Antiwar Protests of the 1960s and 1970s Jill R. KLMJune 2006 Jill R. KLMJune 2006 AHAP FinalMs. Pojer AHAP FinalMs. Pojer.

Antiwar Protests of the Antiwar Protests of the 1960’s and 1970’s1960’s and 1970’s

Jill R. KLMJill R. KLM June 2006June 2006

AHAP FinalAHAP Final Ms. Pojer Ms. Pojer

Were the anti-war Were the anti-war protests of the 60’s and protests of the 60’s and

70’s effective in 70’s effective in convincing the convincing the

American public that American public that the war in Vietnam the war in Vietnam

should be abandoned?should be abandoned?

BackgroundBackground

The Vietnam WarThe Vietnam War1960-19731960-1973War of containmentWar of containmentNorth Vietnam (Communist) vs. South Vietnam North Vietnam (Communist) vs. South Vietnam (Pro- West)(Pro- West)

Allies of North: U.S.S.R., People’s Republic of ChinaAllies of North: U.S.S.R., People’s Republic of China Allies of South: U.S., South KoreaAllies of South: U.S., South Korea

North wanted to reunify with the South after the North wanted to reunify with the South after the country was split in two at the 1954 Geneva country was split in two at the 1954 Geneva ConferenceConference1960- “Viet Cong” (North) invaded Southern 1960- “Viet Cong” (North) invaded Southern Vietnam and the war beganVietnam and the war began

The Vietnam War The Vietnam War (cont.)(cont.)

1964- Gulf of Tonkin- North Vietnam accused of 1964- Gulf of Tonkin- North Vietnam accused of attacking U.S. destroyersattacking U.S. destroyers Lead to a large increase in U.S. involvementLead to a large increase in U.S. involvement Gulf of Tonkin Resolution- the President has the right to Gulf of Tonkin Resolution- the President has the right to

“prevent further aggression” from the North Vietnamese“prevent further aggression” from the North Vietnamese• The number of troops sent to Vietnam skyrocketed The number of troops sent to Vietnam skyrocketed

(500,000)(500,000)

U.S. made very few gainsU.S. made very few gains American troops fought a conventional war, while the American troops fought a conventional war, while the

Vietnamese were fighting an ideological warVietnamese were fighting an ideological war• U.S. tried to achieve their goals with as few American U.S. tried to achieve their goals with as few American

deaths as possibledeaths as possible

• Vietnamese didn’t care how many people had to die for Vietnamese didn’t care how many people had to die for their causetheir cause

The Vietnam War The Vietnam War (cont.)(cont.)

1968- 1968- Tet Offensive- Tet Offensive-

North Vietnam North Vietnam attacked U.S. and attacked U.S. and pushed them back pushed them back (U.S. eventually (U.S. eventually regained the regained the territory)territory)

• Portrayed as a Portrayed as a huge loss by huge loss by American mediaAmerican media

The Vietnam WarThe Vietnam War (cont.) (cont.)

19681968 My Lai My Lai

Massacre-Massacre- A A Vietnamese Vietnamese town suspected town suspected of harboring of harboring enemies was enemies was brutally brutally murdered by murdered by U.S. soldiersU.S. soldiers

The Vietnam War The Vietnam War (cont.)(cont.)

19681968 Nixon took office- promised to get Nixon took office- promised to get

America out of the warAmerica out of the war• Vietnamization- Bring U.S. troops home and Vietnamization- Bring U.S. troops home and

leave the majority of the fighting to the leave the majority of the fighting to the VietnameseVietnamese

The Vietnam War The Vietnam War (cont.)(cont.)

