Anthony Turner Fighting s Amp c

INSIDENEWSpage 2

TRAINING CONSIDERATION FORATHLETES WITH LOWER LIMBMUSCLE IMBALANCEpage 4

PERFORMANCE NUTRITIONpage 9

S&C FOR TAEKWONDO ATHLETESpage 15

THE FIVE PEOPLE YOU MEET INHEAVENpage 28

1 Woodville Terrace, Lytham,Lancashire FY8 5QB.

t: 0845 300 8078

f: 0845 300 8079

e: [email protected]

EDITORIan Jeffreys MSc, ASCC, CSCS*D

EDITORIAL PANELRaphael Brandon MSc, ASCCClive Brewer MSc, BSc(Hons), ASCC, CSCSMarco Cardinale PhD, ASCCDave Clark MSc, ASCCDaniel Cleather MA, ASCC, CSCSPaul Comfort MSc, ASCCAudrey Duncan PhD, ASCCMike Favre MSc, ASCCDuncan French PhD, ASCCJon Goodwin MSc, PGCHE, ASCCGreg Haff PhD, ASCC, FNSCA, CSCSLiam Kilduff PhDJeremy Moody PhD, ASCCPhil Moreland BAppSci, AssocDip, ASCCNarelle Sibte BAppSci, Grad Dip, ASCCAlan Sinclair BSc (Hons), ASCC, CSCSGil Stevenson BEd (Hons), ASCCMargaret Stone MSc, ASCCMichael Stone PhD, ASCCMark Simpson MSc, ASCCGraham Turner MSc, BEd (Hons), ASCC

COLUMN EDITORSGraeme Close PhD, ASCCNick Ward MSc, CSCSStuart Yule BSc (Physio), ASCC

PROFESSIONALstrength & condi t ioningNo. 15 AUTUMN 2009 The journal of the UK Strength & Conditioning Association

In July, I had the pleasure of attending the NSCA’s NationalConference in Las Vegas, and during the week was regularlyreminded of the words of Colin Welland when accepting his Oscar forBest Original Screenplay for Chariots of Fire, famously announcing

"The British are coming". Throughout the week there were constantreminders of how far the strength and conditioning profession has come inthe last five years or so, and how the reputation of UK strength andconditioning is rapidly on the rise. This was in stark contrast with my firstattendance at an NSCA conference in Orlando, where no such professionexisted in the UK, and it was almost an embarrassment trying to explainUK strength and conditioning at this time, and the almost non existenceof S&C facilities.

Highlights of the Conference included Professor Mike Stone, in his keynotetalk, outlining how applied sport science was thriving in the UK, throughthe work of strength and conditioning coaches. Using UK practice as anexemplar, he highlighted how applied sport science must underpin theprofession of strength and conditioning. His talk highlighted some greatwork being carried out by UK practitioners, as well as praising theConference we had just staged a month prior to the NSCA event. Thiswork was further highlighted by Mark Simpson’s UKSCA sponsored talk onhis work with British Cycling, a presentation that was very well receivedby many high profile practitioners and scientists. Similarly, Duncan Frenchalso gave two very well received presentations, one a theoretical outlineof the acute impact of hormonal factors on performance and the second, apractical workshop on the challenges of working with basketball playerswith their associated anthropometrical challenges.

The British influence extended into the awards ceremony, where formerUKSCA board member, Adam Beard, received the High School coach ofthe year award for his work at the Aspire Academy in Qatar. I waspersonally honoured to be awarded a Fellowship by the NSCA, however,the real highlight was Meg Stone achieving the lifetime achievementaward for her exceptional career in the industry. Meg, (together withMike), has been so influential to the growth of the UKSCA, that we stillconsider her as one of our own.

It was great to see so many UKSCA members at the event, so unlike myexperiences of not so long ago, where so few British coaches werepresent. This presence even extended to athletes, where Jasmin Hicksand Jermaine McIntosh of Middlesex University competed in the NSCA’s

ISSN 1757-5834

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UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

© UKSCA | Issue 15 | Autumn 2009 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: [email protected]

Performance Index Championships against athletes from the US, Canada and Japan. Coached by Anthony Turner,they gave creditable performances, and hopefully this UK presence can be repeated next year.

All of these events, together with the kind words about our organisation from so many respected individuals,were a great credit to the work the association and its members have put in to establish the quality andreputation of UK strength and conditioning.

In this edition of Professional Strength and Conditioning, we review the major messages to come from the greattalks delivered at our Conference in July. My thanks to all those individuals who contributed their reviews.

The edition also features an excellent review based article by Anthony Turner on training for Taekwondo. Themartial arts do not generally feature a great deal in Journals, and so the ability to publish such an excellentarticle really adds to the quality of this edition. Similarly, Paul Comfort of Salford University has produced a greatarticle on dealing with a common issue in S&C – that of an imbalance between quadriceps and hamstringstrength. For this issue, given the applied nature of the paper, this article replaces the usual Exercise of theMonth column.

Graeme Close has again come up with a really thought provoking article in the Performance Nutrition column.Penned by Dr James Morton, it takes a new look at the issue of carbohydrate intake, and comes up with someinteresting concepts.

Nick Ward has likewise pulled a major coup, interviewing one of the true legends of the strength and conditioningprofession – Vern Gambetta. Interviewed by Dave Cripps of Coventry University, Vern clearly demonstrates hismulti-dimensional approach to performance enhancement, one that goes beyond sets and reps, and takes a farmore eclectic view of the profession. Always a great read, Vern makes some great points, which we need toconsider when evaluating the true quality of our coaching performance.

Ian Jeffreys

Editor

UKSCA NEWSTWO UKSCA ACCREDITED MEMBERS WERE NOTABLE PRESENTERS AT THENSCA’S NATIONAL CONFERENCE IN LAS VEGAS IN JULYMark Simpson and Duncan French, both prominent UKSCA members, and who lead on EIS Strength andConditioning support to British Cycling and GB Basketball respectively, both gave presentations based on theircontinued work with the sports.

Mark, who is the Lead Strength and Conditioning Coach for the British Cycling team, represented the UKSCA inits presenter exchange programme with the NSCA. Mark provided an insight into the sophisticated monitoringand evaluation techniques that are used to assess the effectiveness of the strength and power training that hedoes with the team. Clearly demonstrating the application of sport science to S&C, Marks presentation was aclear application of the plea from Mike Stone for the development of true sport science. Mark emphasised howmonitoring and evaluation is a fundamental concept within the discipline of Strength and Conditioning (S&C), andis crucial to the ability to assess and demonstrate the impact of the S&C programme on sport performance.

Mark went on to stress that having the knowledge and understanding of how the individual athlete responds isvital to ensuring the success of any programme. Not only will the coach be able to optimise the S&C trainingprogramme, but he/she will also be able to sensitively track markers of physiological and mechanical stress,which can help reduce the risk of overtraining, burnout and injury.

The presentation received positive feedback from some of the most distinguished practitioners and researchers inthe world, who were among the 3,000 delegates at the conference. Dr G. Gregory Haff, Vice-President of theNSCA, commented: “Mark delivered what could be considered one of the highlight presentations of this year’sNSCA conference.”

“His talk embodied the NSCA’s mission of bridging the gap between science and practical application. The centraltheme of Mark’s presentation was a discussion about how strength and conditioning professionals can utilizescientific assessments to monitor and guide the training practices of athletes. What was most exciting about histalk was that he gave keen insight into how he quantifies resistance training and monitors performance changeswith the elite athletes contained in the British Track Cycling Programme. This data was then presented in a waywhich truly showed the relationships between the resistance training programme and the actual performanceimprovements on the track”. Dr Mike Stone was also full of praise for the talk, “Mark’s presentation was thehighlight of all of the presentations at the conference - what he gave the audience is exactly the type of thingthey need to hear and was exactly the point I was getting at in my talk, regarding the need for more appliedsport science”.

Simpson said, “It was great to get some positive feedback and I felt a great sense of pride and responsibility inrepresenting the EIS and the UK Strength and Conditioning Association.” The scale of the conference really tookme back, as I had never presented to that many people before, but I really enjoyed the experience” he added.

Following Simpson’s presentation, UKSCA board member Duncan French formed part of a symposium on, ‘Theimportance of the endocrine system before, during and after resistance exercise’. The symposium included world

3



renowned scientist in the field ofresistance training and endocrinephysiology Dr William J. Kraemer,with French providing apresentation detailing the acutehormonal responses prior toresistance exercise.

French had also previouslypresented at a pre-conferencesymposium on the ‘Principles andPractice of Basketball Strengthand Conditioning’.

“The title of my presentation was‘Big man syndrome; developingmulti-directional speed and agilityin tall athletes’” and this talkfocused on the physical andphysiological challenges presentedto S&C coaches working withathletes of tall stature. It servedto outline the aetiology of aparadigm I have termed ‘big mansyndrome’, and gave practicaladvice on coaching strategies toaddress this issue”. Dr. BarrySpiering, Assistant Professor ofthe Department of Kinesiology atCalifornia State University said: "Ihad the pleasure of listening toDr. French reveal his insights intotraining GB's national basketballteams. His knowledge andexperience led him to believethat, because biomechanical andneuromuscular distinctions existbetween shorter athletes andtaller athletes, taller athletesmust receive unique physicaltraining to maximize performanceand minimize the risk of futureinjury.”

“Dr. French cleverly coined theterm ‘Big Man Syndrome’ todescribe the phenomenon andsupported his claims with datathat he had collected/analyzedwhile training these athletes. Hiscombination of insight, experienceand charisma resulted in anenlightening presentation and Icertainly look forward to listeningto him speak at future meetings."

ADAM J. BEARD RECEIVESNATIONAL STRENGTHAND CONDITIONINGASSOCIATION’S (NSCA)HIGH SCHOOL AWARDAWARDFormer UKSCA Board Member, AdamBeard (above), was awarded theprestigious High School Strength andConditioning Professional of the YearAward at the NSCA’s NationalConference in Las Vegas. Beard earnedthe special honour in recognition of hisefforts on behalf of high school coachesand his dedication to the strength andconditioning profession. RobertJursnick, NSCA’s Executive Directorstates, “It is a privilege to honourAdam and recognize his achievement,”says Jursnick, “Adam’s well-earnedaward and his contributions shapeNSCA into what it is today.”

This was only the second time theaward had been given to a coach fromoutside the US, and that awardsimilarly had a UKSCA link, with IanJeffreys being the recipient in 2006.

MEG STONE RECEIVESLIFETIME ACHIEVEMENTAWARDThe NSCA (National Strength andConditioning Association) NationalConference was held in Las Vegas,Nevada from July 8th to the 11th2009. This association comprises ofmany professionals interested in thefitness business, but was originallyfounded by the College Strength andConditioning Coaches. During theawards banquet, Meg Stone, Directorof the Center of Excellence in SportScience and Coach education at EastTennessee University was presentedwith the most prestigious award givenby the NSCA, that of the LifetimeAchievement Award.

Meg has been a member of the NSCAfor 25 years and has Chaired theWomen’s Committee which publishedthe Position Stance on Women andResistance Training. She also workedtwo terms on the conference

committee and is a Fellow of theNSCA. During her acceptance speechshe thanked the NSCA for the award,stating that this was an example ofthe NSCA’s commitment to sportscience and coaching. Throughout hercareer Meg has blazed the trail forstrength and conditioning on bothsides of the Atlantic. A two timeOlympian for Great Britain in thediscus and shot, Meg had aphenomenal career in Europe and theUS as an athlete, before establishingherself as a pioneer in the field ofstrength and conditioning. She stillholds NCAA records in the shot anddiscus and won gold at thecommonwealth games in 1982.

Meg was the first female to hold theposition of head strength andconditioning coach at a Division 1football playing college at Arizona, aposition she also held at Texas Tech.In 1999 she was appointed thenational track and field coach forScotland, again the first woman inEurope to hold such a position. Meghas coached athletes across a vastrange of sports, including athletes whohave played in the NBA, NFL and MLB.

An accomplished athlete and coach,Meg has been a staunch supporter ofthe UKSCA since its establishment,and the Association would like toheartily congratulate Meg on thisthoroughly deserved award.

