

Mirror image perceptions– how we see “them” they see “us”

Self-serving bias– a readiness to perceive oneself favorably. Accept credit for good deeds and shuck blame for bad deeds.

Personality Disorders• Psychologists consider people with personality disorders

“abnormal” because they seem unable to establish meaningful relationships with other people, to assume social responsibilities, or to adapt to their social environment.

Erikson’s Stages of Psychological Development