1971- Pentagon Papers leaked to the press1971- Pentagon Papers leaked to the press Showed that the U.S. had deliberately expanded its Showed that the U.S. had deliberately expanded its

involvement in Vietnaminvolvement in Vietnam

• This was happening while Pres. Lyndon Johnson This was happening while Pres. Lyndon Johnson was telling the American people that the U.S. would was telling the American people that the U.S. would not expand its involvementnot expand its involvement

1973- Ceasefire signed1973- Ceasefire signed U.S. removed all troopsU.S. removed all troops No provisions for POW’s or MIA’sNo provisions for POW’s or MIA’s War resumed between North and South VietnamWar resumed between North and South Vietnam

1975- North Vietnam defeated South Vietnam1975- North Vietnam defeated South Vietnam

ResultsResults

3 million Vietnamese died3 million Vietnamese died

58,000 Americans died58,000 Americans died

$150 million spent on the war$150 million spent on the war Under funding for Great Society Under funding for Great Society

programsprograms

The New LeftThe New LeftRadical political Radical political movement of the 1960’s movement of the 1960’s and 70’sand 70’s

Mostly comprised of Mostly comprised of college studentscollege students

Social activistsSocial activistsBeliefsBeliefs

Anti- DraftAnti- Draft Pro- Civil RightsPro- Civil Rights Anti- Traditional values Anti- Traditional values

(family, complacency)(family, complacency)• Rebelled with sex, Rebelled with sex,

drugs, and rock’n’rolldrugs, and rock’n’roll Opposed authority (Anti- Opposed authority (Anti-

Establishment)Establishment)

The ProtestsThe Protests

The First D.C. RallyThe First D.C. Rally

April 17, 1965April 17, 1965 One month after the U.S. sent its first One month after the U.S. sent its first

troops to Vietnamtroops to Vietnam Staged by the Leftist group, Students for a Staged by the Leftist group, Students for a

Democratic SocietyDemocratic Society 16,000 people picketed outside the White 16,000 people picketed outside the White

HouseHouse• ““No More War”No More War”• ““We Want Peace Now”We Want Peace Now”

Only 4 arrests madeOnly 4 arrests made

March on the PentagonMarch on the Pentagon

October 21, 1967October 21, 1967 Culmination of 5 days of protests organized by the Culmination of 5 days of protests organized by the

National Mobilization Committee to End the War in National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam Vietnam

Famous speakers came to address the crowd (Robert Famous speakers came to address the crowd (Robert Lowell, Benjamin Spock)Lowell, Benjamin Spock)

The protest escalated when the leaders of the Youth The protest escalated when the leaders of the Youth International Party announced they were going to International Party announced they were going to “exorcise” the Pentagon“exorcise” the Pentagon• People surrounded the building and chanted spells to People surrounded the building and chanted spells to

try and drive out the “evil war spirits”try and drive out the “evil war spirits” ““LBJ, Pull Out Now, Like Your Father Should Have Done.”LBJ, Pull Out Now, Like Your Father Should Have Done.”

• Tear gas was released into the crowdTear gas was released into the crowd• 2,500 troops guarded the Pentagon2,500 troops guarded the Pentagon• 681 arrested681 arrested

March on the PentagonMarch on the Pentagon (cont.)(cont.)

The Moratorium RallyThe Moratorium Rally (D.C.)(D.C.)

November 15, 1969November 15, 1969 America’s biggest anti- war demonstration America’s biggest anti- war demonstration

everever• 250,000- 500,000 protestors present250,000- 500,000 protestors present

A little less wildA little less wild• LBJ was out of office and Nixon had initiated his LBJ was out of office and Nixon had initiated his

“Vietnamization” plan“Vietnamization” plan• Police had learned how to handle protestsPolice had learned how to handle protests

3,000 Police3,000 Police 9,000 Army troops9,000 Army troops 200 Lawyers200 Lawyers 75 Clergymen75 Clergymen

Protest was peaceful for the most partProtest was peaceful for the most part• 135 arrests made135 arrests made

The Moratorium RallyThe Moratorium Rally (cont.)(cont.)