JEFFREYS MADE AN NSCAFELLOWUKSCA board member, Ian Jeffreys,was awarded a fellowship by the NSCA,at their award dinner during theirNational Conference in Las Vegas.Jeffreys joins a list that includes someof the foremost researchers andpractitioners in the strength andconditioning field. National Strength andConditioning Association (NSCA) Fellowsare an accomplished group ofprofessionals whose frequent andsustained contributions to theprofession have promoted the goals andactivities of the profession and NSCA.Fellowship is intended to promoteexcellence and leadership within thefield of strength and conditioning andthe NSCA by recognizing high standardsand extraordinary professionaldevelopment. This designation reflectsthe professional stature of the Fellowand their record of valuablecontributions to the NSCA. “The list ofNSCA fellow reads like a who’s who ofthe strength and conditioningprofession, and to be invited into thisgroup is a massive honour”, saidJeffreys.

News continued on page 27

UKSCA TUTOR ANDASSESSORRECRUITMENTWe are inviting applicationsfrom Accredited members tojoin the UKSCA Assessor and/orUKSCA Tutor Group. AllAccredited members will becontacted in the next few weeksand the positions will also beadvertised on our website. Weplan to start the training of thenew tutors and assessors inDecember.

IntroductionAn imbalance in muscle strength between agonists (quadriceps) and antagonists(hamstrings) in the lower limb, have been shown to be a contributing factor tonon-contact injuries.13,17,19,23,30,36,51 Bilateral asymmetry has also been shown toincrease injury risk.36 Therefore, it is essential that conditioning programs areappropriately designed to address, or prevent, the incidence of muscleimbalances and subsequently reduce the risk of injury.18 This article aims toreview the injury risks associated with lower limb muscle imbalance, and providepractical guidelines on how to address and prevent muscle imbalances in thelower limbs.

Agonist / Antagonist ImbalanceThigh muscle balance is usually assessed via isokinetic dynamometry, and hastraditionally compared the peak concentric torque of the hamstrings to that ofthe quadriceps in almost all studies.7,13,45,51 While extensively used, it has beenacknowledged that this ratio has its limitations, the main one being that it is notfunctional or specific to mechanisms of injury.

To address this, several studies have adopted methods of expressing the peaktorque of the eccentric hamstrings relative to peak torque of concentricquadriceps.1,25 This may be more representative of the functional roles of thesemuscles, as the hamstrings act as co-contraction during knee flexion, tominimize both anterior and lateral tibial translation,2,20,35 decrease shear forces,38

thus increasing knee stability.1 As the quadriceps contract concentrically, thehamstrings act passively until they reach end of range, when they contracteccentrically to decelerate movement and stabilise the knee joint.47

Thigh muscle imbalance has been shown to be an indicator of increased risk ofinjury.19 An imbalance between the hamstrings and quadriceps, (eccentrichamstring to concentric quadriceps ratio of <1:1, or a conventional concentrichamstring: quadriceps ratio of <2:3), may increase the risk of hamstringinjuries,13,17,36,51,23 and anterior cruciate ligament injuries.30 More importantly,Crossier et al (2008) found that restoring a ‘normal’ strength profile in soccerplayers with muscle imbalances decreased the incidence of injury.18

Bilateral AsymmetryKnapik et al, (1991) identified that athletes with >15% contralateral strengthdifferences, have an increased injury risk.36 As previously mentioned, assessmentof muscle imbalance is commonly performed via isokinetic dynamometry.However, assessment of bilateral imbalance, is also possible using field testssuch as the unilateral leg vertical jump43 and bilateral vertical jump (10 jumps,alternating left and right foot on a force plate).32 If such equipment is notavailable, comparison of single leg vertical jump heights may be a suitable,although less accurate and reliable alternative.

It is essential to monitor muscle balance / imbalance as muscle loading patternsexperienced during sports such as soccer, may favour the greater developmentof the quadriceps muscles compared with the hamstrings, altering the reciprocalbalance of strength about the knee.16 Furthermore, soccer players often favourthe use of their dominant limb when performing game-specific activities,52 andmay develop bilateral strength differences between the limbs, if not identifiedand addressed with specific training.12

Training considerationfor athletes with lowerlimb muscle imbalance

Paul Comfort MSc, ASCC, CSCS & Dr Phillip Graham-Smith PhD, CSCS

Dr Phil Graham-Smith is the researchprogramme leader for Strength &Conditioning in Sport, and former

Head of the Directorate of Sport at theUniversity of Salford. He is a BASES

Accredited Sports Biomechanist, BOAregistered Performance Analyst and a

Certified Strength & ConditioningSpecialist. He has over 16 years

applied experience providingbiomechanical assessments for UK

Athletics (primarily long and triplejumpers) and a variety of other sports

including professional football andrugby clubs.

4



Paul Comfort is the programmeleader for the MSc Strength andConditioning at the University of

Salford, and Head of Sports ScienceSupport for Salford City Reds. He

has 10 years of experience workingwith both individual athletes andprofessional squads of athletes.

5



Training Strategies toAddress an Agonist /Antagonist ImbalanceOnce an imbalance between agonist and antagonist hasbeen identified, appropriate conditioning can beperformed to correct the imbalance.21,37 It is worthnoting that although squats are an excellent exercisefor lower limb development, they do not provide asufficient training stimulus for the hamstrings, due to alow level of hamstring activation (15% contributed bythe biceps femoris and 24% overall).14 Asaforementioned, during knee flexion the hamstrings actprimarily as co-contractors, to minimize both anteriorand lateral tibial translation.2,20,35 These findings highlightthe requirement for a hamstring specific trainingstimulus, such as leg flexion or the Romanian Deadlift,(see figure 1), in addition to squatting movementsduring concentric strengthening.14,22 It is also worthnoting, however, that open kinetic chain exercises, suchas leg flexion, have little effect on performance offunctional movements,5,6,8 but may help to addressmuscle imbalances.

Exercises, such as the Romanian Deadlift and legflexion, however, do not address the eccentric role ofthe hamstrings in decreasing anterior tibialtranslation,2,20,35 and increasing knee stability.1 Specificeccentric training is therefore essential. Exercises suchas Nordic hamstring lowers, (see fig 2 & 3), have beenshown to create greater strength gains than concentrictraining,33,34.40 and decrease the risk of hamstringinjuries3,4,11,15,24,40 by improving the hamstring:quadricepsratio, especially when assessed at higher velocities.30,40

Eccentric training appears to alter the angle ofhamstring peak torque closer to full extension,9,10,15,34.40

thereby improving muscle balance between thequadriceps and hamstrings throughout the range ofmotion, which may reduce injury risk further.

An alternative to Nordic hamstring lowers, is performingeccentric training on an isokinetic dynamometer. However,if such equipment is not available, an alternative is toperform the concentric portion of leg curls (leg flexion)bilaterally, followed by the eccentric portion unilaterally,thereby increasing relative eccentric load. Figure 1. Romanian Deadlift

Figure 2. Figure 3.

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The incorporation of plyometrics and agility drills intoan athlete’s training program has also been shown toincrease hamstring peak torque and improvehamstring quadriceps ratios,27,50 and may also decreasethe risk of re-occurrence of hamstring strain injuries,26

which can be attributed to the rapid eccentric loading.Progression for plyometric activities should developfrom ensuring appropriate landing strategies, (correctfoot placement, and alignment of ankle, knee andhips, avoiding knee valgus and excessive trunkflexion), to unidirectional (e.g. squat jumps),bidirectional (e.g. bounding, forwards / backwards,lateral hops), and on to multidirectional movements(e.g. zig-zag bounding).26

Training Strategies toAddress Bilateral AsymmetryTo address bilateral asymmetry, it is recommended thatunilateral exercises are incorporated into the athletestraining program,49 as they have been shown to result ingreater improvements in unilateral performance whencompared to bilateral training regimes.39 Example of suchexercises include: single leg squats; Bulgarian split squats(figure 4); single leg Romanian deadlifts (figure 5); singleleg hamstring complex (figure 6); and progressive unilateralplyometric drills (single leg hops, single leg vertical jumps,single leg lateral hops, single leg zig-zag hops).

Figure 4. Figure 5.

Figure 6. Figure 7.

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ApplicationAddressing Lower Limb Muscle ImbalanceConditioning to address identified muscle imbalancesneeds to be progressive, starting with generalconcentric strengthening (leg flexion, hamstringcomplex (figure 7), Romanian Deadlift – for hamstrings(figure 1),14,22 progressing through low velocity eccentrictraining (Nordic hamstring lowers (figure 2 & 3),33,34.40 onto high velocity eccentric training (deceleration andjump landing training), progressing to full plyometrictraining.9,10,15,33 Progression for plyometric activitiesshould develop from unidirectional linear movements, tobidirectional and onto multidirectional movements.26 Forexample; Single Leg Bounding, Backward Skips, LateralBarrier Hops, Lateral Bounding, Double Leg Zig-ZagHops and Zig-Zag Bounding. Strength and ROM shouldalso be maintained during this stage.

Preventing Lower Limb Muscle ImbalanceThe execution of these exercises does not have to takeup additional time if an interdisciplinary approach istaken.37Many of the exercises can be incorporated intothe dynamic warm-ups prior to skill training, strengthand conditioning and rehabilitation sessions.31,44 Olsenet al, (2005) found that adding specific running, cuttingand landing technique drills, along with body weightsquats and single leg squats and Nordic hamstringlowers resulted in a decreased incidence of injury.44

Additional, more focussed corrective exercise can beadded to strength and conditioning or rehabilitationsessions.

Injury prevention programs including neuromuscularcontrol, strengthening and plyometric exercises havedemonstrated a potential for improving sportsperformance.4,26,28,41,42,46 These interventions, however,were 60-90 minute training sessions, not shortduration warm-ups, which may not be sufficient inintensity or duration to elicit increases inperformance.48 However, even simple interventions,such as adding 5 drop jumps (from a 60cm box), havebeen shown to enhance subsequent acuteperformance, possibly due to post activationpotentiation.29

ConclusionTo prevent lower limb muscle imbalance, the mostpractical approach appears to be to integrate unilateralexercises (single leg Romanian deadlifts, single legsquats), low velocity eccentric exercises (Nordichamstring lowers), deceleration (drop jumps) andplyometric training into each dynamic warm-up that anathlete performs.31,37,44

To address an existing lower limb imbalance, a morefocussed approach is required within rehabilitation andstrength and conditioning sessions. This should includeall of the exercises used in preventing lower limbmuscle imbalances during dynamic warm-ups, howeverthis process needs to be progressive and incorporatedinto a effective periodised strategy, ensuringprogressive overload in terms of muscle action(concentirc to eccentic: e.g. leg flexion to Nordichamstring lowers), loading (low to high), and velocity(low to high; e.g. Romanian deadlifts and Nordichamstring lowers to plyometric drills).

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hamstrings activated to counteract shear forces during

isometric knee extension efforts in healthy subjects? J

Electromyogr Kinesiol. 14 (3): 307-15. 2004.

36. Knapik, J. J., Bauman, C. L., Jones, B. H., Harris, J. M.,

and Vaughan, L. Preseason strength and flexibility

imbalances associated with athletic injuries in female

collegiate athletes. Am J Sports Med. 19 (1): 76-81. 1991.

37. Lehance, C., Binet, J., Bury, T., Crossier, J. L. Muscular

strength, functional performances and injury risk in

professional and junior elite athletes. Scand J Med Sci

Sports. 2008 (E-pub ahead of print).

38. Li, G., Rudy, T. W., Sakane, M., Kanamori, A., Ma, C. B. &

Woo, S. L. Y. The importance of quadriceps and hamstring

muscle loading on knee kinematics and in-situ forces in the

ACL. J. Biomech. 32: 395-400. 1999.

39. McGurdy, K. W., Langford, G. A., Doscher, M. W., Wiley, L.

P. & Mallard, K. G. The effects of short-term unilateral and

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40. Mjolsnes, R., Arnason, A., Osthagen, T., Raastad, T., Bahr,

R. A 10-week randomized trial comparing eccentric vs.

concentric hamstring strength training in well trained soccer

players. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports. 14 (5): 311-7. 2004.

41. Myer, G. D., Ford, K. R., Palumbo, J. P., & Hewett, T. E.

Neuromuscular training improves performance and lower

extremity biomechanics in female athletes. J Strength Cond

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42. Myer, G. D., Ford, K. R., Brent, J. L., & Hewett, T. E. The

effects of plyometric vs. dynamic stabilization and balance

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athletes. J Strength Cond Res. 20: 345–353. 2006.

43. Newton, R. U., Gerber, A., Nimphius, S., Shim, J. K., Doan,

B. K., Robertson, M., Pearson, D. R., Craig, B. W.,

Hakkinen, K. & Kraemer, W. J. Determination of functional

strength imbalance of the lower extremities. J Strength

Cond Res. 20 (4): 971-977. 2006.

