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AP Comparative Politics and Government nation by nation study
guide
INTRODUCTION
I. Why Compare?
A. Comparative politics- study of political systems by looking
at similarities and differences of countries, institutions,
transitions, and policies
B. Comparison as a social science (use scientific method,
differences between soft and hard sciences?)
C. Understanding our own system better (strengths and
weaknesses) D. Understanding of a globalized world (current
events)
II. Why these Countries? A. Levels of Development B. Levels of
Democratization C. Levels of State Power D. Regions of the World E.
Different Government Systems
1. Parliamentary vs Presidential 2. Unitary vs Federal
III. What Will We Be Covering? A. Introduction (0-10%)
1. Organization of political science 2.
Globalization/interdependence 3. Nation/state/govt/regime 4.
Legitimacy, power, and authority 5. Political and economic
systems
B. Sovereignty, Authority, Power (15-25%) 1. Sovereignty w/in
and w/out 2. Supranational organizations 3. Political organization
4. Legitimacy of political systems 5. Economy role in govt and
political system 6. Culture and belief systems
C. Political Institutions (30-40%) 1. Formal and informal
structures 2. Relationships between and roles of parts of
government 3. Non-governmental institutions 4. Recruitment of
elites 5. Interest groups 6. Parties and elections
D. Citizens, Society, and the State (10-20%) 1. Cleavages 2.
Relationship b/w civil society and power
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3. Forms of political action and citizen participation 4.
Media
E. Political and Economic Change (10-20%) 1. Common trends of
political and economic change 2. Relationship b/w politics and the
economy in transition 3. Role of supranational organizations 4.
Role of globalization 5. Cultural changes and cleavages
F. Public Policy (5-15%) 1. Influences of policy decisions 2.
Scope and choice of policy 3. Implementation of policy
Comparative Method
I. Types of Analysis A. Variables
1. Dependent- the variable that is trying to be explained that
is influenced by other variables
2. Independent- the variable being examined as a possible cause
of changes in the dependent variable
3. Ex: Per capita GDP and level of democratization B. Causality
vs Correlation
1. Causality- relationship between two variables in which a
change in one produces a change in the other
2. Correlation- two variables seem connected but no evidence of
one causing the other 3. Ex: No two democracies have gone to
war
C. Normative vs Empirical Questions 1. Normative- value
statements, subjective, describe how things ought to be (ex:
Which political system is the best?) 2. Empirical- factual
statements, objective, describe how things are in fact (ex:
Which political system allows for more political participation?)
D. Quantitative, qualitative analysis
1. Quantitative analysis- large number of cases with data
analyzed statistically (ex: PPP or Gini Index)
2. Qualitative analysis- small number of cases analyzed in
detail by subjective analysis (role of oil on democratization)
II. Approaches A. Most-Similar Approach- look at similar cases
in order to limit the number of independent
variables 1. Narrows the possible variables for a specific
outcome 2. Ex: China and Soviet Union comparing economic
liberalization and political
authority in the 1980s B. Most-Different Approach- look at
different cases but with a similar dependent variable
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1. Allows control over many variables to narrow the best
explanation for the dependent variable
2. Ex: PRI in Mexico, United in Russia one party systems;
compare causes and possible futures
III. Theories A. Theory validity- when looking at case studies,
you have to test whether a theory can be
applied 1. Internal validity- claims of researcher about a
causal relationship are well founded
(ex: Constitution in US foundation of rule of law) 2. External
validity- the causal relationship can apply to cases not examined
in study
(ex: cannot be applied to UK b/c no Constitution) B.
Systems-Theory- helps explain causes and effects of policies w/in
political environment
1. Environment- domestic or international which provides input
to the state and is impacted by the states outputs
2. Input- citizens and groups who support and put demands on the
state 3. Decision making- process in which state makes a policy
based on the input 4. Output- policy affects either the domestic or
international environment (or both) 5. Feedback- public is impact
by output which impacts the input they provide to the
state C. Middle-Level Theory- no overarching theory to explain
all- focus on individual countries,
institutions, policies, and classes of events 1. Ex: understand
China in the context of history, culture; study similar processes
of
transitions b/w authoritarianism and democracy 2. Most popular
approach, the one we will most commonly use
Themes of Comparison
I. A World of States A. Nation- people bound together by common
culture, language, ethnicity, history, or religion
1. Nationalism- dedication to ones people above others 2.
Supranational- international, many nations joined together for a
common cause
B. State- institutions and individuals that exercise power in a
territory 1. Make, implement, enforce, and adjudicate policy 2.
Often the same as government in colloquialism 3. Ex: Louis XIV I am
the state, the Russian statism
C. Nation-state- territory in which the state and national
identity coincide 1. Developed as a concept after the
post-Reformation wars in Europe- identity in people
and ruler not in pope 2. Multinational state is a state with
many nationalities
D. Government- specific institutions authorized by founding
documents (constitution) that has the legitimacy to pass laws, do
day-to-day administrations, etc
1. British discuss voting with the government or getting a new
government, American version is administration
E. Regime- institutions and practices that endure from
government to government (often held together by Constitution)
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II. Governing the Economy A. Political Economy- how governments
affect the economy and how the economy affects the
government B. Measuring the Economy
1. GDP/GNP/GNI- Gross Domestic Product, Gross National Product
2. Per capita- per person, sometimes per household 3. Real-
adjusted for inflation 4. PPP- Purchasing Power Parity: adjusted
for living standards 5. Gini Index/Coefficient- compares the
distribution of income w/in a country
C. Level of Development-Human Development Index (longevity,
knowledge, and income) D. Types of economies
1. Capitalism- Laissez-Faire, Free Market, Adam Smith, no govt
in economy 2. Socialism- emphasize public ownership to redistribute
wealth 3. Command- govt controls all, plans economy, nationalizes
(takes over private
companies) all major industries; communism (Stalin 5 year plans)
4. Mixed- elements of capitalism and socialism
a. Social welfare capitalism- capitalism but govt gives benefits
and services b. Protectionism- govt protects domestic industries c.
Socialist market/State capitalism- free market but govt helps
promote
equality or guides industry to increase development E. Economic
Policies
1. Fiscal- concerning taxes, spending, budgets 2. Monetary-
currency, interest rates, inflation
III. Democratic Idea IV. Politics of Collective Identity
A. Collective Identity- who you are politically and on what
basis you share this with other groups of people
B. Sources of Collective Identity- ethnicity, race, gender, age,
social class, locality, religion, language
C. Social Cleavages- Profound social differences that have the
capacity to cause conflict 1. Cross-cutting cleavages- factors of
ones identity pull them in opposite directions
a. Ex: issue of gay marriage: upper class, religious, black,
old, urban 2. Coinciding/reinforcing/polarizing cleavages- factors
of ones identity come
together in the same direction a. Sometimes has a dangerous
reinforcing effect b. Ex: immigration in UK: white, rural, lower
class, middle aged
Political Systems
I. Political Spectrum A. Early Left vs Right (adopted during the
French Revolution)
1. Left: Liberals who favored civil liberties, republic,
secularism 2. Right: Conservatives who favored aristocracy,
royalty, tradition
B. Authority vs Liberty 1. Liberalism- free markets, personal
freedoms, free elections, limited government
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a. Neoliberalism- move away from government controlled
industries toward market control (American conservatism)
b. Libertarianism- severely restrict government involvement 2.
Authoritarianism- authority is centralized in the government
a. Communism- government controls all production through a
single party to create equality
b. Fascism- govt molds society for nationalistic and
militaristic goals c. Totalitarianism- govt controls all aspect of
life
C. Conservatism vs Progressivism 1. Conservatism- little
restriction on the economy, maintain political and economic
conditions (tradition) a. Reactionaries- extreme
conservatism
2. Progressive- change to create a more equal society usually
through socialism (change)
II. Democracy A. Elements of Democracy
1. Free fair elections 2. Political parties 3. Transparency and
accountability of executives 4. Civil and political rights 5.
Independent judiciary
B. 1st, 2nd, 3rd World Approach 1. Cold War- Free-market
Democracies, Communism, Non-aligned 2. Outdated but still shapes
how we look at the world
C. Overall Trends: toward democracy at least in form D. Key
aspects in defining a regime is where does authority and legitimacy
come from
III. Substantive Democracy A. Meets all five of the criteria,
functions as a democracy B. Liberal Democracy if govt has freedoms
C. Considered a Consolidated Democracy if it has matured and
unlikely to change from a
democracy 1. Usually high per capita GDP 2. Have both formal
rules (Constitution) and informal rules (belief in the
democratic
system) 3. Have strong civil society
a. All the organizations outside the government and commercial
arenas which provided public participation
b. Interest groups compete and influence policy c. Political
efficacy- people believe in the govt and believe that they can
influence it D. Examples in this class: UK and Mexico
IV. Procedural democracy A. Merely has the form of democracy
(Illiberal Democracy) B. Has elections but does not meet all five
conditions
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1. Elections are used to lend legitimacy to those who keep power
for themselves 2. Limits civil liberties, no rule of law,
independent judiciary, etc
C. Transitional (consolidating) democracy- moving from illiberal
to liberal D. Examples in this class: Russia and Nigeria
V. Non-Democracy A. Is authoritarian, does not follow any of
five conditions B. Authority and legitimacy comes from religion,
monarchy, military, or charisma of leader C. Low social capital,
citizens participate in limited ways D. Examples: China, Iran
Globalization
I. History of Globalization A. Explorers and Columbian Exchange-
united world through trade B. European Empires- globalized trade
through domination, competition C. Protectionism- (mercantilism)
goal is assist/protect economy through trade barriers and
subsidizing/supporting domestic industry D. Post WWII- world
divided but international competition E. Post 1991- fall of SU led
to economic liberalization- removal of trade barriers, limiting
government in economy, free trade II. Economic
Interdependence
A. Interdependence- every country relies on the others for
goods, resources, and services B. Multinational corporations- not
bound to one country, temporary agreements with host
countries, help lead to growth but limited accountability C.