The Moratorium Rally was the largest anti-war protest The Moratorium Rally was the largest anti-war protest in U.S. historyin U.S. history

Kent StateKent StateIn response to Nixon’s invasion of CambodiaIn response to Nixon’s invasion of Cambodia

Didn’t want to be draftedDidn’t want to be drafted

May 1, 1970- Day OneMay 1, 1970- Day One Huge demonstration on the College’s commonsHuge demonstration on the College’s commons Around midnight rowdy bikers began throwing Around midnight rowdy bikers began throwing

bottles and vandalizing cars in the streetbottles and vandalizing cars in the street Approximately 100 students joined in Approximately 100 students joined in Police eventually got the situation under controlPolice eventually got the situation under control

Kent State Kent State (cont.)(cont.)

May 2, 1970- Day TwoMay 2, 1970- Day Two State of Emergency declared in KentState of Emergency declared in Kent

• Ohio Governor, James A. Rhodes, called in the National Ohio Governor, James A. Rhodes, called in the National GuardGuard

Demonstrations continued on campusDemonstrations continued on campus• Reserve Officer Training Corps building was set on fireReserve Officer Training Corps building was set on fire

Fire men and police were pelted with rocks by the surrounding Fire men and police were pelted with rocks by the surrounding crowdcrowd

10:00 p.m.- National Guard set up camp on Kent State’s 10:00 p.m.- National Guard set up camp on Kent State’s campuscampus

• Used tear gas and arrested the protestorsUsed tear gas and arrested the protestors• At least one person was bayonetedAt least one person was bayoneted

May 3, 1970- Day ThreeMay 3, 1970- Day Three More protestsMore protests Curfew imposed on studentsCurfew imposed on students

Kent State Kent State (cont.)(cont.)

The National Guard was sent in to maintain The National Guard was sent in to maintain order on Kent State’s campusorder on Kent State’s campus

Kent State Kent State (cont.)(cont.)

May 4, 1970- Day FourMay 4, 1970- Day Four Pre-planned rally commencedPre-planned rally commenced

• Approx. 2,000 people presentApprox. 2,000 people present

National Guard told them to disperseNational Guard told them to disperse• People refusedPeople refused• Troops sprayed the crowd with tear gasTroops sprayed the crowd with tear gas

Crowd began throwing rocks and chased the Crowd began throwing rocks and chased the National Guard off campus National Guard off campus

• ““Pigs off Campus!”Pigs off Campus!”

After being chased up a hill by the angry After being chased up a hill by the angry protestors, the National Guard opened fire on protestors, the National Guard opened fire on the crowdthe crowd

• Firing lasted 13 secondsFiring lasted 13 seconds• 4 dead4 dead• 9 wounded9 wounded

Kent StateKent State (cont.) (cont.)

The National Guard was The National Guard was chased up a hill by angry chased up a hill by angry

studentsstudentsA shocked student grieves over A shocked student grieves over a dead body, shot down by the a dead body, shot down by the

National GuardNational Guard

Fourth D.C. RallyFourth D.C. RallyIn response to Nixon’s invasion of Cambodia and In response to Nixon’s invasion of Cambodia and the Kent State shootingsthe Kent State shootings

Goal: Close down Washington D.C. on May 3, 1971Goal: Close down Washington D.C. on May 3, 1971 Shut off all access routes to the cityShut off all access routes to the city

• The protestors would come in waves so if one wave got The protestors would come in waves so if one wave got arrested the next would be there to take its placearrested the next would be there to take its place

March on the Pentagon, the Capitol, and the Justice March on the Pentagon, the Capitol, and the Justice DepartmentDepartment

Two weeks before May Day, 1971Two weeks before May Day, 1971 Over 200,000 people attended peaceful rallies in D.C.Over 200,000 people attended peaceful rallies in D.C. As May 3 approached many left, leaving only the die- hard As May 3 approached many left, leaving only the die- hard

radicals (organized by the People’s Coalition for Peace radicals (organized by the People’s Coalition for Peace and Justice)and Justice)

The Fourth D.C. RallyThe Fourth D.C. Rally (cont.)(cont.)

The Fourth D.C. RallyThe Fourth D.C. Rally (cont.)(cont.)