44. Olsen O-E, Myklebust G, Engebretsen L, Holme I, Bahr R.

Exercises to prevent lower limb injuries in youth sports:

cluster randomised controlled trial. Brit Med J. 2005: 330:

449.

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Preseason hamstring muscle weakness associated with

hamstring muscle injury in Australian footballers. Am J

Sports Med. 25 (1): 81-85. 1997.

46. Paterno, M. V., Myer, G. D., Ford, K. R., & Hewett, T. E.

Neuromuscular training improves single-limb stability in

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305–316. 2004.

47. Smith, A.M. The coactivation of antagonist muscles. Can J

Physiol Pharma. 59: 733-747. 1981.

48. Steffen, K., Bakka, M., Myklebust, G., & Bahr, R.

Performance aspects of an injury prevention program: a

ten week intervention in adolescent female football players.

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49. Weir, J. P., Housh, D. J., Housh, T. J. & Weir, L. L. The

effect of unilateral eccentric weight training on joint angle

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Sports Phys Ther. 22 (5): 207-215. 1995.

50. Wilkerson, G.B. Colston, M.A. Short, N.I. Neal, K.L.

Hoewischer, P.E. Pixley, J.J. Neuromuscular Changes in

Female Collegiate Athletes Resulting From a Plyometric

Jump-Training Program. J Athl Train. 39 (1): 71-23. 2004.

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leg muscle strength. J Sports Med Phys Fit. 33 (2): 194-

199. 1993.

52. Zakas A. Bilateral isokinetic peak torque of quadriceps and

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Fitness. 46: 28–35. 2006.

Dr James Morton is a Lecturer inExercise Metabolism and Sports

Nutrition at Liverpool John MooresUniversity. His research interests

focus on the exercise-inducedcellular and molecular responses of

human skeletal muscle and theinfluence of diet and nutrition on

modulating these responses. As anearly stage researcher, James has

been awarded with YoungInvestigator Awards from the BritishAssociation of Sports and Exercise

Sciences and the European Collegeof Sport Sciences. As a practitioner,

James specialises in providingnutritional and conditioning support to

professional and amateur boxers.

Graeme is a lecturer at The University of Liverpool in cellular and metabolic medicine.His current research is focused upon investigating cellular mechanisms responsible formuscle damage and repair. Graeme regularly presents at international conferences andhas given keynote presentations on skeletal muscle damage and repair. Graeme is aformer professional rugby league player and currently works with Munster RUFC as theperformance nutritionist. He is also an accredited UKSCA member and a BASESaccredited physiologist.

Graeme Close is the column editor forthe ‘Performance Nutrition’ section.

PERFORMANCE NUTRITION

IntroductionEndurance exercise training induces a number of adaptations in skeletalmuscle, which function to improve exercise capacity and performance. Themost important of these adaptations is widely recognised as the increase inmitochondrial mass (i.e. mitochondrial biogenesis), which ultimately,permits athletes to exercise at higher intensities for a longer duration.10

The mechanism by which an increase in muscle mitochondria induces animprovement in exercise capacity and performance, is by reducing thedisturbance to metabolic homeostasis for a given exercise intensity.10 In thetrained state, acute customary exercise is therefore associated with smallerdecreases in ATP, phosphocreatine and muscle glycogen utilisation andsmaller increases in ADP, AMP, inorganic phosphate and muscle lactateaccumulation. Such adaptations are recognised physiologically by theclassic rightward shift of the lactate threshold curve, and an increasedreliance upon lipid sources to fuel muscle contraction. An increasedunderstanding of the mechanisms by which regular exercise promotesmitochondrial biogenesis is therefore of paramount importance for thoseindividuals with the common goal of improving endurance performance.

With the introduction of molecular biology techniques to the sport andexercise sciences, a large body of research over the last decade hasfocused on elucidating the cellular and molecular mechanisms underpinningexercise-induced mitochondrial biogenesis. The potential exercise-inducedmolecular ‘signals’ and signal transduction pathways are, of course,undoubtedly multi-factorial and highly complex. These signals, (actingalone or likely in combination with each other), can activate a multitude ofsignal transduction pathways, which initiate gene transcription andtranslation to create new proteins.6 The cumulative effect of each acuteexercise bout therefore, leads to a change in the steady-state level ofspecific proteins. Depending on the nature of the exercise stimulus (i.e.endurance versus resistance), the proteins up-regulated are typicallymitochondrial or myofibrillar based, respectively. It is these repeated andtransient changes in gene expression and protein translation which arethought to form the molecular basis for training adaptation.

During the last decade, one exercise signal which has consistently emergedfrom many laboratories worldwide is that the reduction in carbohydrateavailability for the contracting muscles is a potent metabolic signal, which

Lessons from CellSignalling: Promoting

Endurance Training-Induced Adaptations ofSkeletal Muscle through

Nutritional InterventionsJames P Morton, PhD

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can influence the adaptive responses of skeletal musclemitochondria to exercise. In the present paper, theauthor discusses this exciting new evidence andsuggests how lessons from cell signalling research maytherefore provide us with innovative training methodsfor athletic preparation.

Historical perspective: theimportance of carbohydrate forexercise performanceWith the introduction of the muscle biopsy technique inthe late 1960s, a series of studies from a Scandinavianlaboratory demonstrated the importance ofcarbohydrate rich diets on inducing improvements inexercise capacity.2,3 These early observations paved theway for the ‘carbohydrate loading’ strategies19 that arestill commonly adopted by many endurance athletestoday. In addition to the importance of muscleglycogen for competition, the 1980s and 1990s saw awealth of research investigating the efficacy ofexogenous carbohydrate (i.e. sports drinks), asergogenic aids to exercise performance. The generalconsensus from such research is that increasingexogenous carbohydrate availability (at an ingestionrate of approximately 1g per min), can promoteexercise performance and capacity in prolonged (>1h)moderate intensity events. This improvement inperformance is likely due to increased carbohydrateoxidation from blood glucose with a potential sparing ofboth liver and muscle glycogen stores and also theprevention of hypoglycaemia.12 Collectively, this body ofwork unequivocally demonstrates that for competition,athletes should arrive on the start line with highmuscle glycogen stores, which should subsequently besupported with increased glucose supply via the regularconsumption of carbohydrate based drinks.

The role of carbohydrate availabilityas a signal involved in mediatingthe adaptation of skeletal muscle toacute endurance exerciseBased on the evidence outlined above, it seems logical toconclude that an important nutritional goal for enduranceathletes when training, is to consume a diet that is highin carbohydrate stores, so as to fuel training periods ofhigh intensity. However, over the last 5-10 years, anaccumulating body of data has provided evidencedemonstrating that performing acute endurance exercisetraining sessions in conditions of reduced muscleglycogen, may actually provide an enhanced stimulus forinducing beneficial adaptations of skeletal muscle! Forexample, many muscle proteins such as heat shockprotein 70,7 interleukin-6,13 pyruvate dehodrogenasekinase 4 and hexokinase18 are up-regulated to a greaterextent when exercise is performed in conditions ofreduced pre-exercise muscle glycogen. Furthermore, theactivity of the AMP activated protein kinase enzyme(AMPK) is also augmented by reduced glycogenavailability both at rest and during exercise.20 This latterenzyme is of particular relevance for mitochondrialbiogenesis as it is an upstream signalling moleculeinvolved in stimulating a transduction pathway that isknown to induce the biogenesis of mitochondria.11

In addition to muscle glycogen, there is also datademonstrating that consuming glucose before andduring exercise (i.e. sports drinks), can attenuate

mitochondrial related adaptations of skeletal muscle toexercise. For example, the exercise-induced activity ofAMPK1 and the expression of genes involved in lipidmetabolism, are blunted when blood glucose availabilityis increased during exercise.5 Collectively, such data hastherefore resulted in somewhat of a paradox thatchallenges traditional and existing beliefs in the field ofsports nutrition. On the one hand, ensuring aconsistently high store of both muscle and liver glycogenand circulating blood glucose levels can support periodsof high training intensity, but on the other, highcarbohydrate availability from both sources may actuallyattenuate, and in some cases blunt, the responses whichwe are actually trying to induce in the first place! Thesefindings from acute exercise bouts have therefore led anumber of research groups to test the innovative ‘train-low, compete high’ hypothesis which surmises thattraining in conditions of reduced carbohydrate availabilitymay provide an enhanced stimulus for inducingmitochondrial adaptations of skeletal muscle (Figure 1).

The role of carbohydrate availabilityas a signal involved in mediatingthe adaptation of skeletal muscle toendurance exercise trainingOne experimental model to chronically manipulatemuscle glycogen availability is to perform training twiceevery second day, versus once daily (i.e. once in themorning and once in the afternoon). In this way, thesame amount of training can be performed over a settime period, but every second training session can beperformed with reduced muscle glycogen stores. Thefirst study to employ such a model originated from theCopenhagen Muscle Research Centre in 2005, wherethe authors used a two-legged knee extensor exercisetraining protocol (similar to performing repeated legextensions), where one limb was trained once daily andthe other limb was trained twice every second day fora 10 week period.9 Remarkably, the authors observedthat the limb that trained twice every second dayperformed better on a time to exhaustion test

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Figure 1. The ‘train-low, compete-high’ hypothesis. The righthand side of the figure is supported by strong researchevidence. However, in contrast to competition, emergingevidence suggests that training in conditions of reducedcarbohydrate availability may enhance training adaptation dueto activation of important molecular signalling events.

compared with the limb that trained once daily.Furthermore, the vastus lateralis muscle of the limbthat was trained twice every second day also displayedhigher post-training resting muscle glycogen stores andactivity of citrate synthase activity, (a marker ofmitochondrial activity), compared to the contra-laterallimb. The findings of this study and their applicabilityare of course limited, in that the one legged trainingmodel is not relevant to the training paradigms of mostsports. Nevertheless, this novel data did providesupport for the ‘train-low, compete-high’ hypothesis.

More recent data from the University of Melbourne hasalso provided support for this hypothesis using an elitecyclist population.21 The researchers employed twogroups of athletes, one who trained once daily and onewho trained twice every second day. Furthermore, inorder to also increase ecological validity, every secondtraining session consisted of high-intensity intervaltraining at the athletes’ ‘self’ selected maximal pace asopposed to a set amount of work done as in theCopenhagen study. As expected, the cyclists who trainedtwice every second day performed their second trainingsession at a reduced training intensity compared to theother group, likely due to the reduced pre-exerciseglycogen stores. However, despite this reduced trainingintensity, after the 3 week training period these cyclistshad greater activites of mitochondrial enzymes in thevastus lateralis muscle and also displayed increased ratesof fat oxidation during a sub-maximal exercise session,compared with the once per day training group. It shouldbe noted, however, that this enhanced training responsedid not translate to improved power output during a 60min performance trial. Nevertheless, this data providedthe first report that in an ecologically valid trainingmodel, training with reduced glycogen stores canaugment beneficial adaptations of muscle mitochondria.

Whilst the above investigations have provided insightfuldata, it is important to note that they have onlyinvestigated the affects of muscle glycogen on trainingadaptation. We have therefore recently conducted astudy in Liverpool John Moores University to investigatethe roles of both endogenous (i.e. muscle glycogen),and exogenous (i.e. blood glucose) carbohydrateavailability on training adaptation and performance.17 Wesubjected three groups of recreationally active subjectsto 6 weeks of high-intensity interval running, occurringfour times per week. Similar to the Australian study, twoof the subject groups trained once daily (NORM), ortwice every second day (LOW+PLA), so as to investigatethe influence of performing every second session withreduced muscle glycogen stores on training adaptation.However, we also included a third group (LOW+GLU) inour design, which performed the twice per day trainingprotocol but who also consumed a 6.4% carbohydratebeverage (i.e. commercially available sports drinks)immediately prior to, and at designated intervalsthroughout, every second training session. In contrast,subjects in the LOW+PLA group consumed an identicalamount of a taste, consistency and odour matchedplacebo solution at identical times immediately prior to,and throughout, the exercise protocol (see Figure 2 for aschematic of the experimental design). Given that weused running as our exercise mode, we obtained musclebiopsies from both the vastus lateralis andgastrocnemius muscles immediately before and after thetraining programme. We observed that trainingincreased mitochondrial enzyme activity, (as evidencedby succinate dehydrogenase), in both muscles of allgroups, where the largest increase occurred in those

subjects who trained in the LOW+PLA condition. Ourdata therefore confirmed the previous investigations bydemonstrating that performing 50% of training sessionswith reduced glycogen stores over a short-term trainingperiod can enhance mitochondrial enzyme adaptations.However, we also provided novel data by showing thatconsuming exogenous glucose during these specifictraining sessions can offset this enhanced trainingadaptation (see Figure 3). Similar to Yeo et al.,21 we alsoobserved that this enhanced training response does nottranslate to improvements in high-intensity exerciseperformance, though this finding is not surprising giventhat high-intensity exercise performance is not likely tobe limited by enzymes of the tricarboxylic cycle.