Economic supranational organizations:
1. IMF, World Bank- assist development in and lend to developing
countries 2. World Trade Organization- regulates and promotes intl
trade 3. European Union- free trade and unifying economic policy,
some have common
currency 4. NAFTA- free trade in N. America
D. Developed and developing world 1. Developing world- low per
capita GDP, infrastructure, health, etc 2. Foreign Direct
Investment- foreign countries and corporations do economic
projects in developing countries 3. Dependency Theory- the idea
that developed countries take advantage of
developing countries for their resources to the detriment of
developing countries development
III. Benefits of Globalization A. Movement of capital more
profitable B. Increase wealth for all countries C. Cooperation and
competition D. Global division of labor E. Access to technology and
information F. Spread of democracy and rights G. Global
awareness
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IV. Costs of Globalization A. Erosion of state sovereignty B.
Economic Vulnerability C. Exploitation in poor countries (race to
bottom) D. Rapid industrialization/urbanization E. Globalization of
culture
EUROPEAN UNION HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT STRUCTURE
I. What is the European Union?
A. More than a supranational organization, less than a federal
state (28 member countries) B. Free trade, economic policy, law,
some common currency C. Goal to eventually create a common foreign
and defense policy
II. Milestones in History A. European Coal and Steel Community
(1951): Create single market, no tariffs or barriers
(France, W Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxemburg) B.
Treaty of Rome (1957): Created the European Economic Community to
eliminate all tariffs
and barriers, developed early version of four instructions C.
Widening- 73- Denmark, UK, Ireland; 81- Greece; 86 Spain, Portugal,
increased from 12 to
28 members, want to incorporate countries from other side of
Iron Curtain D. Deepening- EU more integrated with more power:
Maastricht Treaty (1991)- officially EU,
new authority and power, commitment to single currency and
central bank (Euro adopted 2002)
E. Treaty of Lisbon (2007)- After failed attempt to pass
Constitution through referendums, elements of Constitution adopted,
strengthened role of EU Parliament
III. EU Government Institutions A. European Council- meetings
every 6 months of executives of countries, chaired by full-time
President of the EU, sets policy agenda B. European Commission
(European Institution)- Initiates and implements public policy
legislation 1. Works roughly like a cabinet, oversees
directorate and civil servants (bureaucracy) 2. nominated from home
countries on a rotating basis
C. Council of Ministers (Supranational Institution)- Expert
approval of legislation 1. Represent state governments by meeting
of cabinet ministers (ex: all Agricultural or
Transportation ministers meet) 2. Serves somewhat like a
upper-house legislative body- has to approve legislation to
become law 3. Uses qualified majority voting-- countries
assigned a certain amount of votes based on
their population (kinda like the Electoral College) but most
decisions are made by consensus behind closed doors
D. European Parliament (Representative Institution) 1. Directly
elected (since 1979) by the people in member states (751
members)
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2. Weakest of the four institutions of the EU (stronger under
the Lisbon treaty) 3. Powers: Debate and vote on legislation
proposed by the Commission, Power over EU budget,
approves Commissioner nominees and can remove entire commission
E. European Court of Justice (Judicial Institution)
1. Supreme Court of the EU (One judge per state, most often meet
in smaller chambers, No votes or dissenting opinions published)
2. Authority: issues within EU government, EU regulations and
laws, suits against EU, states against each other, companies
3. Has established judicial review on EU matters- practices
constitutional law 4. Has overruled all EU institutions and member
states
IV.
Public Policy
I. Common Market Issues A. Freedom of goods, services, and
capital
1. Controls on imports and exports: EU sets rates (expensive
outside the bubble) 2. Regulates within (Mad Cow, environment) 3.
Mutual Recognition (Cassis de Dijon liqueur) 4. Common Agricultural
Policy: subsidies to farmers (about 1/3 of the EU budget)
B. Freedom of people (immigration, football player) II.
Transparency Issues
A. Only the Parliament elected, cannot introduce laws, little
power B. Commission, Council of Ministers, and Court of Justice
make decisions behind closed doors
III. Monetary Issues A. Benefits of Euro: attach to stronger
countries, ease between borders, cheap internal exports B.
Disadvantages: Weak paired with the strong, one central bank making
decisions C. Criteria to join Eurozone- Inflation under 1.5%,
deficit under 3% of GDP, govt debt no
more than 60% of GDP, stable exchange and interest rates D. Euro
Crisis
1. Causes: Sovereign debt crisis, Banks, Unemployment 2. Steps
Taken: Bailouts in Greece, Italy, Spain, Austerity- cutting
deficits by
decreasing spending, especially in public services 3. Possible
solutions: Kick out the weak countries, Create EU bonds with
more
integration, fiscal union, Dissolve the Euro IV. Euroscepticism
and the Future of the EU
A. Euroscepticism- criticism of European integration, see EU as
weakening the nation-state, undemocratic, and inefficient
B. Slow erosion of sovereignty C. An ever closer union? D.
Widening?
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UNITED KINGDOM HISTORY
I. Early History (1215-1750): Go quickly through this
A. Magna Carta- limits on kings power and basic rights, roots of
Parliament B. Henry VIII- started Anglican church, monarch still
head (no sep of church and state) C. Glorious Revolution- a
generation after English Civil war, transition to a
constitutional
monarchy, English Bill of rights, beginning of parliamentary
sovereignty D. Gradualism- the idea that UK has made a slow but
steady regime change from a monarchy
to a substantive parliamentary democracy, yet throughout the
process maintained high level of legitimacy
II. Politics of Empire and Industrial Revolution (1750-1914) A.
Capitalism- guiding principle of the economy, free trade with other
countries (25% of all
ships British) B. Legacies of Empire: Economic use of colonies-
import raw materials, market for man. goods,
roots of Commonwealth (meet about trade, development, and
cricket), multiculturalism C. Gradual Liberalism
1. Reform Act 1832- reformed and regulated electoral system,
extended franchise to smaller land owners
2. Voting Acts 1867-1885- extended suffrage to most men 3. Early
political parties
a. Conservative- represented the upper class b. Liberal- for
free trade, democratization c. Labour- represented the working
class
4. Decline in power of House of Lords III. World Wars and the
Birth of Collective Consensus (1914-1979)
A. Impact of WWI- universal male suffrage, females over 30 (full
female in 1928), Disruption of social framework- loss of a
generation, optimism
B. Interwar Depression- increase of poverty but also a beginning
of a recognition as a social problem
C. Impact of WWII- Decolonization, Wartime Socialism, Call for
social services D. Postwar Consensus
1. Labours Government (1945-1951) a. Keynesianism- deficit
spending to spur growth during a crisis b. Welfare state- socialist
programs (Beveridge Report 1942) Education, social
security, unemployment insurance, National Health Service c.
Nationalization- govt took over key industries d. Corporatism- a
few interest groups (unions, nationalized industries) would
work with the government to propose legislation 2. Conservative
Government (1951-64)
a. Collectivist Consensus- relative agreement between the two
major parties on the formation of a social democracy
b. Goal was for government to be more technocratic-
non-partisan, experts making decision-making
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IV. Thatcher Revolution (1979-1997) A. Stagflation crisis-
stagnant growth, high inflation B. Monetarism- emphasize the role
of the money supply through a central bank to tackle
inflation C. Economic Liberalization
1. Privatized nationalized industries 2. Rolled back the welfare
state 3. Overall not a huge decrease in spending but less
regulation
D. Pluralism- when a variety of interest groups vie for
influence (Thatcher dismantled the Labour Unions influence)
E. Success? F. Euroskepticism- renewed nationalism in a time of
increasing EU, Thatcher called it
Eurononsense G. Majors Premiership- continued but toned down
Thatcherism
V. Blairs New Labour (1997-2010) A. Blairs Third Way- continued
neoliberalism but with a greater emphasis on regulation and
egalitarianism B. Special Relationship- language and cultural
connection b/w UK and US that creates a close
alliance C. Good Friday Agreement- peace in Northern Ireland
1. Conflict over religion (Protestant vs Catholic) and
independence (Nationalist vs Unionist)
2. Agreement to end conflict by having both groups in a N. Irish
Assembly D. Devolution- give a degree of autonomy to nations of UK,
local government (examples of
Londons mayor, Scottish Parliament) E. Constitutional Reform
Movement- attempt to make UK more democratic, especially Lords
Reform, more independent judiciary F. War in Iraq- UK very close
partner to US, extremely damaging to Blair
VI. Camerons Coalition- had to create coalition with Liberal
Democrats in order to form a government
UNITED KINGDOM GOVERNMENT STRUCTURE
I. Prime Minister A. Head of
1. PM is considered the head of government- in charge of
government operations, bureaucracy
2. But not officially head of state- highest position,
represents the state internationally 3. The MP officially
represents the Crown in Her Majestys Government
B. Selection Process- Party will elect their leader, becomes PM
if party wins the house of commons
C. Powers
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1. Appointments- members of cabinet, senior ministers, 25% of