As May 3 approached, the Police prepared to arrest As May 3 approached, the Police prepared to arrest huge numbers of peoplehuge numbers of people

Fill- in- the- blank arrest forms (to arrest people faster)Fill- in- the- blank arrest forms (to arrest people faster) Polaroid cameras would be used to take pictures of Polaroid cameras would be used to take pictures of

perpetrators so the Policeman could remember him later perpetrators so the Policeman could remember him later in courtin court

New “flexi- cuffs” with officer’s badge number already on New “flexi- cuffs” with officer’s badge number already on themthem

““Arrest teams” created to streamline the arresting Arrest teams” created to streamline the arresting processprocess• Arresting officerArresting officer

• Handcuffing officerHandcuffing officer

• Transporting officerTransporting officer

The Fourth D.C. Rally The Fourth D.C. Rally (cont.)(cont.)

May 2, 1971May 2, 1971 Police announced over a loudspeaker that the 30,000 Police announced over a loudspeaker that the 30,000

protestors camping out in West Potomac Park must protestors camping out in West Potomac Park must vacatevacate• Reason: “violation of their permit” (use of drugs)Reason: “violation of their permit” (use of drugs)

Only 12,000 people remained after the announcementOnly 12,000 people remained after the announcement

May 3, 1971May 3, 1971 Police used tear gas to keep streets openPolice used tear gas to keep streets open

• 7,000 people arrested- the record to date7,000 people arrested- the record to date

• 155 injuries155 injuries

Protestors plan was thwarted and D.C. stayed openProtestors plan was thwarted and D.C. stayed open

Were these protests Were these protests effective in swaying effective in swaying

public opinion?public opinion?

Opinion #1: Protests Opinion #1: Protests Were EffectiveWere Effective

People sympathized with the protestorsPeople sympathized with the protestors Constant, large protests kept the public’s attention Constant, large protests kept the public’s attention

on the issueon the issue

Protests Were Effective Protests Were Effective (cont.)(cont.)

In view of developments since we entered the fighting in Vietnam do you think the In view of developments since we entered the fighting in Vietnam do you think the

U.S. made a mistake sending troops to fight in Vietnam?" (Gallup) DATEPERCENTU.S. made a mistake sending troops to fight in Vietnam?" (Gallup) DATEPERCENT

Percent that said NOPercent that said NO

August 1965: 61August 1965: 61March 1966: 59March 1966: 59May 1966: 49May 1966: 49September 1966: 48September 1966: 48November 1966: 51November 1966: 51February 1967: 52February 1967: 52May 1967: 50May 1967: 50July 1967: 48July 1967: 48October 1967: 44October 1967: 44December 1967: 46December 1967: 46

February 1968: 42February 1968: 42March 1968: 41March 1968: 41April 1968: 40April 1968: 40August 1968: 35August 1968: 35October 1968: 37October 1968: 37February 1969: 39February 1969: 39October 1969: 32October 1969: 32January 1970: 33January 1970: 33April 1970: 34April 1970: 34May 1970: 36May 1970: 36January 1971: 31January 1971: 31May 1971: 28May 1971: 28

Protests Were Effective Protests Were Effective (cont.)(cont.)

• Date: 03/1964 Date: 03/1964 Sample: VOTERS AND FLIERS Sample: VOTERS AND FLIERS Question Number: 15. Question Number: 15. How would you rate the job President Johnson has done on (READ How would you rate the job President Johnson has done on (READ STATEMENT BELOW) excellent, pretty good, only fair, or poor? STATEMENT BELOW) excellent, pretty good, only fair, or poor? Item: Handling the situation in VietnamItem: Handling the situation in Vietnam

• Responses: Excellent/Pretty Good/Only Fair/Poor/Not Sure Responses: Excellent/Pretty Good/Only Fair/Poor/Not Sure Unweighted* Percent RespondingUnweighted* Percent Responding

5.50% Excellent 5.50% Excellent 28.20% Pretty Good 28.20% Pretty Good 23.20% Only Fair 23.20% Only Fair 16.90% Poor 16.90% Poor 26.20% Not Sure 26.20% Not Sure Number of Valid Cases: 1406 SAS/SPSS Variable Name: Q15_18 * Number of Valid Cases: 1406 SAS/SPSS Variable Name: Q15_18 *

Weights not available for this survey Weights not available for this survey

Protests Were Effective Protests Were Effective (cont.)(cont.)

