Antimicrobial Chemotherapy & Resistance Ken B. Waites, M.D. F(AAM) October, 2008 Learning Objectives • To understand how antibiotics work • To review how drug resistance develops in bacteria • To summarize current status of antimicrobial resistance in selected bacteria • To understand how resistant organisms are detected in the clinical laboratory
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Antimicrobial Chemotherapy &Resistance
Ken B. Waites, M.D. F(AAM)October, 2008
Learning Objectives• To understand how antibiotics work• To review how drug resistance develops in
bacteria• To summarize current status of antimicrobial
resistance in selected bacteria• To understand how resistant organisms are
detected in the clinical laboratory
Terminology• Antibiotic - An agent that can be naturally occurring,
partially or completely synthetic that selectivelyinhibits the growth of microorganisms at lowconcentrations (penicillin)
• Antiseptic – An agent used to inhibit or eliminatemicrobes on skin or other living tissue (alcohol,iodine, chlorhexidine)
• Disinfectant – An agent used to destroy microbeson inanimate objects (phenols, formaldehyde,chlorine bleach)
Agar Dilution• Reference method• Too time consuming and
expensive for routine useas primary method
• Excellent for screeningsingle drugs– MRSA (oxacillin screen
agar)– Vancomycin-resistant
enterococcus agar
Lab Report Terminology
• Susceptible - appropriate Rx with recommendeddosage
• Intermediate - MIC approaches blood/tissue levelfor which response may be less than for susceptibleisolates. May Rx for infection in sites where drug isconcentrated or if high dose is used
• Resistant - organism not inhibited by achievablesystemic concentration with normal dosage and/orralls in range where clinical efficacy unreliable
Desirable Properties of Antibiotics
• Selective toxicity• Water soluble• Bactericidal• High serum levels achieved for several hours• Broad spectrum• Minimal effect on normal flora• Low potential for inducing resistance• Minimal side effects/toxicity
Clinical Pharmacology ofAntibiotics
• Serum/tissue concentrations• Route of elimination• Half life• Oral vs. parenteral• Duration of treatment• Bateriostatic vs. bactericidal• Kinetics of killing
• Concentration vs. time dependent
Indications for Cidal Drugs
• Life threatening conditions• Endocarditis• Meningitis
• Immunosuppressed host
Combination Therapy
• Broadspectrum
• Polymicrobialinfections
• Preventresistance
• Synergy
• Risk of toxicity• Superinfection• Cost• Antagonism
Antimicrobial Prophylaxis
• Prevent endocarditis following dentalwork
• Contacts of meningococcal meningitis• Opportunistic infections in AIDS• Recurrent UTIs• Prevent post-surgical infections
“ Antibiotic resistance has been a fact of life since the dawn ofthe antibiotic era in the mid 20th century. Clinical deploymentof every new antimicrobial agent has been greeted with thedevelopment of resistance in one or more bacterial species.”
Selective Pressure“Environmental conditions enhance ability ofbacteria to develop resistance and proliferate.Ability to survive may be the result ofspontaneous mutation or acquisition of new DNA.Organisms with new mutations or genes probablywould not survive if it were not for environmentalconditions that encouraged their emergence.”
FC TenoverHosp Pract, Feb, 1999
Tertiary Care Hospitals
Potential Routes for Spread ofDrug-Resistant Bacteria
Antibiotics in Animal Food
Day Care Centers
Community Outpatients
CommunityHospitals
Nursing Homes
3rd World Countries
Other Factors That May IncreaseAntimicrobial Resistance in Hospitals
• Greater severity of illness• Immunocompromised patients• New devices and procedures• Ineffective infection control practices• Increased use of antimicrobial prophylaxis• Empiric polymicrobial antimicrobial therapy
Organism CharacteristicsFavoring Resistance
• Intrinsic resistance to some drugs• Ability to exchange genetic
information• Ability to survive adverse
environmental conditions• Easily colonize, infect, and transmit• Reservoirs in body
Impact of AntimicrobialResistance
• Prolonged illness/hospitalization• Increased mortality• Inappropriate therapy• More expensive/toxic therapy• More lab tests• Spread of infectious organisms that may
have no effective treatment and that may beimpossible to eradicate from hospital
How Does Antibiotic ResistanceAffect the Biology of the Bacteria?