party in power get positions, even bishops in the Church of
England
2. Commander-in-chief of armed forces 3. Leader of house of
commons- shapes policy and acts 4. Chief executive of
bureaucracy
D. Question Time- Once a week, get to question PM and cabinet E.
Removal Process
1. Party loses power 2. Party chooses a new leader 3. Vote of no
confidence- if PM loses a vote of an important legislation or
specifically
called for, PM and government resign and a general election is
called 4. Could lose his own seat (does not happen)
II. Cabinet
A. Role and Powers 1. PM is first-among-equals- the cabinet
makes decisions by consensus 2. Leaders are in charge of their
respective departments 3. Members can be reshuffled between
departments or fired 4. Called Secretary of State for ___
B. Collective Responsibility- idea that the cabinet can disagree
in private but in public they support the governments policies
C. Chancellor of the Exchequer- finance minister, top cabinet
position (besides deputy PM) D. Loyal Opposition- the members of
the opposing party
1. Role: Question government, vote against things they disagree
with 2. Shadow Cabinet- the leader of the opposing party chooses
ministers who will head
cabinet departments when they eventually form a government E.
Hung Parliament no party wins a majority of seats so cannot form a
government, rare
occurrence, only two party parliamentary model F. Coalition-
parties ally together to form government, include leadership from
and need
approval of coalition parties III.Whitehall
A. Civil Service- members of the bureaucracy that serve the
government 1. Work for the crown not parliament- non-political and
not loyal to the government in
power 2. Have to take a test to enter, stay from govt to govt 3.
Goal to be technocratic in nature
B. Major Departments- Treasury, Foreign Office, Home Office,
Ministry of Defense C. Political Recruitment- usually done through
major universities but also business elites D. Quangos-
(Quasi-autonomous non-governmental organization)
1. Publically funded independent boards who have devolved
authority 2. include public, affected industries, civil service 3.
criticized for being independent, wasteful
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IV. House of Commons A. Role- makes laws, center of public
debate, government ministers come from this B. Law Making
Process
1. Government department comes up with a policy idea, consults
other departments, interest groups, etc
2. Queens Speech- objectives of government for the year 3. White
paper- Bill proposal submitted to Parliament 4. Introduced in
either house, read twice then submitted to committee 5. Committee
reports, third reading, then submitted to other house 6. Other
house must approve, can amend bill
C. Whips 1. Party enforces strict discipline 2. backbenchers
(MPs w/o government appointments) are given government
positions
on votes 3. Instructions to votes are given underlines based on
the severity of the votes 4. One line is give non-binding
instructions, two lines is attend and vote 5. Three-line whip-
strict instructions to vote, failure of a three-line whip is seen
as a
vote of no confidence D. Constitutionalism- parliamentary
sovereignty
V. House of Lords A. Role
1. Can start bills, amend, or stop bills 2. Members can be govt
ministers 3. Judicial role- used to have Law Lords for highest
appellate court
B. Change over time 1. hereditary peers- inherited positions,
most of history 2. most peers now are appointed with a few
hereditary and Lords Spiritual (bishops
and archbishops), life appointment 3. used to reject bills, now
can only delay 4. Used to be highest court
C. Proposed Changes 1. Goal is to make mostly elected but exact
details are not worked out 2. Likely will reduce the number from
750 to 450 3. Change life term to 15 years nonrenewable 4. 80%
elected, the rest appointed by PM
VI. Monarchy A. Officially has all power, everything done in
monarchs name B. Delivers Queens Speech (written by government) C.
Makes appointments (w/consultation PM) D. Meets with PM once a
week
VII. Courts A. Newly created Supreme Court as the final court of
appeal
1. Mostly created at the behest of EU 2. 12 Justices, Appointed
by independent board
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B. Judicial Review 1. Does not have because of parliamentary
sovereignty 2. But can overturn secondary legislation if conflicts
with primary legislation 3. But can overturn either primary or
secondary if law conflicts with European
Convention on Human Rights
UNITED KINGDOM SYSTEM AND ELECTIONS
I. UK Parliamentary vs US Presidential System
A. Executive 1. Prime Minister- chosen by party in power in
parliament, non-fixed term, first among
equals, 2. President
B. Cabinet and Civil Service 1. Cabinet members of Parliament-
chosen by PM, head departments until shuffled out 2. Cabinet
appointed by Pres approved by Congress
C. Legislature 1. Most important work is in House of Commons 2.
Important work in both, Senate more important
D. Upper House 1. House of Lords is unelected 2. Senate reflects
Federalism
E. Judicial 1. Recently created Supreme Court, does not have
judicial review, connected to House
of Lords 2. Very strong and independent, appointed by Prez,
confirmed by Senate
F. Separation of Powers 1. Fusion of executive and legislative
2. Checks and Balances
G. Unitary vs Federal 1. Unitary system but has voluntarily
devolved powers 2. Federal system with strong independent
states
H. Constitution 1. parliamentary sovereignty- parliament has
supreme authority all laws are by
definition constitutional, unwritten formally but some laws have
more constitutional power
2. written, slow change over time I. Parties
1. More important, plays larger role in Parliament, shuffles
candidates, more parties but two-party
2. Strictly two-party system but more focus on individuals II.
Political Parties
A. Two Party or Multiparty?
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1. Neither of the two have got a majority since 1935 2. Two
parties dominated until 1974 3. In 2010, Lib Dems got only 6% less
than Labour 4. BUT Lib Dems only go 58 of 650 seats 5. Three major
parties try to be catch-all parties- try to appeal to all
voters
B. Political socialization- process in which people develop
political beliefs, attitudes, and practices
1. usually through family but also class, region, etc 2. not
major divisions based on race, religion, or language
C. Conservative 1. Collective Identity: upper-class but now has
more cross-cutting appeal; business-
friendly; traditionalists; south 2. Major Positions:
center-right, pro-business, fiscal austerity, Euroskepticism,
military
D. Labour 1. Collective Identity: urban; unionized
working-class; lower class 2. Major Positions: left, emphasis on
social services, multiculturalism
E. Liberal Democrats 1. Collective Identity: more middle class;
cross-cutting appeal 2. Major Positions: center-left, liberalism,
fiscal responsibility, pro-European
F. Other 1. Scottish Nationalist- independence party 2. Welsh
Plaid Cymru- welsh nationalist 3. Northern Irish (three different
parties)- some for unification, some for devolved
powers 4. Green- environmental 5. UK Independence Party-
euroskeptic party
III.Elections A. Called by PM at least every 5 years B. Limited
media: ban on political advertisements C. Referendums: called by
PM, most have been about local devolution, national have been
Alternate Vote and EU D. Voting systems
1. Single-member districts a. First-past-the-post/plurality
voting- the party that wins the most votes wins
the seat b. Reduces power of third parties c. Representatives do
not have to live in district, party can choose to put people
in safe districts 2. Proportional Representation
a. People vote for a party, not an individual b. Parties get a
certain number of seats based on their portion of the popular
vote c. Lends itself to more multiparty system, more variety of
members of
parliament
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d. Often a minimum threshold so very minor parties will not get
seats 3. Other ideas
a. Mixed of single member districts and PR b. Alternate Vote:
Instant run-off- rank candidates and if first vote is does not
win plurality, vote goes to second place
UNITED KINGDOM SOCIETY AND PUBLIC POLICY
I. Society A. Multi-nationalism- England, Wales, Scotland, N.
Ireland
1. Devolution vs Federalism a. UK is Unitary but chooses to give
more power to other bodies, theoretically, it
could take them back b. Federal systems are built from the
states up and can reject the power of central
governments 2. Direction of Devolution
a. Process started under Blair, continued under Cameron b.
Problem of no fixed end point c. Ex: Scotland has vote on
independence 2014
3. Devolved powers a. National legislatures in N. Ireland,
Scotland, Wales: power to make laws, deal
with local issues b. Policing powers in N. Ireland- important
based on history of British military
policing c. City councils, mayors- increasing power of laws,
budgets, policy
B. Multiculturalism- different people groups 1. Immigrant
groups: major India, Pakistan, Bangladesh 2. New groups as a result
of EU policies: esp. E Europe 3. Immigration and intergration is a
top public policy concern
C. Religion- very secular society but religion is still
officially Anglican D. Social Cleavages
1. Class- still #1 cleavage 2. Ethnicity 3. North-South-
wealthier south, working class north 4. Nation
E. Supranational Organizations 1. Insularity- resistance to
integration with EU
a. European Convention on Human Rights- affirmed by UK in 1998,
has to follow EUs rights
b. Justice system- aligning criminal code, Supreme court c.