Protests Were EffectiveProtests Were Effective (cont.)(cont.)

• Date: 10/1966 Date: 10/1966 Sample: VOTERS Sample: VOTERS Question Number: 6. Question Number: 6. How would you rate the job President Johnson has done on (READ How would you rate the job President Johnson has done on (READ STATEMENT BELOW) -- excellent, pretty good, only fair, or poor? STATEMENT BELOW) -- excellent, pretty good, only fair, or poor? Item: Handling the war in VietnamItem: Handling the war in Vietnam

• Responses: Excellent/Pretty Good/Only Fair/Poor/Not Sure Responses: Excellent/Pretty Good/Only Fair/Poor/Not Sure Unweighted* Percent Responding Unweighted* Percent Responding

7.00% Excellent7.00% Excellent 28.40% Pretty Good 28.40% Pretty Good 22.50% Only Fair 22.50% Only Fair 31.80% Poor 31.80% Poor 10.30% Not Sure 10.30% Not Sure Number of Valid Cases: 1121 SAS/SPSS Variable Name: Q6_8 * Weights Number of Valid Cases: 1121 SAS/SPSS Variable Name: Q6_8 * Weights

not available for this survey not available for this survey

Protests Were EffectiveProtests Were Effective (cont.)(cont.)

• Date: 10/1969 Date: 10/1969 Sample: National Sample of Persons 16 or older Sample: National Sample of Persons 16 or older Question Number: P3f. Question Number: P3f. Now let me read you some statements that have been made about the Now let me read you some statements that have been made about the Vietnam war and the anti-Vietnam demonstrations. For each, tell me if Vietnam war and the anti-Vietnam demonstrations. For each, tell me if you tend to agree or disagree. (READ EACH ITEM AND RECORD you tend to agree or disagree. (READ EACH ITEM AND RECORD BELOW) BELOW) Item: President Nixon was wrong to say he would not pay any Item: President Nixon was wrong to say he would not pay any attention to anti-Vietnam protests attention to anti-Vietnam protests

Responses: Agree/Disagree/Not Sure Unweighted* Percent Responses: Agree/Disagree/Not Sure Unweighted* Percent Responding Responding

53.40% Agree53.40% Agree 33.50% Disagree33.50% Disagree 13.10% Not Sure13.10% Not Sure Number of Valid Cases: 1942 SAS/SPSS Variable Name: P3F_6 * Number of Valid Cases: 1942 SAS/SPSS Variable Name: P3F_6 *

Weights not available for this survey Weights not available for this survey

Protests Were Effective Protests Were Effective (cont.)(cont.)

• Date: 12/1974 Date: 12/1974 Sample: National Sample of Persons 18 or older Sample: National Sample of Persons 18 or older Question Number: 2. Question Number: 2. As a result of what we learned from the Vietnam War, do you As a result of what we learned from the Vietnam War, do you tend to agree or disagree that (READ LIST AND RECORD tend to agree or disagree that (READ LIST AND RECORD BELOW FOR EACH ITEM)?BELOW FOR EACH ITEM)? Item: We should never again commit American soldiers to a Item: We should never again commit American soldiers to a war like Vietnamwar like Vietnam

• Responses: Agree/Disagree/Not Sure Weighted Percent Responses: Agree/Disagree/Not Sure Weighted Percent Responding Responding

75.40% Agree 75.40% Agree 18.10% Disagree 18.10% Disagree 6.50% Not Sure 6.50% Not Sure Number of Valid Cases: 2864 SAS/SPSS Variable Name: Q2_4 Number of Valid Cases: 2864 SAS/SPSS Variable Name: Q2_4

