AP Biology Exam Review 60% multiple choice 40% free response.

AP BiologyExam Review

60% multiple choice

40% free response

Atoms Molecules Organelles Cells Tissues Organs Systems Organism species Population Community Ecosystem

Organizing life

Experimental design free response Problem Hypothesis Materials/procedure Control setup/baseline Independent and

dependent variables Constants & variables Qualitative &

quantitative data Data interpretation Conclusion

Hypothesis

Predictive

May propose a method for testing the problem.

Give a justification for the method of testing.

Properties of life

Metabolism: chemical pathways that are regulated

Cellular organization

Homeostasis: maintaining stable internal environment through controlled chemical reactions or metabolism for life functions (pH, temperature, etc)

Properties of life

Reproduction: capacity to develop from juvenile to adult stage with potential to replicate own DNA

Asexual Sexual

Properties of life

Response to stimulus: able to react to external or internal changes Many responses to

stimulus are result of enzymatic proteins.

Chemical evolution of life

production of small, reduced, carbon-containing compounds like formaldehyde and hydrogen cyanide.

simple compounds reacted in the ocean to form the mid-sized molecules called sugars, amino acids, and nitrogenous bases

Chemical evolution of life

building block molecules linked together to form molecules found in cells (proteins and nucleic acids)

single molecule acquired the ability to make a copies of itself

Chemical evolution began to give way to biological evolution.

Covalent

Sharing of electrons

Stable

Forms hydrocarbons

Polar covalent bonds

Water molecule

Leads to different water properties

Ionic bonds

Hydrogen bonds

Weak individually

Strength in multiple H-bonds

Found between nucleotides

Chemical reactions

Properties of water

Slightly positive and negative “poles” of water molecule form hydrogen bonds

Frozen water molecules less dense, ice floats

Water as ideal solvent

Water as ideal solvent

Water soluble protein

Attracts water molecules

pH: water dissociation

pH scale

Homeostatic control of pH (maintaining optimal pH levels) is necessary to sustain life.

Ex: pH drop in blood = too much CO2

Organic chemistry

Alkanes: hydrocarbons with only single bonds between C and H

Alkenes: hydrocarbons with double bonds between C and H

Alkynes: hydrocarbons with triple bonds between C and H

Valence numbers

Indicates the number of bonds that can be formed.

Carbon structural molecules

Isomers

Molecules with the same molecular formula but different 3D configuration

Functional groups

Alcohol*

Aldehyde

Amine*

Carboxylic acid*

Ester

Ether

Ketone

Methyl

Phosphate*

Polymers

Most organic polymers form through dehydration synthesis.

Most break apart by hydrolysis.

Monosaccharides

Single building block of sugars (carbohydrate)

a-glucose, b-glucose, fructose

Disaccharides

Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides

Starch: plant and algae storage, product of photosynthesis (a-glucose)

Cellulose: structural polymer, product of photosynthesis (b-glucose)

Chitin

carbohydrate with an additional amine functional group that makes this molecule tough and water resistant

exoskeletons of many insects

fungal cell wall

Lipids

Ester linkage

Why is this a saturated fat?

Lipids

Energy storage

Insoluble in water

C and H

Saturated vs. Unsaturated

Lipids: What is this structure?

Lipids

What are these structures?

What proof is there that one of these structures makes up membranes?

Lipids: What is this structure?

Proteins: amino acid monomers

Proteins: amino acid monomers

Proteins

Primary conformation: peptide bonds between amino acids

Forms peptide chains

Proteins

Primary structure or conformation

Notice the amino and the carboxyl terminus (ends)

Proteins

Secondary structure: hydrogen bonds between peptide chains

Proteins

Tertiary structure: R-group interactions, depends upon properties of R group

Proteins: Quaternary structure

Protein denaturation

What can denature proteins?

How cells “fix” denatured proteins

Nucleic acids

Nucleic acids are built from monomers of nucleotides.

Nucleotides are adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, uracil.

Ex: DNA, RNA, ATP, and GTP

DNA structure

Notice the different types of bonds involved in the making of DNA

Nucleic acid

DNA model

Each nucleotide is made from deoxyribose sugar, phosphate, and nitrogen base.

DNA is double stranded.

Cells – 10% of test

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells Membranes Subcellular organizations Cell cycle and its regulation

Cell size

Viruses not cells

Bacteria, mitochondria, chloroplast all about the same size (evidence for endosymbiotic theory)

Cell fractionation

Prokaryotic cell

Surface to volume ratio Governs size

Membrane

Eukaryotic – animal cell

Eukaryotic – plant cell

Freeze fracture

Showing the “mosaic” of fluid mosaic model

Singer and Nicholson

Danielli proposed alternative model (protein-membrane-protein)

Membrane fluidity

Membrane structure

Diffusion: entropy

Osmotic balance

Guard cells, excretory system, transpiration, translocation

Osmotic balance

Sodium-potassium pump

Transport

Passive vs. active transport

Passive: osmosis

Active transport: establishing proton gradient of electron transport chain

Proton pump: auxin transport, electron transport chain

Cotransport

Translocation (phloem source to sink)

Cell cycle

Mitosis lab

500 cells = interphase = 50% 100 cells = prophase = 10% 150 cells = metaphase = 15% 150 cells = anaphase = 15% 100 cells = telophase = 10%

Mitosis

Mitosis

Binary fission

Asexual reproduction in prokaryotic cells

Other examples of asexual reproduction: budding, regeneration, vegetative propagation

Cell cycle control

Requires various checkpoints and Cdk (cyclin-dependent kinase) protein to detect levels of cyclin

Density

Density dependent cellular growth vs. density independent cancerous growth