Euroskeptics support a referendum on EU involvement
2. Other Organizaitons a. UN- on the security council b.
IMF/World Bank- helps coordinate bailouts, economic policy
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c. WTO- free trade regulation d. NATO- military alliance e.
Commonwealth- organization of UK and former colonies, cricket and
loose trade
agreements II. Linkage Institutions
A. Def: a structure within society that links people to central
government/authority B. Parties C. Media
1. BBC- semi-autonomous tv and radio, paid through annual fees
2. News Corporation- Sky, Rupert Murdoch 3. Newspapers- serious and
tabloids
D. Interest groups 1. Used to be corporatist 2. Now is pluralist
3. Neo-corporatism- role of quangos
III.Major Public Policy Areas A. Political Culture
1. Highly developed with high political efficacy 2.
Post-materialism- voters have needs taken care of, vote based on
good of
country/world, right not just personal needs B. Environmental C.
Budget and Austerity D. Role of Welfare State E. Immigration Policy
F. Gay Rights
RUSSIA HISTORY (TILL 2000)
I. Pre-Soviet Era A. Poverty- serfdom did not end until 1861 B.
Westernization- historical tension, Peter the Great C. Patrimonial
State- state owns the land, dominates the economy, little
bourgeoisie class D. Russian Revolution
1. Inspired by Karl Marx- proletariat rise up against the
bourgeoisie in a violent revolution to create equality
2. Bolsheviks led by Lenin took advantage of chaos of WWI and
Feb Revolution to take over in a coup
3. Led to a long Civil War- tension with West, famine, death II.
Major Soviet Leaders
A. Lenin (1917-1924)- Bolshevik revolution, civil war B. Stalin
(1929-1953)- purges, 5 Year plans, industrialization, won WWII,
tried to establish
Soviet hegemony in East Europe
-
C. Khrushchev (1956-1964)- Destalinization, limited
liberalization D. Brezhnev (1965-1982)- Bureaucratic stability,
conservatism, tacit social contract, detente E. Gorbachev
(1985-1991)- glastnost, perestroika, collapse
III.Soviet Government A. Centralized one-party rule B.
Politburo- ruling elite group of people who choose a
general-secretary to rule C. Supreme Soviet- party legislature that
would affirm the decisions of the politburo D. Role of Military and
KGB- not just arm of the state but also played a role in the
governing of
the state E. Nomenklatura- category of approved administrators
in the Soviet bureaucracy, would rise
with help of a patron F. Civil society- limited to the family
and the state (through the party)
IV. Soviet Economy A. Centrally Planned Economy B.
Collectivization- forced central control (industrialization but
lots of famine and deaths) C. Fell behind Western world
V. Soviet Foreign Policy A. Goal to spread communism B.
Isolationism (Socialism in one Country) C. Soviet Republics (only
51% of SU was Russian) D. Satellite countries and Warsaw Pact E.
Military emphasis and arms race
VI. Gorbachev Era (1985-1991) A. Perestroika- restructuring
1. Decentralization and more marketization 2. Republics sought
political and economic autonomy
B. Glasnost- openness 1. Relaxation of censorship 2. More open
defiance of central government
C. Demokratizatsiia- democratization 1. Responsiveness within
and without party 2. Elected leaders of republics
D. Negotiated an end to Cold War E. Freed Eastern Europe from
Soviet control F. Collapse of SU (1991)
1. Yeltsin elected president 2. Failed coup detat by Soviet
hardliners 3. Russia and other republics become independent
VII. Yeltsin Era (1991-1999) A. Wanted Western democracy and
market economy B. Shock Therapy- radical transition to market
economy
1. Lifted price controls, encouraged small business,
privatization of state enterprises, foreign investment
2. Citizens given shares of state enterprises
-
3. Oligarchs- Favored businessmen gained large control 4. Rapid
inflation and falling productivity 5. Corruption and rise of
mafia
C. Russian Constitution (1993) 1. Parliament was obstructive so
disbanded, new election 2. Constitution based on French, dual
executive, strong president and weak parliament 3. Approved in a
referendum barely (not seen as very legitimate)
D. Free press, political opposition (mostly from Communist
party) E. 1999- Putin chosen as PM, Yeltsin resigned
RUSSIA
GOVERNMENT STRUCTURE
I. Russian Constitution A. Origins: French but with stronger
executive B. Mixed Presidential Parliamentary C. Federal System D.
Protects individual rights E. Legitimacy: at first little but
growing
II. Executive Branch A. Dual Executive B. President (located at
the Kremlin)
1. How elected: Popularly Elected every four six years, max two
consecutive terms 2. Role: Head of state: represents Russia
(internationally) 3. Powers
a. Appointments: PM, Administration, judges, State Council
(governors of regions)
b. Foreign Policy: intl figure for Russia c. Make decrees:
decisions with the power of law d. Legislative: Can submit laws and
veto e. Guidelines for domestic policy f. Other: call a state of
emergency, pardons, referenda, commander-in-chief
4. Impeachment: possible but with Duma, FC, SC, and CC C. Prime
Minister
1. How elected: appointed by President, approved by Duma 2.
Role
a. Head of government: runs day-to-day operations b. Becomes
president until elections if president dies or resigns
3. Powers a. Submits appointments to president b. Submits
proposals to president c. Runs government agencies, esp Domestic
Policy
D. Bureaucracy and Civil Service 1. Most of cabinet is under
-
2. Poorly trained, lack of professionalism- corruption 3.
Patron-client system- career ties between individuals as they rise
in bureaucratic or
political structures III.Legislative Branch: Federal Assembly
(located at White House)
A. Federal Council (upper house) 1. Represents the federal
subjects (2 from each)- used to also include governors 2. Senators
elected by regional legislatures for varying terms 3. Approves
decrees and judicial nominees from President 4. Works with Duma
with law-making
B. Duma (lower house) 1. Deputies are elected through
proportional representative every four years (year
before presidential) 2. PM: Consents appointment and can vote no
confidence 3. Primary lawmaking 4. Much more political than FC
IV. Judiciary A. Constitutional Court- has judicial review,
protects human rights, disputes in government B. Supreme Court-
highest court of appeals for criminal and civil C. Limited use of
juries or adversarial system D. Independent? In reality, no. Very
dependent on executive
V. Regional Government A. Asymmetric Federalism- various sub
national divisions with different privileges and rights
(republics, krais, okrugs, oblast, and two cities) B. Layers of
districts (8, central government administration) and federal
subjects (83 total) C. Each federal subject has elected legislature
and governor D. Regional Governors- appointed by president (and can
be removed) and approved by local
legislature, part of State Council RUSSIA
PUTIN ERA I. Regional Conflict
A. Chechnya 1. Sought independence 2. Putin fought brutal war
against separatists 3. Granted referendum but failed (use of media,
fraud)
B. Beslan School Massacre- 2005 Chechnyan rebels took over a
school, Putin sent in troops, 334 died (186 children)
C. Direct Election of Governors D. Changes to Duma Elections
1. Elimination of districts (used to be districts, PR):
Proportional representation only
2. Increase minimum threshold from 5 to 7 percent, national
parties only 3. Goal is to eliminate regional opposition to
rule
II. Economy A. Per capita GDP $17000 (developing), doubled since
2000
-
B. Oligarchs- control major industries (after loans-for-shares)
C. Heavy Emphasis on Natural resources
1. Petro politics- use of oil and natural gas in politics 2. #1
Exporter of Gas and Oil, also major coal, minerals 3. Gazprom- gas
company mostly owned by govt 4. major source of govt revenue
D. Centralization- govt holds or guides major industries E.
Socialism- major programs to help the poor F. Lack of
entrepreneurship- individualism not encouraged G. Corruption-
bribes up to 20% of Russias GDP H. Wants to join WTO- world trade
organization
1. Works to promote international trade, break down trade
barriers 2. Countries must reach criteria, obey rules to join
III.Foreign Policy A. Former Soviet Republics: want to maintain
sphere of influence
1. Georgia: invaded to protect a region 2. Ukraine: has
interfered to get a more friendly govt 3. Use of gas pipelines to
influence regional countries
B. Former Satellite Countries: block western influence 1.
Kosovo- block independence b/c foreign intervention 2. Poland-
threatened by missile defense system
C. Major Foreign Policy: sovereignty 1. UN Security Council-
Uses seat on to veto most interventions 2. Iran- blocked many
sanctions 3. Syria- is blocking military intervention
IV. Politics A. Parties: main cleavages are economic and
nationalistic
1. United Russia- party created by Putin a. Nationalistic,
law-and-order, centrist economically: catch-all party b. Has
dominated the presidency since 2000, controlled Duma since 2003
2. Communists a. Main opposition party, very big in 90s (won
plurality in Duma 1995, close in
1996) b. Halved in popularity since Putin
3. Liberal Democrats: nationalist, led by Zhirinovsky (racist),
not liberal at all 4. A Just Russia: socialist and nationalist, has
been loyal 5. Liberal: minor parties have made little progress
B. Elections 1. Presidential
a. Two-ballot system: if no one wins a majority in the first
round, there is a second round with two candidates (done in 1995
but not since)
b. 2000-2008: Putin won with strong majorities (53, 71) c.