Opinion #2: Protests Were Opinion #2: Protests Were Not EffectiveNot Effective

• Protesters of the time were so radical they Protesters of the time were so radical they repelled othersrepelled others

““Negative Follower Group”- One group of people Negative Follower Group”- One group of people (protesters) bothers the other (normal Americans) (protesters) bothers the other (normal Americans) to the point where others join the enemy (Pro-war to the point where others join the enemy (Pro-war Americans)Americans)

• It was not the protests that changed public It was not the protests that changed public opinion, but the constantly increasing amount opinion, but the constantly increasing amount of money being spent on the warof money being spent on the war

Protests Were Not Protests Were Not Effective Effective (cont.)(cont.)

• Date: 06/1965 Date: 06/1965 Sample: VOTERS Sample: VOTERS Question Number: 11e. Question Number: 11e. Do you think the disagreement of college professors and students Do you think the disagreement of college professors and students with U.S. policies in Vietnam is mainly the result of honest with U.S. policies in Vietnam is mainly the result of honest disagreement, or do you think it is mainly the result of organized disagreement, or do you think it is mainly the result of organized radical activity in colleges today?radical activity in colleges today?

• Responses: Honest disagreement/Radical activity/Not sure Responses: Honest disagreement/Radical activity/Not sure Unweighted* Percent Responding Unweighted* Percent Responding

25.90% Honest disagreement 25.90% Honest disagreement 56.30% Radical activity56.30% Radical activity 17.70% Not sure 17.70% Not sure Number of Valid Cases: 158 SAS/SPSS Variable Name: Q11E * Weights Number of Valid Cases: 158 SAS/SPSS Variable Name: Q11E * Weights

not available for this surveynot available for this survey

Protests Were Not Protests Were Not Effective Effective (cont.)(cont.)

The Protestors were viewed by many as too The Protestors were viewed by many as too radicalradical

Protests Were Not EffectiveProtests Were Not Effective(cont.)(cont.)

• Date: 10/1969 Date: 10/1969 Sample: National Sample of Persons 16 or older Sample: National Sample of Persons 16 or older Question Number: P3f. Question Number: P3f. Now let me read you some statements that have been made about the Now let me read you some statements that have been made about the Vietnam war and the anti-Vietnam demonstrations. For each, tell me if Vietnam war and the anti-Vietnam demonstrations. For each, tell me if you tend to agree or disagree. (READ EACH ITEM AND RECORD you tend to agree or disagree. (READ EACH ITEM AND RECORD BELOW) BELOW) Item: President Nixon is right to ask that people not support protests Item: President Nixon is right to ask that people not support protests against the war because it hurts his chances of getting peace against the war because it hurts his chances of getting peace

• Responses: Agree/Disagree/Not Sure Unweighted* Percent Responses: Agree/Disagree/Not Sure Unweighted* Percent Responding Responding

57.50% Agree57.50% Agree 29.00% Disagree29.00% Disagree 13.50% Not Sure 13.50% Not Sure Number of Valid Cases: 1940 SAS/SPSS Variable Name: P3F_5 * Weights Number of Valid Cases: 1940 SAS/SPSS Variable Name: P3F_5 * Weights

not available for this surveynot available for this survey

Protests Were Not EffectiveProtests Were Not Effective(cont.)(cont.)

• Date: 10/1969 Date: 10/1969 Sample: National Sample of Persons 16 or older Sample: National Sample of Persons 16 or older Question Number: 5c. Question Number: 5c. Do you favor or oppose an immediate withdrawal of all Do you favor or oppose an immediate withdrawal of all American troops from Vietnam?American troops from Vietnam?