Although the precise molecular mechanismsunderpinning the aforementioned investigations remainto be determined, the evidence does suggest thatcarbohydrate availability, (from both endogenous andexogenous sources), for the contracting muscles beforeand during each training session, can markedly influencethe adaptive responses of muscle mitochondria to bothacute and chronic exercise. Whilst increased exerciseperformance after such training regimes has not alwaysbeen apparent, the enhanced adaptive responses ofskeletal muscle are important for prolonged enduranceevents performed at sub-maximal exercise intensities,where lipid sources contribute towards ATP production.

Potential risks of training withreduced carbohydrate storesThe most obvious risk of training with reducedcarbohydrate stores is an inability to maintain thedesired training intensity. As such, performing suchtraining models over a prolonged period of time maytherefore result in a de-training effect. Indeed, the

11



Figure 2. Schematic illustration of the experimental design. Allsubjects were assessed for 2max and performance on a YoYoIntermittent Recovery Test 2 (YoYoIRT2) before and aftertraining. Muscle biopsies from the gastrocnemius and vastuslateralis muscles were also obtained before and after training,and analysed for oxidative enzyme activity. Subjects trainedfour times per week, either twice per day, on Tuesday (Tu)and Thursday (Th) (LOW+GLU and LOW+PLA groups) or oncedaily on Monday (M), Tu, Th and Friday (F) (NORM group).Subjects who trained twice per day, performed one session inthe morning and another session in the afternoon after arecovery period of 3-4 hours. In this way, every afternoonsession was performed with reduced muscle glycogen stores.LOW+PLA subjects consumed a placebo solution andLOW+GLU subjects consumed a 6.4% carbohydrate solutionbefore and throughout this afternoon session. In contrast,NORM subjects commenced every training session with normalglycogen stores and consume no beverage throughouttraining; non-supplemented training session; carbohydrate-supplemented training session; placebo-supplementedtraining session.

12



subjects employed by Yeo et al,21 performed theirsecond training sessions with reduced exerciseintensity, owing to the reduced pre-exercise glycogenstores. Nevertheless, the training model we used inLiverpool consisted of two high-intensity intervalsessions which each consisted of five, 3 min intervalsat a running speed corresponding to 90% VO2max.Such data suggest that well motivated subjects canmaintain such high levels of exercise intensity even inthe face of commencing their second training sessionwith glycogen stores depleted by approximately 40%.Whilst this particular training protocol is common tothat used in field sports involving intermittent activity(e.g. soccer, rugby, hockey etc), it is acknowledgedthat it may not be applicable to prolonged events suchas marathon running where both training intensity andduration are important. Another important risk, asoutlined by Gleeson,8 is the associated risk of increasedinfection when carbohydrate intake in the diet isrelatively low. Any athlete training in conditions ofreduced carbohydrate availability, may therefore wishto supplement their diet with some of the ‘immuneboosting supplements’ discussed by Gleeson.8

No evidence exists to supporttraining with reduced glycogenstores for resistance trainingIn contrast to endurance training, there is nocompelling evidence to suggest that training inconditions of reduced carbohydrate availability canaugment the muscle hypertrophy adaptations induced

by resistance training.4 Lessons from cell signallingresearch can also help explain these findings. Firstly,activation of AMPK is increased under conditions ofreduced muscle glycogen,20 and this enzyme is knownto inhibit the Akt-mTOR transduction pathway that isinvolved in mediating increased protein synthesisrequired for muscle hypertrophy.15 Second, increasedinsulin can also down-regulate those signallingpathways associated with increased protein degradationwhich occurs during a resistance training session.14

With this in mind, resistance training should thereforebe supported with appropriate carbohydrate andprotein intake (see 16), both before and after thetraining session, so as to maximise protein synthesisand minimise protein degradation.

Conclusions and practicalrecommendationsIt is well documented that prolonged endurancecompetitive events should be supported with highcarbohydrate availability, which can be achieved by acombination of both high pre-exercise glycogen storesand increased glucose consumption throughout theevent. However, in contrast to competition, evidence isnow accumulating from a variety of independentlaboratories worldwide, demonstrating that trainingadaptation can be enhanced if short term exercisetraining periods are cycled to commence with reducedmuscle glycogen stores and without the consumption ofglucose during exercise. Whilst it may be too early tostate conclusive training guidelines, the authorproposes a number of practical recommendationsbased on the lessons from cell signalling presentedabove.

1. Athletes may wish to undertake a carefullystructured and periodised training programme of‘reduced carbohydrate’ availability, as this mayincrease oxidative adaptations of skeletal muscle. Asimple way to include this in training is to traintwice every second day, versus once daily so thatevery second training session is performed withreduced pre-exercise glycogen stores.

2. Such training periods should probably be no morethan 6 weeks, (as this may increase the risk ofinfection and also result in a de-training effect), andperhaps should occur in the off season when hightraining intensities (i.e. overload), are not the maingoal of the training programme.

3. Though athletes may experiment with reducedmuscle glycogen stores during training, athletesmay wish to avoid the consumption of sports drinksduring training as this can offset beneficial muscleadaptations.

4. In contrast to endurance training, athletesperforming resistance training should ensure thateach session is supported by adequate carbohydrateintake before and after training.

5. For those athletes involved in concurrent training,there may be some mileage in performingresistance and endurance training on alternatedays, where each day is supported by a diet highand low in carbohydrate, respectively.

It is hoped that conclusive research support for theserecommendations can be provided in the coming yearsand indeed, this is now one of the major challenges forsport and exercise scientists in future years.

Figure 3. Succinate dehydrogenase activity of thegastrocnemius (A) and vastus lateralis (B) muscles before andafter training. * denotes significant main effect of training,P<0.05. # denotes significant interaction effect where thelargest increase was in LOW+PLA subjects who performed50% of training sessions with reduced glycogen stores and didnot consume any carbohydrate sports drinks during training,P<0.05.

References1. Akerstrom, T.C., Birk, J.B., Klein, D.K., Erikstrup, C.,

Plomgard, P., Pedersen, B.K., & Wojtaszewski, J. (2006).

Oral glucose ingestion attenuates exercise-induced

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Communication, 342, 949-955.

2. Bergstrom, J. & Hultman, E. (1966). Muscle glycogen

synthesis after exercise: an enhancing factor localised in

muscle cells in man. Nature, 210, 309-310.

3. Bergstrom, J. & Hultman, E. (1967). Synthesis of muscle

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4. Churchley, E.G., Coffey, V.G., Pedersen, D.J., Shield, A.,

Carey, K.A., Cameron-Smith, D. & Hawley, J.A. (2007).

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well trained humans. J Appl Physiol, 102, 1604-1611.

5. Cluberton, L.J., McGee, S.L., Murphy, R.M., &

Hargreaves, M. (2005). Effect of carbohydrate ingestion on

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6. Coffey, V.G., & Hawley, J.A. (2007). The molecular bases

of training adaptation. Sports Medicine, 37, 737-763.

7. Febbraio, M.A., Steensberg, A., Walsh, R., Koukoulas. I.,

van Hall, G., Saltin, B., & Pedersen, B.K. (2002). Reduced

glycogen availability is associated with an elevation in

HSP72 in contracting human skeletal muscle. Journal of

Physiology, 538, 911-917.

8. Gleeson, M. (2008). Nutrition and immune

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9. Hansen, A.K., Fischer, C.P., Plomgaard, P.,

Andersen, J.L., Saltin, B., & Pedersen, B.K.

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(2007). Nutritional interventions to promote

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M.J. (2009). Human muscle protein

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IntroductionTaekwondo, meaning literally ‘the way of the foot and fist’, is a Korean martialart, which first became an Olympic sport at the Sydney Olympics in 2000. ATaekwondo match is 3 rounds of 2 minutes, with a minutes rest betweenrounds, and takes place on a 10m2 mat. In competition, kicks and punchesscore points. (When contact is made to the torso (with kicks and punches), orhead (with kicks only), and is of sufficient enough force to produce displacementof the body segment). As in most martial arts, contestants are weight matched.

In Taekwondo, and more than likely most martial arts, fitness appears to begained through a traditional combination of running, pad work, technical drillsand sparring. Most athletes are reluctant to undergo strength training due tofears of a loss in flexibility, speed and a gain in body mass. The latter point isespecially important and provides for a significant barrier, as athletes will oftenaim to compete at their lowest possible weight in order to fight opponents oflower mass.

The aim of this article therefore, is to rationalise the use of Strength andConditioning (S&C) within Taekwondo, and dispel any myths that prevent thisform of intervention. The article further aims to describe and rationalise “gymbased” methods to further enhance athletic performance and finally, present thereader with an evidence-based S&C programme.

Needs AnalysisAs with any sport to which S&C interventions are to be implemented, the S&Ccoach must first undergo a needs analysis to identify the biomechanical andphysiological requirements of the sport. Following this, the S&C coach mustconstruct an appropriate test battery to measure the strengths and weaknessesof the athlete against these variables. In addition, it is fundamental to identifymechanisms of injury and prehabilitative strategies. Finally, through consultationwith the athlete and sports coach, individual goals must be identified.

Biomechanical Analysis of TaekwondoStrikingAlthough Taekwondo involves both punching and kicking, 98% of all thetechniques used to score by the champions of the Sydney Olympic Games werekicks.73 In addition, it has been established126 that during competition, the roundhouse kick is the most frequently used technique. There are two types of roundhouse kick, the rear-leg round house kick and slide roundhouse kick. The formerproduces a significantly greater peak velocity at the toe (16.48 ± 1.62 vs. 13.43± 0.89 m/s, p>0.05) and knee (7.7 ± 0.66 vs. 5.38 ± 0.42 m/s, p>0.05), anda significantly lower movement time (0.22 ± 0.01 vs. 0.31 ± 0.03s, p>0.05)and may therefore provide a more effective attacking strike.126 The round housekick was also reported to have the highest velocity by Serina and Lieu,110 as wellas the highest impact force.98 Finally, kicking enables the athlete to strike from agreater distance due to the increase in limb length. Interestingly however, thereis no significant difference between the distance of the target and athlete foreither of the roundhouse kicks126 and the choice of either therefore, is likely tobe based on force and velocity parameters. Taken collectively, this analysis mayjustify the dominance of kicking within competition.

Strength &conditioning for

Taekwondo athletesAnthony Turner MSc, PGCE, CSCS, ASCC

Anthony Turner is a Strength & Conditioning Coach and a Senior

Lecturer and Programme Leader forthe MSc in Strength & Conditioning

at Middlesex University, London,England.

15



16



Despite the apparent need for athletes to placeemphasis on the development of kicking techniquesand despite the lack of scientific research, fist strikingis still an important technique and will therefore bediscussed. However, due to a lack of research intoTaekwondo punches, empirically similar sports mustalso be considered. The need to address and developthe punch may be exampled by Pieter and Pieter98 whofound that while the reverse punch was slower thanthe round house kick (11.38 ± 3.68m/s vs. 15.51 ±2.27m/s), it was faster than both the side (6.87 ±0.43m/s) and spinning back kick (9.14 ± 1.49m/s).Similarly, while the greatest impact force was found forthe spinning back kick (606.9 ± 94.6N), this wasfollowed by the reverse punch (560.5 ± 139.2N) andthen the round house kick (518.7 ± 96.3N) and sidekick (461.8 ± 100.7N).98 Moreover, Kazemi et al.,73

suggests that punching skills should be trained sincemost athletes may not be trained sufficiently and maynot have proper defensive techniques to counter.

Punching and KickingA Taekwondo punch, much like boxing, involves tripleextension whereby the ankle, knee and hip extend togenerate force from the ground. Via the additional linksof the kinetic chain i.e., the trunk, shoulder and arm,they then apply this force to the opponent. The needfor this synchronisation can be evidenced from studiesconducted by Filimonov et al.,39 and Verkohshansky.123

Filimonov et al.,39 analysed the straight punch of 120boxers, ranging from elite to junior ranks. All boxerswere instructed to perform a straight right to the head,“maximally fast and powerful”. The results of this studyare illustrated in table 1 where it can be noted thatelite level boxers predominately generate force fromthe leg musculature, whereas lower ranked boxersgenerate the majority of force from the trunk andarms. This finding is corroborated by data acquired byVerkohshansky123 who showed that with mastery in theshot put, (which may be considered biomechanicallysimilar to a straight punch), the emphasis gradually

shifts from the shoulder to the leg musculature. Thisinvestigation revealed that for beginners, thecorrelation between athletic achievements and strengthof the arm muscles is 0.83 and with leg strength is0.37. For highly qualified athletes however, thecorrelations were 0.73 and 0.87 respectively.