2008-2012: Medvedev became President, Putin PM
-
d. 2012- : Constitution changed for 6 year terms, Putin
re-elected with United Russia keeping plurality
2. Duma a. Elections every 4 years (4 months before prez) b.
Proportional Representation nationwide with in a minimum threshold
of 7
percent c. Parties release lists of candidates, have to have
representatives from across
the country d. parties must be national (created thresholds of
50,000 members, 45 district
offices but recently lowered) 3. Local/Regional
a. Regional governors are loyal to the Kremlin b. Local and
regional elections are irregular
V. Society A. Ethnic Groups
1. Just over 50% ethnically Russian in USSR, now 80% 2. Other
groups include Tatars, Muslim groups in Caucuses 3. Mix from
republics: Ethnic groups from Soviet republics, 25 million Russians
in
Soviet republics B. Religious Groups
1. Orthodox: 41%, traditional religion in Russia, encouraged due
to nationalism but less than 10% attend church
2. Muslim: 7% mostly non-Russian ethnic groups 3. Nonreligious:
38% of population (roots in Soviet era)
C. Civil Society 1. Limited Civil Society- limited experience 2.
Opposition Groups
a. Divided: main leaders are oil billionaire, Chess champion,
and a blogger b. Since the rigging of 2011 election, massive
anti-Putin protests but no major
opposition parties 3. Nationalism
a. Nashi- youth movement, pro-Putin b. Insecure, intl events
stir up people
4. Media a. 2/3 National TV stations are owned by the govt, govt
also owns many
newspapers b. Independent press has money difficulties, many
have been directly targeted
by the Kremlin c. Internet: selective censorship
5. State corporatism- major industries are guided by the
government and in turn influence the govt (oligarchs)
D. Declining population CHINA
HISTORY
-
I. Foundations A. Geography- isolated, fertile land B. Dynastic
Cycle- change in dynasties as one becomes corrupted and the Mandate
of Heaven is
given to another C. Confucianism- emphasizes honor, respect,
tradition, and family; submission to rule of
authority D. Authoritarianism- strong central leadership backed
by a well trained bureaucracy for most of
their history E. Western influence- mostly isolationist until
the Opium War in 1846 when China was opened
into spheres of influence F. Revolution of 1911- nationalists
led by Sun Yat-sun established a republic, period of internal
conflict II. Chinese Civil War
A. Chiang Kai-shek became leader of the Nationalists, solidified
power, and attacked the Communists
B. The Long March- communists lead by Mao Zedong took the 6000
mile journey to the remote parts of China
C. Peasant support formed the base of Communist support D.
Japanese invasion (1937-1945)- Brutal occupation of China, Mao used
as opportunity to
rebuild strength E. Mao wins Civil War- proclaimed China
communist in 1949, Chiang Kai-shek retreated to
Taiwan III.Rule of Mao (1949-1976)
A. Established command economy 1. Complete nationalization with
industrialization and collectivization 2. Iron rice bowl- socialism
in which people are state-dependant from cradle-to-grave
B. Hundred Flowers Movement- a period of openness to participate
in public policy 1. Great criticism of government 2. Mao responded
by attacking rightist enemies of the revolution
C. Great Leap Forward- 1. goal to increase growth through rapid
communism 2. collectivization of agriculture was a huge failure: 30
million died of starvation
D. Cultural Revolution- to maintain political control, Mao
launched a political purge of enemies of revolution
1. Mass line- use of propaganda and mobilization to instill
ideological beliefs in the masses
2. Caused great chaos, many deaths 3. Lin Biau and the Gang of
Four (led by Maos wife) took power
E. Arrest of Gang of Four- Moderates led eventually by Deng
Xioping took power IV. Rule of Deng Xiaoping (1977-1997)
A. Socialist-market economy- Economic liberalization while
maintaining government direction and socialist policies
B. Privatization of some major industries: SOE from 80 to 17% of
economy but many firms have partial public ownership
-
C. Encouragement of free enterprise: 1. Household responsibility
system- households leased land and the profits were left
to them 2. village and town enterprises- market enterprises that
were publically owned by
local government D. Created special economic zones in areas like
Shanghai in order to encourage domestic trade E. Open door policy-
open to foreign trade F. High economic growth, increase in standard
of living G. Freer expression but not democracy H. Tiananmen Square
Massacre I. Deng slowly retired but maintained strong influence
V. Rule of Technocrats (1992- present) A. Deng set in motion the
foreseeable future of the Chinese government and economy B.
Successors were chosen by their technical skill, not ideology C.
1997- Hong Kong returned to China: one China, two systems: allowed
more freedom than
the rest of China D. Rule of Jiang Zemin- background as an
engineer E. Rule of Hu Jintao- smooth transition, Scientific
Development F. Rule of Xi Jinping- continuation of technocratic
rule, party divided between Hu and Jiang
supporters CHINA
GOVERNMENT STRUCTURE I. Chinese Constitution (passed 1982)
A. Official Ideology 1. Leninism-Marxism, socialism, Maoism 2.
Changes have been made to include Deng Xiaoping Theory 3. Each new
leader contributes his own addition to ideology including Jiangs
Three Represents or Hus Harmonious Society
B. Centralized Party Authority 1. One party system that
dominates all aspects of government 2. Parallel hierarchies- both
party and government
C. Democracy- gives legitimacy to by involvement of masses,
voting of legislative bodies, voting in highest levels (CCP is the
organ of democracy)
II. Chinese Communist Party A. Party Membership
1. 80 million members 2. path to political advancement, make
connections 3. Now, capitalists can be members
B. Local Peoples Congress- vast leveled network of party
organizations at the workplaces, armies, villages, cities,
provinces, etc
C. National Party Congress- over 2000 members, meet every 5
years, rubber stamp decisions and leaders
D. Central Committee- 200-300 members, elected by NPC to direct
when NPC is not in session, mostly a meeting for party elites
E. Politburo-
-
1. Top leadership and decision-making in party (24+1 members) 2.
Democratic centralism- freedom of debate and then majority vote but
then all members uphold decisions
F. Politburo Standing Committee- the most important policy
making policy in China 1. 7 members (used to be 9) 2. General
Secretary- first among equals, also head of the Politburo and
Secretariat (as well as president and head of military), two
five-year terms
G. Secretariat- does day-to-day operations of the Politburo and
coordinates party organization H. Unofficial leadership
1. Elder statesman (retired leaders) still keep considerable
influence (examples of Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintau) 2. Guanxi-
networks of relationships and connections 3. Patron-client system
guides promotion
III. Government of the Peoples Republic of China A.
Executive
1. President- head of state, mostly a ceremonial position in
meeting foreign dignitaries but same person as General Secretary 2.
Prime Minister- (premier) head of government, runs bureaucracy,
also member of the standing committee 3. State Council- along with
vice premiers, serves like a cabinet to lead government departments
BUT do not have authority in policy making (see politburo) 4.
Bureaucracy
a. Massive hierarchy of ministries, commissions, small groups,
etc. b. Cadres- people in authority who are paid by the government
(40 million),
chosen by civil service exams, highly competitive c.
Nomenklatura system for the party to promote approved people in
the
cadre-list to higher levels B. Legislative
1. National Peoples Congress a. Unicameral body elected to 5
year terms (nearly 3000 deputies), about
are party members b. Elected through a tier system of local and
regional assembly system who
represent their regions c. Though has great power to make
policy, choose premier, etc, it is a rubber-
stamp institution 2. Local and Regional Legislatures- make
decisions based on the governor, party, and national
institutions
C. Judicial 1. Four tiers of courts (nationwide, provincial,
city, county/town level) 2. Does not have judicial review 3. No
adversarial system 4. Rule by law not rule of law- 99% conviction
rate, controlled by the party 5. Harsh punishments- long prison
sentences and lots of death penalty
D. Military
-
1. Peoples Liberation Army- has a role in decision-making, seats
in NPC, as well as in the Central Committee and Politburo 2.