• Responses: Favor/Oppose/Not sure Unweighted* Percent Responses: Favor/Oppose/Not sure Unweighted* Percent Responding Responding

35.90% Favor 35.90% Favor 56.50% Oppose 56.50% Oppose 7.60% Not sure7.60% Not sure Number of Valid Cases: 1636 SAS/SPSS Variable Name: Q5C * Number of Valid Cases: 1636 SAS/SPSS Variable Name: Q5C *

Weights not available for this surveyWeights not available for this survey

Protests Were Not EffectiveProtests Were Not Effective(cont.)(cont.)

• Date: 01/1971 Date: 01/1971 Sample: National Sample of Persons 16 or older Sample: National Sample of Persons 16 or older Question Number: 44. Question Number: 44. Would you like to see the federal government increase the Would you like to see the federal government increase the amount of money spent on (READ LIST), cut back, or not amount of money spent on (READ LIST), cut back, or not change the amount of money spent? (CONTINUE WITH LIST change the amount of money spent? (CONTINUE WITH LIST AND RECORD FOR EACH ITEM) AND RECORD FOR EACH ITEM) Item: The war in VietnamItem: The war in Vietnam

• Responses: Increase/Cut Back/Not Change/Not Sure Responses: Increase/Cut Back/Not Change/Not Sure Unweighted* Percent Responding Unweighted* Percent Responding

5.70% Increase5.70% Increase 63.50% Cut Back 63.50% Cut Back 23.50% Not Change 23.50% Not Change 7.30% Not Sure7.30% Not Sure Number of Valid Cases: 3090 SAS/SPSS Variable Name: Q44_A Number of Valid Cases: 3090 SAS/SPSS Variable Name: Q44_A

* Weights not available for this survey * Weights not available for this survey

Were the anti-war protests Were the anti-war protests of the 60’s and 70’s effective of the 60’s and 70’s effective

in changing public opinion in changing public opinion about the war in Vietnam?about the war in Vietnam?

You Decide!You Decide!

Works CitedWorks Cited• 1970. 1970. Kenyon CollegeKenyon College. 7 June 2006 <http://www2.kenyon.edu/Khistory/60s/smoke.jpg>. . 7 June 2006 <http://www2.kenyon.edu/Khistory/60s/smoke.jpg>. • 1970. 1970. PsywarriorPsywarrior. 7 June 2006 <http://www.psywarrior.com/KSnatguard.jpg>. . 7 June 2006 <http://www.psywarrior.com/KSnatguard.jpg>. • 1970. 1970. The University of IowaThe University of Iowa. 26 May 2006 . 26 May 2006

<http://www.uiowa.edu/~policult/assets/VietNam/KentState.jpg>. <http://www.uiowa.edu/~policult/assets/VietNam/KentState.jpg>. • 1971. 1971. WhistleblowersWhistleblowers. 7 June 2006 <www.rwf.gr/episode1. php?id=137&photog=1>. . 7 June 2006 <www.rwf.gr/episode1. php?id=137&photog=1>. • Alexkon. Alexkon. Russian Rainbow GatheringRussian Rainbow Gathering. 2005. . 2005. WikipediaWikipedia. 8 June 2006 . 8 June 2006

<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:RussianRainbowGathering_4Aug2005.jpg>. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:RussianRainbowGathering_4Aug2005.jpg>. • Altman, Robert. Altman, Robert. March on WashingtonMarch on Washington. 1968. Washington D.C. . 1968. Washington D.C. Mr. SixtiesMr. Sixties. 8 June 2006 . 8 June 2006

<www.altmanphoto.com/ Instant.JPEGS.html>. <www.altmanphoto.com/ Instant.JPEGS.html>. • BBCBBC. 8 June 2006 . 8 June 2006

<http://news.bbc.co.uk/media/images/40336000/jpg/_40336521_us_protests300.jpg>. <http://news.bbc.co.uk/media/images/40336000/jpg/_40336521_us_protests300.jpg>. • Demonstrators Protest Against the Vietnam WarDemonstrators Protest Against the Vietnam War. . BBCBBC. 8 June 2006 . 8 June 2006

<www.bbc.co.uk/.../2002/ 10/the_cage_review.shtml>. <www.bbc.co.uk/.../2002/ 10/the_cage_review.shtml>. • Digital HistoryDigital History. 26 May 2006 <www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/. ../vietnam_menu.cfm>. . 26 May 2006 <www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/. ../vietnam_menu.cfm>. • Garfinkle, Adam. "Mythed Opportunities: the Truth About Vietnam Anti- War Protests." Garfinkle, Adam. "Mythed Opportunities: the Truth About Vietnam Anti- War Protests."