As illustrated in figures 5 – 8, triple extensionsmovements are also required for kicking. Thedevelopment of this synchronisation and use of tripleextension based exercises may therefore be consideredessential to the generation of force within Taekwondo.Olympic lifts and their derivatives are oftenhypothesised to provide an appropriate stimulus formotor skills requiring triple extension.59,66,69,113 Moreover,the 2nd pull position (i.e., power snatch/clean fromhang - Figure 9), provides a biomechanical comparisonto the punching and kicking start position, thereforesport specificity can be further gained by commencinglifts from this position.

To further facilitate the development of optimalsynchronisation patterns within the kinetic chain and toassist in the carryover of triple extension basedexercises to Taekwondo techniques, a derivative ofcomplex training (referred to as carryover training) isrecommended. (See the following references for areview of complex training: Docherty et al.,31; Ebben33).In this context however, the objective is not thepotentiation of force (although this may be an outcome),but rather the carryover of neuromuscular stimulus/firingsequence (i.e., generating force predominately from thelegs as described by Filimonov et al.,39 andVerkoshansky123). For example, an athlete may performa set of power snatches (often from the 2nd pull/hang),followed by performing punches to the bag during therest period. The athlete is encouraged to visualise thecarryover and draw comparisons with the two forms oftriple extension and in effect, regarding the punch assynonymous with the power snatch. It is important toonly perform a few punches (usually 2-3 per arm) andensure the emphasis lies with power generation withenough rest between reps to minimise fatigue.

Figure 1 – 4. A Taekwondo athlete executing a punching technique, which enables him to strike from distance.The athletes must drive (through triple extension) from the back leg.

Category Arm extension Trunk rotation Push off with extension ofback leg

Total

Masters of sport andcandidates for mastersof sport

24.12% 37.42% 38.46% 100%

Class I 25.94% 41.84% 32.22% 100%

Class II & III 37.99% 45.50% 16.51% 100%

Table 1. Level of mastery and the contribution to punching force by key components of the kinetic chain.39

17



The need to use carryover training for these athletesmay be exampled from Pieter and Pieter,98 who foundthat Taekwondo athletes do not use their body masseffectively during the performance of various kicks andthe reverse punch. The investigators reported that theathlete’s body mass and lean body mass was notalways selected as force predictors (via non-significantcorrelations). This form of carryover training iscurrently being tested within our laboratory in order toprovide an objective assessment of its validity.

Reactive StrengthReactive strength, which describes the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) capabilities of an athlete, mayalso be considered fundamental to force generationwithin Taekwondo. It is well documented that efficientSSC mechanics result in enhanced propulsive forces16,19,

20 and conservation of energy17,122,124 and this thereforesuggests that within martial arts, this may translateinto enhanced power and power-endurance of striking.As an example, double kick techniques require thatfollowing each strike, the leg is quickly driven backdown into the ground and then quickly driven back uptoward the opponent.

Optimisation of SSC mechanics dictate that thesemovements, which, (in the opinion of the author), maybe considered biomechanically similar to sprint running(whereby the knee is ‘punched’ forward (figure 7) andthen the leg is quickly driven back down into theground), requires that ground contact be made via aforefoot landing only,58,82 thus minimising groundcontact time,4,62,84 increasing energy return (and thusstriking force)58,82 and rate of force development18 andreducing the duration and metabolic cost ofmovement.16,17,30,122,124

Moreover, and as can be noted in figures 5-8, in orderfor Taekwondo athletes to generate power during asingle kick or the first kick in a sequence of successivekicks, they first utilise the SSC mechanism at the frontleg (figure 6), whereby they perform acountermovement (and thus incorporate elastic energy)prior to the explosive triple extension. Finally, becauseTaekwondo athletes attack their opponent fromdistance (i.e., they stay out of range), the first stepstowards their opponent are often short, rapid shufflesand therefore require efficient SSC mechanics.

This SSC efficiency however, is a learned ability gainedthrough the generation of muscle stiffness, therebyoptimally utilising the elastic recoil properties of thetendon.4,30,60,62,83,86 Muscle stiffness however, is under thesubconscious control of the nervous system, whereby

the Golgi Tendon Organ (GTO) inhibits the generationof high forces (and muscle stiffness) as a protectivemechanism against the risk of injury.108 Throughobservations made by this author, most martial artistsdo not train SSC mechanics (enabling GTOdisinhibition) beyond that gained from their sportspractice. This is illustrated by the fact that the majorityof athletes make heel contact, which is suggestive of aprolonged amortization phase and muscle complianceconsequent to GTO inhibition.40 It appears evidenttherefore that sports practices do not provide sufficientstimulus for this adaptation and that purposefulexercises such as plyometrics must beincluded.85,88,91,102,105,108,111 For example, Kyrolainen et al.,85

reported that 4 months of plyometric training,consisting of various jumping exercises such as dropjumps, hurdle jumps and hopping, was required for thedisinhibition of the GTO and the generation of musclestiffness (concurrent with pre-activation tensioning andantagonistic co-contraction). Moreover, as well as take-off velocity increasing by 8%, energy expendituredecreased by 24% suggesting that adaptations fromthis plyometrics protocol also resulted in a reduction inthe metabolic cost of these movements.85 It appearsapparent therefore that chronic plyometrics training isrequired to not only condition the Taekwondo athlete toincrease striking forces of this nature, but also tofacilitate them in employing these strikes withregularity (i.e. aid the development of power-endurance). Finally, inherent to plyometric exercises isthe powerful execution of triple extension (aspreviously described), so these exercises are also likelyto have a carryover to kicking and punching mechanicsand striking power.

Appropriate plyometric drills include drop lands (figure11), whereby the body is hypothesised to adapt to highlanding forces (eccentric loads) and disinhibition of theGTO is learned.128 This drill may then be progressed todrop jumps whereby the focus shifts to reducing theamortization phase and ground contact time (GCT) andthus the loss of elastic energy.40 It may be prudenthowever, to commence plyometric training withankling/stiff leg hops (see caption 1), which enhancethe stiffness of the ankle joint, as overall leg stiffnesshas been reported to largely depend on anklestiffness.4,37,38 Of course, the S&C coach must determinesafe and conducive plyometric intensities (e.g., dropheight). It may be appropriate therefore, to firstpractice landing drills by jumping up to a box (figure10) or simply jumping forward along the ground, asthe intensity of each is less than when dropping from abox.

Figures 5-8: Rear-leg roundhouse kick. Note that in order for the athlete to generate power, he uses the stretch-shortening cycle mechanism at the front leg, whereby he performs a countermovement (figure 6) prior to theexplosive triple extension (figure 7), thus incorporating elastic energy. This is then followed by ‘punching’ theknee forward on the striking foot (figure 7) thereby reducing inertia. These observations will be discussed in thestretch-shortening cycle section.

18



Force Generation CharacteristicsBoxing movements (i.e., punches) involve contractiontimes of 50-250ms1 and round house kicks have amovement time of 210 – 340ms.126 As described earlier,GCT during double kicks should (anecdotally) resemblethat of sprint running where this has been reported tobe 101ms.90 Taekwondo motor skills therefore, like thevast majority of athletic movements, occur within250ms113 to 300ms127 and the opportunity to developpeak force, which may require up to 600 to 800ms,35,80

is not a time luxury afforded to these athletes. Thistherefore suggests the need for these athletes todevelop power.

It is hypothesised that if the time available for forcedevelopment is less than 0.3s (as is the case inTaekwondo), training should focus on improving rate offorce development (RFD).94,108,128 Because RFD is afunction of neuromuscular activation106 and isrepresentative of an individual’s ability to accelerateobjects,108 many authors recommend ballistic(explosive) training to improve this quality.13,50,52,53,125 Itis generally recognized that while heavy resistancetraining improves the final height of the force-time (F-T) curve, ballistic training improves the slope of theinitial portion of the F-T curve, specifically within thefirst 200ms52 to 300ms94 when striking is most likely tooccur.

Ballistic exercises can best be described as explosivemovements, (rapid acceleration against resistance),whereby the body or object is explosively subjected tofull acceleration. Reviews by Flanagan and Comyns40

and Hori et al.,66 recommended the use of plyometrictraining and Olympic lifts respectively to train RFD, asin addition to their ability to be adapted to the specificsof the sport, they encourage full acceleration with zerovelocity achieved only by the effects of gravity. Inaddition, Olympic lifts produce some of the highestpower outputs of any exercise modality. For example,Garhammer47 reported that the snatch and clean and-jerk exhibit much greater power outputs comparedwith the squat and deadlift. For example, the relativelyslow velocities involved in powerlifting (i.e., back squat,deadlift and bench press) produce approximately 12watts per kiliogram of body weight.47 However, duringthe second pull phase of both the clean and snatch, anaverage of 52 watts per kilogram of body weight isproduced.47

It should be noted that a high and positive correlationexists between peak power and maximum strength (r

= 0.77-0.94),6 illustrating the significance of strengthtraining as a prerequisite to power development. Withthis in mind and because strength levels may only bemaintained for approximately 2 weeks,67 it is advisableto include strength sessions throughout the entirety ofa periodized programme, so as to optimise andmaintain high levels of power output. In furthersupport of using a combined strength and powertraining approach, Cormie et al.,27 Harris et al.,57 andToji et al.,117 concluded that when considering theimprovement of a wide variety of athletic performancevariables requiring strength, power, and speed,combination training produces superior results(compared to strength training only and power trainingonly). The premise of this approach is thought to resultfrom the additive improvements in both maximumforce (through strength training) and maximumvelocity (through power training), thus leading to agreater enhancements in power output across theentire force-velocity curve.117

Finally, since most movements within Taekwondo areperformed unilaterally, this should therefore be trainedaccordingly to increase the competition carryover. Thissuggestion is corroborated by Coyle et al.,29 andVandervoort et al.,120 who reported the existence of abilateral deficit whereby when the limbs are workingtogether, their net force is smaller than the combinedtotal of when each limb is working independently. Thelower force generated during bilateral contractions hasbeen attributed to interhemispheric inhibition, thusreducing neural drive.121 Continued resistance trainingusing simultaneous contractions (e.g. the bench press)however, can switch this deficit so that the forcegenerated by two limbs simultaneously is greater thanthe sum of forces produced by either limb.46,68,114 However,as mentioned, Taekwondo is a unilateral sport and thismay therefore be seen as an undesirable adaptation.Ballistic movements therefore, such as plyometrics,should advance to incorporate unilateral movements andbarbells should be progressed to dumbbells.

Reps, Sets, Intensity & RestLike most sports, developing an athlete’s power outputis considered a key component to successful sportsperformance (as most activities are force and timedependent). Since power production is largely aconsequence of efficient neuromuscular processes,quality should be stressed at all times. Therefore, theeffectiveness of a power programme may be related tothe quality of each repetition. It has been hypothesised

Figure 9-12 and caption1 (from left to right):2nd pull position; Jumpup to box; drop land;step from box (prior todrop land or drop jump)and ankling (caption 1).

Caption 1: Ankling. The knees should remain straight as the athlete hops from one foot to the other. Throughout the swing phase,the foot should be dorsiflexed. At ground contact and the instant before, the plantarflexor muscles should forcefully contract. Onlythe ball of the foot should make contact.

19



that each repetition should achieve ≥90% of maximumpower output or velocity42 and that this, anecdotally, isbest achieved with the use of 3 repetitions per set, atleast 3 minutes rest between sets9,42 and a maximum of5 sets.42 An additional method to ensure quality ofrepetitions is through the use of cluster training.51 Thisform of training involves interrepetition rest intervals ofbetween 10 and 30s (interval length depends onexercise complexity), whereby the quality ofperformance is enhanced through decreases inrepetition induced fatigue. This method therefore canbe used for both power/ballistic training and strengthtraining.