Central Military Commission- both a party and government
institution that controls military 3. Chairman traditionally same
person as General Secretary of the party
IV. Regional and Local Government A. Unitary State- Beijing
tightly controls governments of the provinces B. Governors are
appointed over the provinces, levels of party and government
leadership in
provinces, cities, countries, villages C. Decentralization-
process since the 90s as the PRC moves away from central planning
D. Village Elections- direct election of leaders of self-governing
villages (but still guidance of
party and higher levels of leadership)
CHINA SOCIETY AND PUBLIC POLICY
I. Societal Cleavages A. Ethnic
1. Han- Most prominent people group (90% of population),
concentrated on east coast 2. Tibet
a. History of autonomy until annexed by PRC b. Dalai Lama runs
an government in exile while Tibet is an autonomous
region c. Party keeps tight control with threats of protest
3. Uighurs- Muslim Turkish group in Xinjiang that are known for
rebellion 4. Taiwan-
a. status is province in rebellion with hopes of reconciliation
b. trade with mainland, keep connections
5. Other groups: Mongolian, Manchu, etc 6. Languages- Mandarin
is the primary language but with many dialects, Cantonese,
each minority group has own language B. Religious
1. Atheism- the most prominent and the official belief of the
CCP 2. Taoism and folk religions- hard to measure but second
largest 3. Buddhism-
a. About 20% esp in Tibet b. Fulan Gong- meditation organization
that was suppressed by the CCP in
1999 4. Islam- Prominent among minorities like Uighurs or Hui,
1-2% 5. Christianity- there are some official and regulated
churches but also a large and
growing house church movement (40-80m) C. Gender
1. Role of women under Mao- more prominent, helped create
relative equality
-
2. Current role of women- new laws and efforts to prevent gender
discrimination but do not have full equality in society
D. Urban-Rural 1. Urban- growing very rapidly (recent surpassed
rural), growing income gap compared
to rural areas 2. Rural
a. During Maos collectivization, rural life was highly
regimented b. Danwei- work units, supervised jobs, travel,
marriage, and having children
(implemented one-child only)- system has been slowly dismantled
c. Hokou system- household registration system (marriage, family,
location)
prevented easy migration d. Reforms have been made (especially
with joining the WTO) have freed
migration to urban and industrial centers but without the
benefits of official residents
II. Public Policy A. One-Child Policy
1. History- implemented by Deng as a way to alleviate poverty 2.
Implementation- reinforced by danwei, fee if multiple children,
forced abortions if
pregnancy discovered 3. Exemptions- those who pay fees, apply
for exemptions, minorities or special regions,
sometimes first child disabled, farmers 4. Consequences- reduced
birthrate, male-dominance, aging population, human right
violations (sterilizations) B. Media
1. State owned- almost all and the others are heavily regulated
but have become more competitive and investigative
2. Transparency- government and party are carefully covered but
little analysis of differences, inner-workings, or mistakes
3. Internet (now 400 million users) a. One of the most regulated
and censored in the world (example of searches of
Wen Jibao, Tiananmen, Jade) b. Weibo- Chinese version of
twitter, regulated/utilized by government, mild
criticism, connection to corruption C. Interest groups and Civil
Society
1. NGOs- non-governmental organizations (national and
international), work with govt to work on improving China,
regulated by govt, limited civil society
2. State Owned Enterprises- large businesses owned by the govt,
still have major role in the economy, shapes the direction of the
economy, very inefficient compared to private companies
3. State corporatism- close relationship b/w major industries
and govt in making economic policy
4. Protest- increasingly used to get voice heard (lack of
efficacy) 5. Mass Line- Governments solution to mobilize and engage
the citizenry
D. Environmental
-
1. Problems: air and water pollution, urban sprawl, lack of
regulations, huge growth (automobiles), rapid industrialization
2. Policies: shutting down/moving factories, better regulations,
reduced vehicles, green technology
E. Corruption 1. Role of guanxi- close personal connections more
important than other loyalties 2. Examples- Local officials, state
industries, privileges, bureaucrats 3. Elites getting wealthy
through personal and family connections to major industries 4.
Countermeasures- harsh punishment, use of media to expose, new
government
initiatives F. Judicial
1. Causes of Judicial Reform: codified law with liberalization,
international trade norms, internal pressure
2. Changes: Creating new courts, hiring new lawyers, more
qualifications for judges, more independence (from corruption not
party)
3. Punishment: can hold up to three years without trial, death
penalty for several crimes, reeducation labor camps (but
changing)
G. Foreign Policy 1. Relationship with neighbors- aggressive
with protecting/controlling territory 2. WTO- membership in 2002,
has adjusted to intl norms 3. FDI- encourage it and use to expand
influence in Central Asia and Africa 4. Leadership- member of
security council but protects sovereignty, not interested in
hegemony (peaceful rise)
MEXICO HISTORY
I. Conquest and colonies A. Aztecs and Cortez- conquered easily
because of disease B. Colonial System- ruled by Spanish, used for
raw materials and plantations, top down
approach C. Class system based on race: whites, mestizos (60%),
Amerindian (30%),
II. Challenges of Independence A. War of Independence
(1810-1821): Father Hidalgo, Napoleon, mixed factions B. Uneasy
Republic- conflict between liberals and conservatives: type and
role of govt, role of
church, economy, 36 presidents in 22 years C. Texas Independence
(1835-36) and Mexican-American War (1846-1848)- America gets
half
Mexico D. Mexico continued struggles b/w liberals and
conservatives
III. Porfiriato A. Porfirio Diaz- retired general who ruled from
1876 to 1911 B. Centralized political power and ended chaos:
dictatorship but elected 7 times C. Began industrialization through
free trade and foreign investment D. Small elite who enriched
themselves: income inequality increased dramatically
IV. Mexican Revolution (1910-1924)
-
A. Madero, an elite, ran on the campaign of no reelection B.
Diaz retired, central power collapsed, Madero was elected then
assassinated two years later C. Chaos at the top encouraged
peasants to revolt- joined local leaders to take down
landowners: chaos resulted in a million deaths D. Warlords like
Zapata and Pancho Villa even took on the Mexican and American
armies E. Mexican Constitution of 1917- liberal constitution, still
used, created federal state, gave
rights to poor, limited church F. Effects: Elites and church
limited, nationalism against foreign investors, new strong
central
govt (Dependency Theory) V. Rise of the PRI
A. Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) was formed in 1929
among competing elites B. Sexenio- president limited to one 6 year
term to prevent dictatorship, most early presidents
were generals (Caudillos) who would then pick their successors
(patron-clientalism) C. Perfect Dictatorship- Authoritarian but
didnt infringe greatly on peoples rights, had clear
line of succession, gave great economic growth D. Cardenas
(1934-1940)
1. Redistributed land in the form of ejidos- collective farms
that would be leased to individuals
2. Nationalized industry, esp. oil industry 3. Built a
corporatist system based on the military, peasants, workers, and
middle
class VI. Mexican Miracle (1940-1970)
A. Stability and government policy was able to achieve high
growth and low inflation for three decades
B. PRI kept a firm grip on society through its system of
clientalism and promising economic growth
C. Import substitution industrialization- develop national
industry through protectionism (high tariffs to block foreign
goods), state guidance, subsidies, and public investment
D. Rapid urbanization and industrialism VII. Economic
Changes
A. Economic Crisis 1. Growth slowed down and the government
became reliant on oil revenues to keep
up spending 2. Oil prices crashed in late 1970s (at the time,
75% of Mexicos exports) 3. Government responded by nationalizing
banks 4. Peso was devalued several times
B. Economic Liberalization 1. Presidents Madrid and Salinas
began to open up the economy
a. Decreased barriers, opened more free trade b. Decreased govt
role in the economy (privatization, ending subsidies) and
the power of unions 2. NAFTA- beginning of free trade w/US and
Canada, different from a supranational
organization, helped growth but unequal and more foreign
influence 3. Economic collapse in 1994 and US bailout
-
VIII. Political Changes A. Political Crisis
1. Challenges to PRI rule in 1968 Olympic Massacre (400
protesters killed) and 1985 Earthquake (tens of thousands killed
with a poor PRI response)
2. Public outcry over leftists that were disappeared 3. In 1988,
Calderas of the PRD almost won the election (fraud) 4. Fraud in
1994 election, assassination of PRI candidate 5. Zapatista
Uprising- 1994, day NAFTA went into affect, leftist rebel
indigenous
group rose up in Chiapas, got more rights for Amerindians but
showed divisions in society
B. Political Liberalization 1. Changes in election laws helped
create opposition parties, free state and local
elections (more non-PRI governors, Mexico City elections) 2.
Federal Electoral Institute (IFE)- independent NGO regulates
elections,
decreased fraud and corruption, public funding of elections 3.
PRI lost majority of legislature in 1997, Zedillo did not pick a
successor, 2000 was
an open election 4. Vicente Fox (PAN) was the first non-PRI to
win in 71 years
MEXICO
GOVERNMENT STRUCTURE
I. Mexican Constitution (1917) A. Clearly defines rights B.
Federal structure, checks and balances C. Longer and more clearly
defined (Napoleonic legal system) D. Easier Amendment process
II. Executive Branch A. President
1. How elected: Popularly elected for a sexenio- six year term
(no two ballot system) 2. Role: Head of government and state: 3.