Foreign Policy Research InstituteForeign Policy Research Institute. June 2000. 22 May 2006 . June 2000. 22 May 2006 <http://www.fpri.org/ww/0108.200006.garfinkle.mythedopportunities.html>. <http://www.fpri.org/ww/0108.200006.garfinkle.mythedopportunities.html>.

• "Kent State Shootings." "Kent State Shootings." WikipediaWikipedia. 22 May 2006 . 22 May 2006 <en.wikipedia.org/wiki/kent_state_shootings>. <en.wikipedia.org/wiki/kent_state_shootings>.

Works CitedWorks Cited (cont.) (cont.)

• Knudsen, Robert L. Knudsen, Robert L. Richard Nixon Delivering the "V" Sign Outside Army One Upon His Richard Nixon Delivering the "V" Sign Outside Army One Upon His Final Departure From the White HouseFinal Departure From the White House. 1974. Washington D.C. . 1974. Washington D.C. WikipediaWikipedia. 8 June 2006 . 8 June 2006 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Nixon-depart.png>. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Nixon-depart.png>.

• Leen, Jeff. "The Vietnam Protests: When Worlds Collided." Leen, Jeff. "The Vietnam Protests: When Worlds Collided." The Washington PostThe Washington Post. 27 . 27 Sept. 1999. 19 May 2006 Sept. 1999. 19 May 2006 <www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/local/2000/vietnam092799.htm>. <www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/local/2000/vietnam092799.htm>.

• Messy OpticsMessy Optics. 26 May 2006 <www.messyoptics.com/ bird/pro_07.html>. . 26 May 2006 <www.messyoptics.com/ bird/pro_07.html>. • Messy OpticsMessy Optics. 26 May 2006 <www.messyoptics.com/ bird/pro_07.html>. . 26 May 2006 <www.messyoptics.com/ bird/pro_07.html>. • More Than 250,000 Protesters Gather in Washington, D.C., in the Largestantiwar More Than 250,000 Protesters Gather in Washington, D.C., in the Largestantiwar

Demonstration to Occur During the Vietnam War.Demonstration to Occur During the Vietnam War. 1969. Washington D.C. 1969. Washington D.C. History CentralHistory Central. . 26 May 2006 <www.multied.com/ vietnam/bigantiwar.html>. 26 May 2006 <www.multied.com/ vietnam/bigantiwar.html>.

• Odium Institute for Research in Social ScienceOdium Institute for Research in Social Science. 15 May 2006 . 15 May 2006 <http://www.irss.unc.edu/odum/jsp/home.jsp>. <http://www.irss.unc.edu/odum/jsp/home.jsp>.

• "Pentagon Papers." "Pentagon Papers." WikipediaWikipedia. 22 May 2006 . 22 May 2006 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentagon_papers>. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentagon_papers>.

• "The Movement's Effect on the War." "The Movement's Effect on the War." Radical Times: the Antiwar Movement of the 1960'sRadical Times: the Antiwar Movement of the 1960's. . 19 May 2006 <http://library.thinkquest.org/27942/effects.htm>. 19 May 2006 <http://library.thinkquest.org/27942/effects.htm>.

• "The New Left." "The New Left." WikipediaWikipedia. 22 May 2006 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Left>. . 22 May 2006 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Left>. • Washington D.C. Washington D.C. Following in Their FootstepsFollowing in Their Footsteps. 26 May 2006 <homepage.mac.com/.../ . 26 May 2006 <homepage.mac.com/.../

History/>.History/>.