As previously mentioned, strength is the prerequisite topower and therefore adequate strength training mustbe included. However, as Taekwondo is weight classed,S&C coaches should aim to increase athletic strengthwithout concomitant increases in muscle cross-sectional area. For athlete populations, maximalstrength gains are elicited at a mean training intensityof 85% 1RM, ≤6reps, 2 days training per week andwith a mean training volume of 8 sets per musclegroup.95 In addition, a build-up of lactate and hydrogenions (H+) should be avoided as these are acontributing factor to the release of anabolic hormonesand subsequent muscle hypertrophy (and thereforebody mass).48,54 These metabolic by-products may bedissipated with long rest periods and/or alternation ofbody parts in a set for set or exercise for exerciseformat. For example, an athlete can alternate betweenupper body and lower body exercises or betweenagonist and antagonist exercises.

Physiological Demands ofTaekwondoScientific data on Taekwondo is scarce and the problemis further confounded by suggestions of Kazemi et al.,73

who report that due to the new World TaekwondoFederation (WTF) rules, whereby the duration of eachround was reduced from 3 minutes to 2 minutes andthe competition area from 12m2 to 10m2, each round islikely to be of a higher intensity than those previous tothe Sydney Olympics. This may therefore reduce thevalidity of any existing data regarding the physiologicalprofile and needs of Taekwondo athletes prior to theSydney Olympic Games. It may be prudent therefore,to consider the existing data in conjunction withempirically similar sports, so as to provide anevidence-based physiological profile of both the athleteand the competition demands. In the opinions of theauthor, sports such as wrestling, fencing, boxing andmixed martial arts (MMA) provide for a good

comparison. In addition, Cordes26 compares boxing withbasketball, and therefore this will also be considered.Table 2 illustrates the primary metabolic demands ofthese sports as described by Ratamess.104

From the information presented above and throughempirical observations, Taekwondo involvespredominate anaerobic energy contribution and thespeed and explosive nature of the sport furthersuggests phosphogen system dominance. In addition,rounds are fewer than boxing (3 vs. 12) and shorterthan both wrestling and mixed martial arts (2mins vs.5mins). Therefore, aerobic energy system contributionmay be minimal and be involved only in ringmovement and recovery mechanisms.

These findings likely suggest that road running (andany other training modality directed at increasingaerobic capacity) may be detrimental to Taekwondoperformance and unfavourably alters energy systemadaptations. This is in agreement with Hoffman et al.,65

who analysed basketball competitions over a 4 yearperiod and reported that aerobic capacity had asignificant negative correlation to performance.Castagna et al.,23 also found no correlation with VO2max

and the ability of basketball players to performrepeated sprints. The findings of these studies arefurther corroborated by authors who suggest that oncean aerobic base is achieved, sport-specific teampractices and games are sufficient to maintain aerobicfitness in anaerobic dominant sports.22,63,64 Trainingprogrammes therefore need to be directed towardshigh intensity training such as interval and repetitiontraining. Many athletes however, use long distancerunning as a means to rapid weight loss (RWL). Thishowever, may be to the detriment of sportsperformance and perhaps more emphasis needs to beplaced on nutritional interventions, (but those based onscientific research). RWL is briefly discussed later inthis article.

Also of significance, Kezemi et al.,73 reported thatduring the Sydney Olympics, both male winners andnon-winners achieved the highest percentage ofscoring in round one (43% and 65% respectively).While this may be explained as tactics, it may alsosuggest the presence and affect of fatigue and theneed to develop the anaerobic threshold capacity andrecovery rate of these athletes. In addition, comparingthe percentage of points scored in the first roundversus the last round may provide a fatigue indexsimilar to that reported following field tests of theanaerobic threshold (e.g. repeated sprint tests). Thismay be used to monitor progression, however, careshould be taken when interpreting the results due to alack of test reliability and the influence of coach tactics.

Sport PhosphagenSystem

Anaerobic glycolysis Aerobic metabolism

Wrestling High Low Low

Fencing High Moderate -

Boxing High High Moderate

Mixed martial arts High High Moderate

Basketball High Moderate to High -

Table 2. Energy system contribution to sports considered empirically similar to Taekwondo. Table adapted fromRatamess.104

20



In summary of the above, interval training may be theoptimal intervention to bring about efficaciousadaptations within the metabolic system. Anecdotally,sparring may provide the most specificity and result inoptimal adaptations in the energy systems for thepurposes of competition. However, it is not alwaysreasonable to call on this intervention. Therefore, againanecdotally, it is suggested that coaches use a ‘5s on,5s off’ protocol termed as ‘Combat Intervals’. For this,athletes hit the pad for 5s, and then rest for 5sthroughout the entirety of a round. This time framewas chosen to represent the amount of time an athletemay attack for. The pad-man can manipulate eachinterval by increasing or decreasing the time theathlete is attacking or resting (or both). Empirically, itis challenging for the pad-man to continually use timesless than 5s. The pad-man can also change the type ofstriking combinations between intervals and evenattack during the rest period causing the athlete todefend and further increasing the intensity. Finally, it isrecommended that the athlete uses 2-hit strikingcombinations only, thus ensuring a fast and continuingrhythm when attacking the pad. It should be notedthat the S&C coach should not be consideredresponsible for delivering this aspect of training,however, it is important to note that these aresuggestions that can be made to the sports coach. Theefficacy of combat intervals is currently beinginvestigated within our laboratory to provide a moreobjective assessment of its validity. Some preliminaryfindings are illustrated below.

Figure 13 illustrates the heart rate (HR) data of twoMauy Thai (a similar martial art) athletes, performingthe combat intervals. The first 3 rounds illustrate thewarm-up consisting of skipping, shadow sparring andbag work. Following this, athlete A (yellow line)performs the combat intervals for three rounds, whileathlete B (green line) holds the pads. For the final 3rounds, the athletes switch roles. The graph revealssome significant data to validate the use of combatintervals, especially when these results are comparedto data attained on athlete A during a laboratory basedVO2max test conducted on a treadmill. The laboratorydata revealed that athlete A’s HRmax was 190bpm andthat his lactate threshold was reached at 178bpm.Interestingly, athlete A reached a HRmax of 197bpmduring the combat intervals and the graph furtherreveals that a significant portion of the combat

intervals was performed above his lactate threshold(i.e. above 178bpm or 90%HRmax based on a HRmax of197bpm) and is therefore likely to positively adapt hisanaerobic capacity in line with the demands of thesport.23,15 The higher HR reached during actualperformance vs. testing may be due to psychologicalfactors (such as competition arousal and anxiety) andexperience reveals that this is not uncommon finding,however, tester error cannot be discounted. Inaddition, differences in HRmax have also been reportedduring laboratory based maximal exercise protocols.81

The findings above may also support the use of usinglive HR feedback devices (as used to attain theseresults), whereby the athletes’ HR is immediately andvisually available to the coach and athlete, thusfacilitating the regulation of training intensity andmotivation. Additionally, the tracings can be used tomonitor athlete progression with respect to theathlete’s ability to recover from intensive bouts. It isfurther hypothesised that combat intervals may alsoaid this fundamental quality.

Finally, the graph reveals that even holding the padscreates an intensive workout for the athletes and thatthe sports coach and S&C coach should be cognisant ofthis when designing training programmes, as thisappears to add a significant amount of volume. This isof additional significance as, in the opinions of theauthor, these athletes are susceptible to overtrainingand this data may help to explain why.

Rapid Weight LossResearch investigating the consequences of makingweight in combat sports such as wrestling49,61,74,76 andboxing,55 have shown that RWL is associated withconcurrent decrements in performance. This may bedue to dehydration,118 depleted glycogen stores,24,115

reduced lean muscle mass75 and negative mood.55,75,92

Significant to the latter factor, mood has been shown tobe an effective predictor of performance in combatsports with 92% of winning and losing performances inkarate correctly classified from pre-competition mood.116

Losing karate performance was associated with highscores of confusion, depression, fatigue and tension,coupled with low vigour scores.116 There appears anevident paradox therefore, between the combatathletes’ perception that RWL is associated with goodperformance and the research which consistentlydemonstrates that athletes perform significantly below

Figure 13. HR tracingsrecorded during combatintervals. The first 3 roundsillustrate the warm-up.Following this, athlete A(yellow line) performs thecombat intervals for threerounds while athlete B (greenline) holds the pads. For thefinal 3 rounds, the athletesswitch roles.

21



expectations. This perception may be explained by thefact that an athlete can win a contest, despiteperforming below expectations.55 After all, bothcontestants likely underwent a RWL intervention.

Risk of InjuryBoth Pieter96 and Pieter and Zemper100 found the lowerextremities to incur most injuries during Taekwondo.This is no surprise as Taekwondo is largelycharacterised by kicking.73 According to Beis et al.,14

however, the head and neck appear to incur most ofthe time-loss injuries (i.e. the athlete must acutelycease both training and competition). In addition, Beiset al.,14 and Koh and Cassidy77 found middle schoolboys and girls to be more likely to receive head kicksand incur concussions. Moreover, Koh and Watkinson79

reported the roundhouse kicks and axe kick to be themost often implicated in head blows in adultTaekwondo. Finally, Serina and Lieu110 found that thrustkicks (e.g. step side kick and back kick) generate thelargest chest compression forces and therefore havethe greatest potential for skeletal injury. However,swing kicks (e.g. round house kick and spin roundhouse kick) are faster and have a greater potential forsoft tissue damage.110

When interpreting and using this data, it is important tobe cognisant of the fact that the WTF have recentlydecided to award 2 points for head kicks and an additionalpoint for knock downs. This is likely to affect injury rateand one may speculate that injuries to the head and neckwill increase along with time lost to this injury.

Table 3 illustrates the comparative time-loss injuryrates in Taekwondo. It should be noted however, thatthe data presented in this table are from competitionsin which each bout lasted 3 minutes and data wascollected previous to the change in points as describedabove. Both these changes are likely to affect theinterpretation of data when attempting to apply theinformation to training programmes.

If Taekwondo athletes are to use punching skills moreoften, then coaches must also consider the injuryimplications to the arm, wrist and hand. Again,deductions based on empirically similar sports, in this

case boxing, are required as research for this withinTaekwondo appears scarce. Within boxing, injury ismore likely at the shoulder, elbow, wrist/hand, lowback and neck.36 This is corroborated by Cordes26 whosuggests that injury occurs primarily at the hand andwrist, followed by the shoulder then elbow.

The author is of the assumption that many of theathletes from which this data was gathered were notundertaking efficacious S&C programmes. With thisassumption in mind, strength training may have reducedthe incidence of these injuries through its positiveadaptations on the structural integrity of all involvedjoints. For example, as well as an increase in musclestrength, tendon, ligament and cartilage strength wouldalso increase along with bone mineral density.41,43,112

Furthermore, boxers (and more than likely martial artsathletes) tend to use (and therefore develop), theanterior musculature more than the posterior,2 therebyleaving them exposed to muscle strains in the weakermuscles. S&C training can ensure the development andmaintenance of proper ratios. Most significantly andpertinent to performance, increasing antagonist musclestrength may increase movement speed and accuracy ofmovement.70 This has been hypothesised to occur due toalterations in neural firing patterns, leading to a decreasein the braking time and accuracy of the limbs in rapidballistic movements.70 Therefore strength balance isneeded to break the agonists succinctly in rapid limbmovements. When one muscle or movement action isstronger than its antagonist’s, performance may becompromised. This is likely to provide the athlete with agreater source of motivation to develop the posteriormusculature than that of reducing the risk of injuryalone. Moreover, the problem of upper body muscularimbalances may be exacerbated when athletes of thistype overemphasise the function of the pectorals.72

However, the athlete should note that power for upperbody striking (i.e. punching) is generated via thepowerful extension of the ankle, knee and hip (i.e. tripleextension).10,39,123

In addition, strength training, unlike sports training (e.g.,pad work and sparring) will train the eccentric phase ofmovement skills. This enhanced eccentric strength mayhave defensive benefits through absorbing blows.26 For

Study Men(≥≥ 18 yrs)

Women(≥≥ 18 yrs)

Jr. boys(14-17 yrs)

Jr. girls(14-17 yrs)

Boys(11-13 yrs)

Girls(11-13 yrs)

Beis et al.14 6.85

(1.78-11.92)

2.43

(2.33-7.19)

8.97

(2.76-15.19)

17.01

(6.47-27.55)

6.16

(2.13-10.19)

9.37

(2.88-15.86)

Koh et al.79 33.56

(18.85-48.27)

14.22

(2.84-25.60)

- - - -

Pieter and Lufting.97 22.90

(9.94-35.86)

9.68

(1.27-20.63)

- - - -

Pieter et al.99 27.13

(7.03-47.23)

8.77

(8.42-25.96)

- - - -

Pieter and Zemper.101 - - 25.54

(21.52-29.56)

29.91

(21.27-38.55)

- -

Zemper and Pieter.129 23.58

(5.09-42.07)

13.51

(1.78-28.80)

- - - -

Table 3. Comparative time-loss injury rates per 1,000 athlete-exposures (95% CI) in young and adult Taekwondoathletes. Table adapted from Beis et al.14

22



example, impact to the brain depends on the accelerationand rapid turn of the head.26 A stronger neck, especiallyeccentrically, can help absorb forces. This is also likely tobe true of the arms, which are often up to guard theface. Specific to the former point, it may be concludedthat Taekwondo athletes perform exercises specifically forthe neck. As well as preventing injury, this may alsoprevent the occurrence of knockouts. Moreover, to helpreduce the time-loss injuries in Taekwondo, especiallycerebral concussions, Beis et al.,14 suggest that coachesemphasise blocking skills. In agreement, Koh andCassidy77 found that those who used blocking skills wereless likely to sustain cerebral concussions. Cordes26 alsosuggests that knockouts resulting from blows to thethorax or abdomen may be less likely with the addition ofstrength training.