• It does not typically make the organismmore virulent in its ability to cause diseaseor produce pathologic lesions in the host
• Slight resistance may still be overcome withhigher doses of antibiotic, especially if thedrug is concentrated in the site of infection
• Highly resistant strains will not respond andwill require alternative treatments
Types of AntimicrobialResistance
• Innate or Primary• Acquired
How Bacteria Pick Up Resistance GenesHow Bacteria Pick Up Resistance Genes
Clonal spread of S. pneumoniae Spain23F
USA
Mexico
ColombiaBrazil
ArgentinaUruguayChile
SouthAfrica
SingaporeMalaysia
ThailandPhilippines
Hong KongTaiwan
South KoreaSpain
FranceBM42001978 ?
Finland
Several well-characterized PRSP clones have spread worldwide, driven by selectiveantibiotic pressureUp to 85% of PRSP in U.S. belong to one of 9-10 clonal groups, often MDR
Corso, Microb Drug Res, 1998
Bacterial Strain Typing PFGE
100%
95%
Figure 2. Pulse field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) patterns and dendrogram of a single clone of VRE isolated from 14 UAB patients at UAB Hospital. Five isolates were from 1997; 8 isolates were from 1998; and 1 isolate was from 1999. Patterns were gene rated using PFGE on Sma1 digested genomic DNA and the dendrogram produced using Pearson correlation in GelComparII (Applied Maths, Kortrijk, Belgium).
PFGE patterns and dendrogram of a single clone of vancomycin-resistant E. faecium isolated from14 patients at UAB. 5 isolates were from 1997; 8 isolates were from 1998; and 1 isolate was from1999 indicating persistence of infecting organisms in the nosocomial environment for many months.
Mechanisms of Antimicrobial ResistanceMechanisms of Antimicrobial ResistanceActive Efflux ErythromycinErythromycin
Bacterial Defense
Mechanism
EnzymeInactivation
PenicillinPenicillin
Altered TargetFluoroquinolonesFluoroquinolones
Antimicrobial Antimicrobial agentagent
BypassTrimethTrimeth/sulfa/sulfa
Decreased permeability
Aminoglycoside
Susceptible Resistant
Penicillin-binding proteinsβ-Lactamases
β-Lactams: Mechanisms of Resistance
β
β β β
Susceptible Resistant
Ribosome
Drug efflux
M M
M
Esterases
M
M
M
MBacterium
M
Macrolides: Mechanisms of Resistance
Sulfonamide Resistance:Metabolic Bypass
•Sulfonam
ides inhibitfolic acid synthesisby binding todihydropteroatesynthase, a criticalstep in D
•• Staphylococcus aureusStaphylococcus aureus–– skin and wound infectionsskin and wound infections
–– bacteremia bacteremia•• > 50% of > 50% of S. aureus S. aureus are MRSA in many hospitals)are MRSA in many hospitals)•• Carrier spread within and between institutions byCarrier spread within and between institutions by
healthcare workershealthcare workers•• Most MRSA are resistant to almost all drug classesMost MRSA are resistant to almost all drug classes
except vancomycinexcept vancomycin
•• Community-acquired MRSA becoming more commonCommunity-acquired MRSA becoming more common
Problematic resistance in nosocomial infections: Problematic resistance in nosocomial infections:
MRSA: An Escalating ProblemUAB Hospital (1996-2006)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
% R
esis
tan
t Is
ola
tes
MRSA attack rate: 5/1000 admissions
ESBLs: Plasmid-Mediated Resistance
Transposons:(mobile genetic elements)
Transferable Plasmid carries genetic information,
including codes for various resistance
factors
Controlling Drug Resistance
• Education• Healthcare providers and consumers• Limit unnecessary antibiotics• Proper dose and duration of therapy• Limit prophylaxis• Target pathogens• CDC guidelines