Powers: initiate legislation, international, run government,
appointments 4. Informal power- through party can dominate other
branches and states 5. Impeachment: same as US
B. Cabinet- Appointed by president, heads of departments (most
important is the Interior- law and order)
C. Bureaucracy 1. Large- 5% of population (local, state,
federal, and parastatal) 2. Moderate salary (good path to middle
class but also can be bribed) 3. Patron-client system to get good
jobs
III.Legislative Branch: Congress of the Union A. Senate (upper
house)
1. Represents the 31 states and 1 Federal District (Mexico
City)
-
2. Each state elects 3 senators: two (together in a party)
through FPTP plurality and one for the first minority
3. 32 senators are elected through proportional representation
(128 total) 4. Six year term, no reelection
B. Chamber of Deputies (lower house) 1. 300 Majority Deputies
are elected through single-member districts 2. 200 Party Deputies:
are elected through PR 3. 3 year terms, no reelection
C. Policy Making 1. Constitutional lawmaking is similar to the
US: both houses of Congress with
signature or veto by president 2. President and bureaucracy have
played the central role because of the power PRI and
patron-clientalism 3. Becoming more pluralist (used to be very
corporatist) 4. Congress used to be rubber-stamp but now is a check
on power (especially with three
competition parties) IV. Judiciary
A. Supreme Court 1. 11 Justices (rotating 4 year president),
serve a 15 year term 2. Given strong constitutional power like
judicial review (given 1994) but only recently
started exercising them B. Court system is developing but
suffers from corruption, limited experience with civil rights,
and crime V. State and Local Government
A. Governors: elected to 6 year terms by their states B. Local
legislatures: direct elections C. Power to create laws, enforcement
for their state as long as it complies with federal law D. Though
Federal structure, Mexico was very centralized until the decline in
the power of the
PRI (still controls majority of states) VI. Other
Institutions
A. Military 1. Had strong policy making power under early
caudillos 2. Is clearly underneath the civilian government (no
coups) 3. Has been used within the country to combat unrest (drug
and uprisings like
Zapatista) B. Parastatals- autonomous (or semi) government owned
industries
1. Until 1980, major part of the economy (over a thousand:
investment, electricity, farm subsidies, etc)
2. Pemex- national oil company 3. Most have been privatized
(less than 200) 4. Debate about whether to make them more
competitive, independent, or allow FDI
MEXICO POLITICS
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I. Political Parties A. PRI (Institutional Revolutionary
Party)
1. Ideology: traditionally party of power, now centrist 2.
Economic Views: neoliberal 3. Makeup:
a. Politicos (politicians), Technicos (technocrats) disagree
about economic policy
b. camarillas (patron-client relationships) c. poor, less
educated, Losing support from unions
4. Region: Rural, west B. PAN (National Action Party)
1. Ideology: right center 2. Economic Views: neoliberal,
privatization 3. Makeup: Catholics, business, middle class 4.
Region: northern, eastern, urban 5. Major Policies: anticorruption,
democratization, war against drug cartels
C. PRD- (Democratic Revolutionary Party) 1. Ideology: leftist 2.
Economic Views: social programs for poor, nationalization, anti
free trade 3. Makeup: young 4. Region: Mexico City, central,
south
II. Elections A. Publically funded B. Voting is mandated (but
not enforced) C. Election law requires 40% of candidates be
women
III.Recent Political History A. 2000- Fox PAN victory B. 2006-
Calderon (PAN) with Obrador (PRD) contesting the results, drug war
full swing C. 2009- shift toward PRI D. 2012- PRI victory:
uncertain multiparty rule
MEXICO SOCIETY
I. Cleavages A. Ethnic: Amerindian (poverty, discrimination) vs
Mestizo, given more autonomy through
federalism B. Gender: Birth rates lowered, more women working,
increasing role in government (more than
1/3), but still challenges like domestic violence C. North
South: North more industrialized, south more poor, migration
patterns to the North as
part of NAFTA and liberalization D. Urban Rural: Mexico City 25%
of population vs rural farmers, many still in ejidos E. Rich Poor:
large gap (gini around 0.5), business vs socialism F. Religion:
1. Over 80% Catholic, growing is Pentecostal Christian
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2. Anticlerical- backlash against the role of the Catholic
church in government II. Civil Society
A. Media: 1. Only two television companies (Televisa- old links
to PRI, and TV Azteca), duopoly
blocks competition, Carlos Slim is trying to add a third station
2. Variety of newspapers and active internet 3. Threats from
corrupt officials and drug cartels
B. Interest Groups: transition from corporatism to pluralism C.
NGOs: help build civil society, democratization and work to help
with Mexicos problems
(ex: doctors w/o borders, transparency international, justice
initiative, various watchdogs etc)
NIGERIA HISTORY
I. Pre-Colonial History A. Africa Geography
1. Sahara, Sahel, Savanna, Rainforests 2. Poor land for farming
for most of history
B. Impact on African Development: development of pastoralist
clans, diverse cultures, few lasting kingdoms
C. Rise of Islam in North Africa: Kingdoms of Mali, Songhai
(Mansa Musa) and the Trans-Saharan slave trade
D. Beginning of slavery: Portuguese in West Africa, slave ports,
trade guns and rum for Africans to enslave others
E. Kingdoms: Unified Muslim kingdoms in North, smaller less
unified kingdoms in South II. Ethnic Cleavages
A. Hausa-Fulani 1. Muslim dominated in the north 2. Mix of two
groups about 100 years ago
B. Yoruba 1. Mix of Muslim and Christian in the south west 2.
Location of Lagos, the old capitol and largest metropolis
C. Igbo 1. Predominantly Christian evangelical in the southeast
2. Meritocracy and adoption of Western religion made them somewhat
favored in
British colonial rule D. Others: Make up about a 1/3 of all
Nigerians
1. Middle band: mix of ethnic groups, new capitol location 2.
North east: Muslim Kanuri (center of current violence) 3. South:
minority rich region between Yoruba and Igbo concentrated areas
E. Before colonialism these groups were not in any way grouped
together or even had strong identities as a unified ethnic
group
III. Colonial History (1860-1960) A. Ended slave trade (1807) so
started to import materials from Nigeria
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B. Niger Delta Company- expanded rule along river, divided into
North and South C. Indirect Rule- strategy of rule for the north,
south had more direct rule D. Official Colonization- gradual
process made official in 1914 E. Colonial Government
1. Parliamentary System- two houses, upper representing the
states 2. Federal system- three states (dominated by the three
ethnicities) 3. Civil Service- given British education, dominated
by Igbo
F. Transition to Independence after World War Two IV. First
Republic and Biafran War (1960-1970)
A. Independence Challenges: divisions based on ethnicity B. Weak
Parliament: ethnic groups worked for their benefit and could not
effectively form a
coalition C. Discovery of Oil- conflict especially because
located in Igbo region D. 1966 Coup- Igbo general wanted to clean
up corruption E. 1966 Counter coup- backlash against Igbo across
Nigeria F. Biafran War
1.Igbo-dominated region declares independence 2.Blockade kills
over 3 million people
V. Military Rule and the Second Republic (1970-1983) A. Gowon
stays in power until 1975 B. After a few coups, Gen. Obasanjo takes
power
1. Creates American style presidential system 2. Increases
number of states to 19 to ease ethnic tension 3. Oversees free
presidential elections in 1979
C. Shagari takes power: Boom in oil wealth, continues ethnic
tension and corruption, reelection marred by fraud
VI. Military Rule and the Third Republic (1983-1998) A. Coup
after reelection, then eventually Babangida takes power B. Aborted
Third Republic: Babangida eventually allowed elections then
annulled the results C. Abacha took over in a coup and ruled with
an iron grip
1. Promised elections but never delivered 2. Economic
achievements: growth, reduced debt, reduced inflation 3. Tried and
executed many including environmental activist Ken Saro-Wiwa
(sparked intl outcry) 4. Died of a heart attack 1998
D. Transition back to democracy VII. The Fourth Republic
(1999-present)
A. Obasanjo elected president (Head of Transparency Intl in
between) 1. Yoruba Christian, led the Peoples Democratic Party
(PDP) 2. Cleaned out previous military leaders, tried to reduce
corruption 3. Truth and reconciliation courts to investigate human
rights violations in past regimes 4. Raised minimum wage,
distributed oil wealth 5. Checks on power: in 2002 an attempt to
impeach him and denial of an amendment
to get a 3rd term
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B. Yaradua elected president (background chemistry teacher NOT
general) 1. First example of a civilian change in government 2.
Muslim from the North: principle of alternating ethnic/religious
leaders 3. Died in office, VP Goodluck Jonathan (Christian from
South) took power
C. Goodluck Jonathan won election in 2011 and is the current
president
NIGERIA GOVERNMENT STRUCTURE
I. Executive Branch A. Early: PM under Parliamentary System B.
Executive under military rule: different under different regimes C.
President: role still being shaped
1. Obasanjo, Yar-adua, Goodluck Jonathan (principle of rotating
ethnicities) 2. How elected:
a. Must win a plurality in direct nationwide elections (must win
at least 25% in 2/3 of the states)
b. If not, two ballot run-off election c. Max of 2 four year
terms
3. Role: Head of government and state 4. Powers: administration,
international, appointments, commander-in-chief (modeled
after US), calling referendums 5. Impeachment: became an issue
in 2002
D. Bureaucracy 1. Cabinet 2. Federal Character- ethnic quotas
for government jobs 3. Prebendalism- officeholders use their
positions to help (through corruption and
patron-clientalism) their ethnic group 4. Very large: takes a
huge part of the budget
II. Legislative Branch: National Assembly A. Senate (upper
house): Represents the 36 states, Each state elects 3 senators
(each with a
district) for four year terms B. House of Representatives (lower
house): 360 members elected in single member districts for
four year terms C. Policy Making
1. History of top down directives 2. Official: President and
National Assembly work together 3. Reality: dominated by networks
of big men who create pyramids of loyalty
through $ and positions 4. Military no longer plays an active
role in policy making
III.Judiciary A. Supreme Court
1. Appointed by president, affirmed by Senate 2. Independence
attacked by military rule but increasing under democratic rule 3.
Has Judicial Review and has used it since 1999
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B. Court system has been plagued by corruption and nepotism C.