The S&C coach is also advised to check for movementdysfunctions within the kinetic chain. For example,much research has centred around gluteus mediusdysfunctions.11,32,44,45,103,109,119 However, this, along withmany other factors that are likely to contribute to theoccurrence and reoccurrence of injury within this sport,is beyond the scope of this article.

Performance TestingTesting enables coaches to identify the physicalcapabilities of their athletes. This further enables

coaches to monitor the efficacy of their programmes(and adjust accordingly), and make predictions oncompetition performance. Based on the needs analysisconducted above, a suggested battery of tests hasbeen identified and is illustrated above in table 4.

It is important to conduct the tests in the orderdescribed above, as this will reduce the negativeeffects of accumulated fatigue as the athleteprogresses through the testing battery. This is inagreement with Harman56 who suggests that for thesereasons, tests should be conducted in the followingorder: Non-fatiguing tests (e.g. anthropometry), agility,maximum power and strength, sprint tests, localmuscular endurance, anaerobic and then finally aerobiccapacity tests.

Strength & ConditioningProgrammeThe following programme is based on two S&C sessionsper week (as this anecdotally appears to be the meantraining time allocated/available to S&C training forthese athletes), and has been developed based on thereviewed research. Plyometrics, (to develop the SSCmechanism), or carryover training (see previous text),is performed during most rest intervals and theselected drills should be alternated to avoid neural

Table 4. Battery of fitness tests suitable for Taekwondo athletes.

Performance tests and supporting comments (with reference literature where relevant)

Skinfold assessment: identifies body fat percentage which has been reported to be from 10.9% in high schoolwrestlers,25 6.5% in elite level freestyle wrestlers21 and 9.5% in Olympic Kung-Fu athletes.21 This assessmentis to enable the regulation of non-functional mass.

Vertical Jump: measure of lower body power (speed-strength).

Medicine ball throw: this should be conducted in the relevant stance and should mimic the action of thepunch. The data can also be used as described by Verkoshansky.123

Reactive strength index (height jumped ÷ GCT): as described by Flanagan and Comyns40 and Newton andDugan,93 this test can provide S&C coaches with a good indication of an athletes’ SSC ability. The athlete isusually tested over the following drop heights: 30cm, 45cm, 60cm and 75cm.93 Efficient SSC mechanics shouldresult in greater jump heights from greater drop heights (also reflected by the RSI score). If equipment is notavailable to measure GCT, the coaches can simply monitor the drop height that produces the greatest verticaldisplacement.

1RM power clean: this test evaluates the athlete’s strength-speed (power under heavy loading), but shouldonly be included once the athlete’s technique is of sufficient standard.

1RM bench press and back squat: Evaluation of maximum muscular strength, which as described, issignificantly correlated with peak power.

Muscle balance test: Based on the research of Jaric et al.,70 monitoring the agonist-antagonist strength ratiomay prove beneficial not only in injury prevention but for performance enhancement. Baker and Newton.93

suggest comparing the 1RM bench press (BP) to the 1RM pull-up (PU). The resultant ratio (BP/PU x 100) shouldbe close to 100%. The S&C coach may have to address the pressing to pulling ratio of their trainingprogrammes if results deviate from this. The S&C coach should note that the validity of the seated row iscontentious due to the force contributed by the leg musculature and back extensors.

Anaerobic Tests: As mentioned above, this is an important variable, and therefore should be tested. However,the coach should look to ensure biomechanical specificity. As no existing repeated sprint tests meet this criteria,the coach may be best advised to compare the amount of striking sequences (a predetermined sequence ofkicks and punches) an athlete can complete in a set time (e.g., in 20s over 6 rounds with 30s rest betweeneach bout; i.e., an ‘Anaerobic Combat Test’). In addition, the amount of sequences completed in the first roundversus the last may provide an estimation of the fatigue index. The same striking sequence should be usedduring all subsequent tests for purposes of reliability. This test may be best administered by the coach.

Aerobic tests: not applicable due to the relatively small contribution of the aerobic energy system.

23



monotony, thereby ensuring the neuromuscular systemis continually challenged to develop. This ‘complextraining’ approach (i.e., performing ballistic exercises inthe rest period; referred to as efficiency training) is avaluable tool to S&C coaches who are limited to one ortwo S&C sessions per week, as it enables them toeffectively utilise the rest period without detriment toperformance.34 As previously described, plyometricdrills should be logically progressed to ensureappropriate overload and an ethos of quality overquantity should be enforced.

Strength exercises should be prescribed at an intensityslightly below the maximum intensity for thatprescription of repetitions. This point was concluded ina meta-analysis conducted by Peterson et al.,95 where itwas revealed that training-to-failure does not elicitgreater gains than not training-to-failure and inaddition, athletes are less likely to over-train. Finally,for all power exercises the load should be varied, asthis will also vary the velocity and further increasesport specificity. Although it has been reported thatpeak power output occurs at 80% 1RM in Olympic lifts

(namely the power clean),28 using body mass only forsquat jumps29,89 and at 55% 1RM for bench pressthrows,7 it is likely that this is of greater theoreticalrelevance that practical significance.

The reader should also note that it is generallyrecommended to commence resistance trainingsessions with lower-body exercises (e.g. squats) andensure that they precede upper-body exercises. In theexample below however, (table 5, strength sessions 1& 2), their placement at the end of the session may bejustified by the fact that had they immediately followedthe Olympic lift, lower body fatigue may have reducedthe intensity (%1RM) with which the squats wereperformed at. In addition, this sequence may facilitatethe build-up of lactate and H+ (as described above),thus promoting the release of anabolic hormones. Dueto the significance of relative strength within martialarts, the former two points should be avoided. Byseparating these two exercises with upper-bodyexercise, especially the combination of the bench pressand seated row, (whereby the legs are under relativelylittle stress), the lower-body musculature should have

Table 6: Example plyometric and carryover drills that can be performed in the rest interval.

Plyometric (SSC) and carryover drills

Lower-body SSC (1 x 3):

Ankling (1 repetition = ankling over 4 meters; caption 1) → Jump up to box (gradually increase the height;figure 10) → Drop lands (gradually increase the height; figure 11) → Drop jumps (gradually increase the height)→ progress to consecutive jumps (e.g., drop jump followed by jump over 3 x hurdles) → progress to lateraljumps → progress to single leg variants of above

Upper-body SSC (1 x 3):

Smith machine bench press throws → Medicine ball throws (in sports stance and mimicking punchingtechniques) → Medicine ball drops (caption 2) → Push-up claps

Carryover training (1 x 3/per limb):

To include all kicking and punching techniques

Key: → = progress to; (Sets x reps)

Caption 2: Medicine ball drops: The S&C coach stands on a box above the athlete, who is lying supine on theground (head is closest to the box). The S&C coach drops the medicine ball into the arms of the athlete whoimmediately throws it back up to the S&C coach. The athlete must aim to catch and throw the ball as quickly andas powerfully as possible. Intensity may be increased by increasing the weight of the medicine ball or height ofthe box.

Strength session 1 Strength session 2 Power session 1 Power session 2

*Squat snatch (4 x 2) *Squat clean & split Jerk(4 x 2)

*Squats (3 x 3) *Front squats (3 x 3)

Dumbbell chest press(**10°incline) (4 x 4)

Lat pull down or chins (4 x6)

Power snatch from hang

→ power split snatch fromhang (5 x 3)

Power clean from hang &split Jerk (5 x 3)

Bent over row or seatedrow (4 x 6)

Dumbbell chest press(**10°incline) (4 x 4)

Squat jumps (5 x 3) Dumbbell chest press(*10°incline) (3 x 3)

Back squats (4 x 4) Stiff leg dead lift or Nordics(4 x 6)

Table 5. S&C programme for Taekwondo athletes: Two example strength sessions and two example powersessions.

Key: → = progress to; (Sets x reps); * used to develop/maintain technique and strength/power; ** 10°represents the angle at the shoulder during punching

24



undergone sufficient recovery to ensure maximalintensity for the squats.

Finally, it is important to address the issue of flexibility.The athlete and coach should be assured that providingweight training is performed using the full range ofmotion, flexibility won’t be lost12,71 and may even beincreased.12,87 This can be further corroborated by datacollected at one of the Olympic Games wherebyweightlifters were second only to gymnasts in a batteryof flexibility tests.71 Moreover, in shoulder flexion, amovement specific to the snatch and jerk, theirflexibility was significantly better than any other group.Therefore the persistent myth that weight trainingnegatively affects flexibility is unfounded, and is mostlikely based on bodybuilding athletes whose excessivehypertrophy may affect the flexibility of that joint.12

ConclusionThe vast majority of scientific literature supports theuse of S&C training as a means to enhance athleticperformance. Programmes can be manipulated toincrease both strength and power and neither need beat the expense of an increase in body mass or a loss ofspeed and flexibility. Moreover, athletes should becritical of some traditional training methods such aslong distance running and RWL interventions due totheir detrimental effects on performance. In summary,a more scientific approach to performance training isrequired for these athletes and more objective data isrequired within the sport of Taekwondo.

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117. Toji, H, Suei, K, and Kaneko, M. Effects of

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UKSCA PLANNING EFFECTIVE PROGRAMMESWORKSHOPThe next workshop in the UKSCA’s ‘Education & Development Map’will be a 2-day workshop on Planning Effective Programmesfor Sports Performance.

This workshop is currently being developed by a working group ledby our new Director of Education & Training, Stuart Yule. Thedevelopment process will also involve current UKSCA Assessorsand Tutors to ensure the content reflects current best practice,supported by scientific evidence. The first workshop will appear inour 2010 schedule and will sit alongside the existing ‘WeightLifting’ and ‘Plyometric, Agility and Speed’ workshops to supportcoaches working towards their accreditation.

UKSCA’S INTRODUCTION TO STRENGTH &CONDITIONING (LEVEL 1) WORKSHOP ANDCERTIFICATION – NEXT STEPSBy the end of 2009, over 300 coaches will have gone through our‘Introduction to S&C Workshop and Certification’. This has beendesigned to focus on developing key practical coaching skills,giving coaches the ability to add essential strength andconditioning skills to their current coaching practice. This workshopwas developed specifically for those looking to enter the professionand wanting a clear and progressive development pathway orthose wishing to add best practice strength and conditioning totheir existing roles e.g. PE teachers, sports specific coaches,personal trainers, undergraduate students etc. In addition torunning our own workshops under the UKSCA banner, we are alsoworking alongside a number of NGBs and education establishmentsto develop joint workshops. In 2009, over 200 people attendedthese type of workshops and we have plans to expand this nextyear too. By working in this way, we are able to reach a widervariety of people who may not normally attend the UKSCAworkshops. These events have the same learning outcomes andquality of tutors, (and are therefore endorsed by the UKSCA),however, it is possible for them to be amended slightly to fit intoexisting coach education programmes, as well as being able to addmore sport specific content to meet the needs of each NGB. If youwork in HE, for an NGB or feel that working alongside the UKSCAin this way could be of benefit to you or your organisation, thenplease contact the office for further information.

UKSCA COACH DEVELOPMENT MAP

UKSCA NEWS continued from page 3

28



The Five Peopleyou Meet in

Heaven

Nick Ward MSc, CSCS

Vern Gambetta

Significant stops on a journey to becoming anS&C coach

Overview

Mitch Albom’s book, ‘The Five People you Meet in Heaven’, inspiresthe theme for this short series of articles. Based on interesting,inspiring and challenging people we meet on our journey, thepurpose is to share experiences that people have had along theway, and which hold some significance for their own development.

Dave is a strength and conditioning coachcurrently working at Leicester Tigers Rugby

Academy and Coventry University.