Northern states have been allowed to create sharia law- Islamic law
but only applies to
Muslims IV. State and Local Government
A. National Question- how to govern with great diversity? 1.
Nigerians overwhelmingly want to stay unified 2. Answer is through
federalism, federal character appointments, and prebendalism
B. Governors: elected to two 4 year terms by their states C.
Local legislatures: Power to create laws, enforcement for their
state as long as it complies
with federal law D. Though Federal structure, states are
weak
1. History of top down military rule 2. States dependent on
federal govt for funds
V. Other Institutions A. Military-
1. currently not major political influence 2. diverse and
subject to patron client networks 3. involved in fighting
internally (Boko Haram and MEND) as well internationally
(ECOWAS) B. Parastatals- autonomous (or semi) government owned
industries
1. Organized under a system of state corporatism 2. Control many
industries like minerals, energy, communication, and many sectors
of
the economy 3. Big source of employment and corruption 4.
Privatizing due to structural adjustment programs
C. Oil Industry 1. Accounts for 40% of GDP, 95% of exports, and
80% of government revenue 2. Rentier State- country that is reliant
on a national resource so does not develop
domestic industry 3. Oil is extracted through joint cooperation
of nationalized corporation and foreign
multinationals (Shell, etc) 4. Mostly located in the Niger River
delta and offshore
NIGERIA POLITICS AND SOCIETY
I. Political Parties A. In the second Republic, political
parties were mostly ethnically based B. Now, In order to be an
official party recognized by INEC, parties must be national: have
at
least 5% in 2/3 of states C. Reality is that parties are loosely
ethnically based, rarely focus on political ideologies, used
to combine interests D. PDP (Peoples Democratic Party)- party of
power, originally had much of its base influence
in the North (now south), claims to be for a market economy,
socially conservative E. All Progressive Congress- an alliance
parties to challenge the PDP, ideology is socialist
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II. Civil Society A. Interest groups
1. Overall corporatist due to role of parastatals and
patron-client networks but emerging pluralism
2. Unions- long influence but diminished under dictators 3.
Business, professional, women, youth groups
B. Protests- Permitted way to influence govt: ex: fuel subsidies
and electricity, why do they protest?
C. NGOs- push for civil society and other issues like
environment III.Nigerian Society
A. Cleavages: region, religion, ethnicity (Coinciding not Cross
cutting) B. Role of Women- more traditional roles (esp. in North),
few women politicians, slowly
growing role C. Media- free and independent in the 4th Republic
with newspapers, radio, television, and
growing internet http://africanelections.tripod.com/ng.html
NIGERIA
POLITICAL ECONOMY AND PUBLIC POLICY I. History of the Oil
Industry
A. Boom in 1970s 1. Nationalization of industry 2. Joined OPEC
(Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries), oil prices boomed
3. Rent Seeking behavior- using influence to access existing wealth
(corruption,
lobbying, or access) 4. Import Substitution: failure because did
not develop domestic industry
B. Drop in 1980s 1. Oil prices declined and left with crushing
debt and corruption 2. IMF and structural adjustment- Babingida
negotiated for debt relief in exchange
for liberalizing market, reducing deficit, privatization,
deregulation C. 90s to Present
1. Rule of Abacha and execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa focused
international pressure (ex: suspended from the Commonwealth)
2. Attempt to create a minimum oil budget, emergency save the
rest 3. Fuel subsidies reduced to decrease fiscal burden, protests
slowed efforts
II. Impact of Oil Industry A. Corruption B. Role of Foreign
Multinationals- C. Dependency theory- Developing countries remain
poor because their resources and labors
enrich developed countries D. Environmental damage- extensive in
the Niger Delta and offshore oil spills E. Violence
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1. Minority groups rebel against multinationals, other groups,
government 2. MEND- seeks to get oil revenue for poor, reality
guerilla rebel group, wants regional
and economic autonomy 3. Boko Haram- extremist Islamic group,
attacks schools, wants regional Islamic rule
III.Public Policy A. Helping the Poor
1. World Bank- goal to reduce poverty through capital loans and
aid projects, IMF focuses on whole economies and overall structural
adjustment programs
2. Microcredit- mini loans to families and small businesses 3.
Land reform- redistribution of land
B. Public Health 1. HIV/AIDs- big concern for all of sub-Saharan
Africa 2. Child and maternal health
C. Reducing Tensions b/w ethnic groups D. Regional Issues
1. Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)- free
trade and monetary supranational organization, goal is economic,
security, community
2. Islamic extremism- problem in the region
IRAN: HISTORY I. Foundation of Iranian State
A. Persian Empire- long and proud history stretching 3000 years
B. Rise of Islam
1. Spread from Arabia to Persia by late 600s 2. Split b/w Sunnis
and Shias: succession of caliph 3. 12th Imam disappeared: wait for
the hidden Imam
C. Safavid Dynasty (1501-1722) 1. Established Shia rule, fought
with other Sunni Empires 2. Established Iranian nation-state
D. Qajar Dynasy (1794-1921) 1. Weak state, buffeted by European
imperial powers 2. Oil discovered by British 3. Middle class
demonstrations in a Revolution of 1905-1909 transitioned to an
secular
constitutional monarchy 4. Constitution of 1906 reformed govt
with a Majles (parliament) and Guardian
Council (could veto) II. Pahlavi Dynasty (1925-1979)
A. Reza Khan, military officer, overthrew the Qajar dynasty and
named himself Shah 1. Bureaucratic secular authoritarian state,
focused on modernization 2. Secular state- angered orthodox Shia
clerics 3. Pro-Western, aligned with Germany in WWII, forced to
abdicate 1941
B. Muhammad Reza Shah made Shah, continued modernization
Pro-Western policies
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C. Oil run by BP (the Anglo-Persian Oil Company) D. Abadan
Crisis (1951-1953)
1. Prime Minister Mohammed Mosaddeq tried to nationalize the oil
industry 2. Popular uprising forced Shah into exile 3. CIA and MI6
engineered a coup to bring him back to power
E. White Revolution 1. After coup, Shah ruled with absolute
authority: suppressed rights, secular, increased
military 2. Further became a rentier state using oil for
modernization 3. Rural reforms caused major urbanization
III. Iranian Revolution A. Causes
1. Calls for more open civil society 2. Middle class discontent,
some democratic and even Marxists call for regime change 3. Drop in
oil with rise in consumer prices (revolution of rising
expectations) 4. Religious repression
a. Pahlavi Dynasty was anti-Islam, lower classes very religious
b. Ayatollah Khomeini exiled but smuggled in sermons against the
regime
B. Events 1. Peaceful uprising, violent crackdown early 1979 2.
Shah forced into exile in February 3. Religious clerics led by
returned Khomeini took over
C. Constitution of 1979- Created an Islamic Republic 1.
Democratic institutions like majles and political parties 2.
Divinely guided clerics supervising the system and enforcing Sharia
law
IV. Khomeni Rule A. Anti-Americanism- Embassy hostage crisis of
1979-1981 B. Repression- Revolutionary Guards created, opponents
jailed and executed C. Cultural Revolution- reformed education and
society to reflect Islamic values and
Revolutionary ideology, attacked Westernism/middle class culture
D. Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988)- terrible war, solidified Islamic
rule, anger toward America for
supporting Iraq E. Economy- war, decline in FDI, drop in oil
prices hurt economy; erratic economic policy and
nationalized industries V. Khamenei Rule
A. Ayatolla Khamenei became supreme leader at Khomenis death but
power shifted to new president Rafsanjani
B. 1989 Constitutional Changes- eliminated the position of PM,
made minor changes away from rule of clerics
C. President Khatami (1997-2005) 1. Moderate- supported
encouraging open civil society through political
groups/parties,
decreased censorship, protests 2. Encouraged more rights for
women and minorities 3. Improved relationship with US
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4. Very popular: won 2/3 then of vote, reformers won 189 of 290
seats of the Majles D. Conservative resurgence
1. Khamanei and the clerics barred 2500 moderate and reformist
candidates from running, Reformers lost 150 seats in the 2004
Majles
2. President Ahmadinejad (2005-2013)- conservative but not a
cleric, charismatic, strongly anti-American
3. Green Revolution- fraudulent 2009 election, mass protests and
crackdown 4. Uncertain future- Rouhani is a cleric insider but also
somewhat of a moderate
IRAN GOVERNMENT STRUCTURE
I. Elected Institutions A. President
1. Election a. Qualifications: Iranian nationality, religious
criteria b. Direct popular election, two consecutive four year
terms
2. Powers a. Head of government- in charge of cabinet and
bureaucracy b. Present legislation, create budget, meet foreign
leaders, but power is limited
by Supreme Leader 3. Council of Ministers (10 VPs and 21
ministers)- appointed by President confirmed
by Majles B. Parliament (Majles)
1. Powers a. Remove Cabinet members and impeach president,
confirms 6 of 12 Guardian
Council b. Enacting laws, approve treaties, approve budget c.
Not a rubberstamp institution but limited power
2. Unicameral system (no Senate- unitary system) 3.
Elections
a. Single-member districts, four year terms, run-off elections
b. List of candidates approved by Guardian Council c. Religious
minorities get seats: Armenians, Assyrian Catholics, Jews, and
Zorastrians C. Regional and Local Government
1. Broken into provinces but unitary system 2. Local councils
(started 1999) make loca