Nick Ward is the series Editor for ‘TheFive People you Meet in Heaven

Dave Cripps interviews Vern Gambetta

BackgroundThe subject of this edition of thefive people you would like tomeet in heaven, is VernGambetta. Vern isacknowledged as one of themost influential and experiencedsports coaches in the world,having worked in the field forover 39 years. He has worked inathletic development across avast number of sports includingbaseball, basketball, soccer,tennis, swimming and football.Furthermore, he has lecturedinternationally, been activelyinvolved in coach educationprogrammes, authored booksand regularly writes on hisacclaimed blog ‘Functional PathTraining’(http://www.functionalpathtrainingblog.com/). Currently Vern isDirector of Gambetta SportsTraining Systems working with anumber of high school,university and professionalsports teams and athletes. Inaddition, he runs the successfulGAIN Apprentorship Programme,aimed at developing a cadre ofexperts to define the field ofAthletic Development byeducating professionals infoundational principles andmethodology.

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DC: Where did your journey in this field start?

VG: My coaching journey started as an Athletics coach40 years ago, working with grades seven to nine JuniorHigh School in the US, where I coached all events.Before that, my career in athletics actually started asan athlete - an American Football lineman. It was thenI started weight training in 1963, well before it waspopular, and at a time where rather than beingencouraged, it was largely frowned upon. I was toldnot to weight train because it would make me musclebound and slow. In fact the opposite happened. Unliketoday, there were few resources back then, so I had toeducate myself and learn by experience.

DC: Do you think your background as an athlete hashelped you during your career in athletic development?

VG: Definitely. I was not a very good athlete and hadto train my butt off to be able to compete. The lessonsI learned as an athlete both in American Football andcompeting in the decathlon have been invaluable in mycareer. In decathlon I got to train with some greatathletes that opened my eyes to the ‘European way” oftraining, that was invaluable.

DC: What have the key highlights in your career been?

VG: Being able to coach from the beginning in juniorhigh school, up to the professional and Olympic level.The bulk of my fondest memories come from workingwith beginner and developmental athletes, not highprofile professionals. Also, mentoring upcomingprofessionals who will be leaders in the field of athleticdevelopment.

DC: In your opinion, to successfully coach, what doyou think are the key skills you need to utilise?

VG: To be able to focus on the task in hand, with anability to see the bigger picture, and not get caught upin minutiae. Organisational ability is also crucial, toenable coaches to make optimum use of the time,space and personnel available. Technical knowledge isimportant and the ability to impart that knowledge in amanner the athlete can relate to. Patience is alsorequired to recognise that changes do not occurovernight. Last, but not least, communication. This isthe most important skill of all. Realizing thatcommunication is not always about talking, but thatlistening is just as important.

DC: Are there any particular methods you have used tohelp develop these?

VG: The study of successful people in a variety offields, not just coaching. Being around great coachesand watching and observing, together with constantstudy.

Being one of the most experienced coaches in thisfield, how, over the years and now, do you ensure youcontinually develop and improve?

VG: I pride myself on staying ahead of the game. Onceyou are satisfied, you are beaten. I always want to bethe best at what I do, so I guess I am driven to seeknew ideas and the latest knowledge. I have atremendous network of professional colleagues that Ican learn from.

DC: Are there any important coaching skills you havedeveloped later in your career that you wish you hadmuch earlier?

VG: Improved communication skills and patience - Ithink they have improved with age and experience.Realising that you don’t have to scream and yell to beheard, and that listening is as important as speaking.

DC: Having worked in both team and individual sportenvironments, how do you feel these differ?

VG: A team is a collection of individuals – we mustremember that. Sometimes we lose sight of thatbecause of the numbers. I believe that individual sportathletes gravitate there because they are notcomfortable in a group environment. Working withteam sports entails getting numbers of people to astandard together. Planning this is much morecomplex, it demands an understanding of individualstrengths and weaknesses, and making those match upwith team objectives.

DC: How does your coaching style adapt toaccommodate this?

VG: You need to be a bit schizophrenic. You must beadaptable and have a good working relationship withskill coaches and the medical staff. In short, be part ofa good performance team. It is important to never everlose sight of the individual, you need to know theathlete and relate to them as person.

DC: Do you think that with S&C being a specialistcoaching area, that it can be easy for people to forgetabout these important, more general skills and insteadget too caught up in specific theory?

VG: By all means, I see coaches coming into the fieldtoday that have a great background in theory andscience, but no background in pedagogy or actualhands on, practical coaching. All the science in theworld will not enable you to coach your way out of awet paper bag. You need to connect all the dots,blending the 5 S’s + R (speed, strength, stamina,suppleness, skill and recovery) in a comprehensiveprogram that allows the athlete to adapt at aprogressive rate. Never lose sight of the fact that wemust put the most adaptable athlete possible in thecompetitive arena to be able to thrive, not just survive.

DC: Do you think the best S&C coach is someone whospecialises in one or two key areas but still maintainsgood knowledge and skill across the rest of the field, orsomeone who is less of a specialist but more a ‘jack ofall trades’ (or maybe neither!)?

VG: I think we need to be specialists in beinggeneralists! The athletic development coach must beable to assemble all pieces of the puzzle into a useablewhole, and so cannot lose sight of the big picture. Inour field it is too easy to get caught up into a chase fornumbers in the weight room, or chasing artificialtesting gains. So what, the key question is whether ittranslates to performance?

DC: So what are your views on testing and how do youtend to evaluate athletes?

VG: I think day-to-day monitoring and intra-individualcomparison are more important than one off testing.One off testing is just comparing data against somegeneral norms, which are random numbers. Testingmust match up with what you are doing in training,and the athletes must understand it and buy in or it ismeaningless.

DC: Have you got an example of a belief that you oncehad related to S&C, which then through yourdevelopment you completely changed?

VG: Not completely changed, but certainly modified. Iwas brain washed along with generations of coachesabout the need for an aerobic base. I spent too manyyears making people fit, slow and unexplosive. Anotherarea was understanding that 100 metre sprintmechanics have little transfer to sports that are start/

30



stop in nature, and involve changes of direction. Also, Iwent through a phase where I was hung up on drillsthat made the athletes too robotic.

DC: Being involved in team sport, my colleagues and Iregularly discuss the difference between linear sprintmechanics and multi-directional movement mechanics.Where do you think these two differ and are there anysimilarities?

VG: You must play with a low centre of gravity, withyour feet close to the ground and under the hips toeffectively start, stop and change direction – it’s nomore complicated than that. Track sprinting isessentially the opposite.

DC: You have a great blog, mainly because you discussa variety of wide ranging topics and I genuinely believethat you say what you honestly think. There are alsosome other great coach blogs out there. Do you thinkthe blogging culture within the field, has led to certainissues? I ask having read your blog post titled‘intellectual incest’

VG: I never have had difficulty in saying what I think.‘Intellectual incest’ really bothers me. In sport thereare few original ideas, we all stand on the shoulders ofgiants. I believe that you MUST give credit where creditis due. I have no tolerance for gurus and charlatans.There are too many posers out there who have neverhad to legitimately coach, supervising a weight room isnot coaching. I do read many blogs and training siteson the internet, but there is too much bullshit and notenough substance. I would rather read books, studyresearch and interact with people who are willing toshare ideas. Remember there is no filter on theinternet!

DC: So referring back to your previous statement, youvery much rely on your network of colleagues to learnnew things and develop?

VG: I sure do, and sometimes daily. There is a groupof us that are almost in constant communication. Inaddition, there is the network from the GAINApprentorship that is proving very valuable as a sourceof good, solid information and for sounding. We maynot all agree, but we do speak a common language, sowe understand where everyone is coming from.

DC: I have also read numerous other interestingarticles from yourself, particularly on periodisation.Could you share you current thoughts on this topic?

VG: First of all periodisation is a concept not a model.It is essentially a plan to enable us to manageadaptation and control the training process over time.Much of the traditional literature in the area, stillwidely quoted, is Eastern European gobbledygook froma drug infested system, that bears no resemblance tothe conditions where most of us work. This ongoingargument about undulating versus linear is quitecomical. It is good for the researchers to talk about,but anyone who has tried to work a plan, quicklyrealises that it is all undulating. Very little in coachingthe human organism occurs in a linear manner.

DC: Athletic movement is one area where you havereally made a name for yourself. Therefore, what doyou think is the best way to improve these whenlimited time is something that many of us have to dealwith, particularly in a team environment?

VG: A little bit more often keep the work in this area,short, sharp, focused and game like in intensity. Iorganize my training in this area into modules, eachwith specific objectives relating to the sport movements

we are preparing for. We need to remember that we aretraining the nervous system via stress, intensity andquality, not quantity. Perhaps most important is thatmovement skill cannot be improved to an optimum levelwithout a good foundation of functional leg strength toenable you to use the ground effectively.

DC: What do you think are the fundamental issues inensuring that what we do to improve athleticmovement is actually doing so in the chaotic,unpredictable setting of competition/match play andnot just in the more controlled and comfortable settingof training?

VG: The sooner you can make it more game like, thebetter. Artificial progressions look good but often do nottransfer. I have a simple progression. I use the OregonSway drill originated by Jim Radcliffe at the University ofOregon. I then go on to the toe wheel drill progressions,then use the ABC footwork ladder to reinforce the foot-hip relationship and then go for it. The body is smart, Ibelieve in giving it increasingly challenging movementproblems to solve. The wisdom of the body will takecontrol, don’t create robots, build on fundamentalmovements. Watch children play and that is a good clueof the spontaneous approach we need to encourage.

DC: Having written, about and being involved in, longterm athlete development, what do you think are themost important things to get right?

VG:

• Earn the right to move on to higher levels bydemonstrating mastery of the elements of physicalliteracy.

• FUNdamental movement skills before specific sportskills

• More free play

• Put the best coaches and teachers with the beginners

• Don’t compete too soon

• Give the games back to the kids, let them play

• Ensure that we have mandatory physical educationdaily that is physical and educational.

DC: Do you feel there are any common mistakes thatyou see coaches make when addressing this?

VG: Too much, too soon. Stop trying to identifysuperstars in elementary school and being ignorant tothe relative age effect.

DC: How do you see the current state of coaching inour field?

VG: The state of coaching currently on the whole haslittle passion in it and there is no premium for this. Alot of people are currently acting and talking likepersonal trainers, but it’s not about that, it’s aboutteaching and to me this is a concern. Thereforeorganisations like the UKSCA have a chance to take astep. However, we need to understand coaching is notblack and white, it is not just about whether we can doan Olympic lift or pass an exam, if only it were thateasy, there is more to it than this! We need emphasison coaching. We owe it to the profession, which is inits formative years and we have a huge role that wecan play. If we label ourselves S&C coaches we narrowour role, one which in my opinion is one of the mostimportant cogs in the athlete support framework. Wehave a golden chance and sharp people coming in, butthey need mentoring, direction and to understand thatit is about much more than sets, reps, weight roomsupervising, and the traditional periodisation manytextbooks teach.

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DC: Finally, I have read on a number of occasions the vast amount of reading you do (100 hundred books inunder 1 year is some mean feat!). Therefore, what relevant books would you recommend?

Below is a conjuncted list of over 40 books Vern recommended, for the whole list please feel free to contact me!

Historical Works

Bunn, John. (1955) Scientific Principles of Coaching. New York, New York: Prentice Hall, Inc.

Gillman, Sid & Roy, Alvin. World Champion San Diego Chargers Strength Program – In and Out of Season.

Dyson,Geoffrey H.G. The Mechanics of Athletics. New York. Holmes & Meier Publishers. Seventh Edition, 1977

Jesse J: Hidden causes of injury, prevention, and correction for running athletes. The Athletic Press. Pasadena,CA 1977

O’ Shea, Patrick. (1976) Second Edition. Scientific Principles and Methods of Strength Fitness. Reading, MA:Addison-Wesley Publishing Company

Logan, Gene A. and McKinney, Wayne C. Kinesiology. Wm. C. Brown Company Publishers. 1970

Youth & Development

Drabik, Jo'zef Ph.D., Children & Sports Training, Island Pond, Vermont: Stadion Publishing Company, Inc. 1996

Gabbard, Carl., Leblanc, Elizabeth., and Lowy, Susan. Physical Education for Children-Building the Foundation,Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1987

Hannaford, Carla. Smart Moves – Why Learning Is Not All In Your Head. Great Ocean Publishers. Arlington,Virginia 1995

Training

Bosch, Frans., and Klomp, Ronald. Running – Biomechanics and Exercise Physiology Applied in Practice. London.Elsevier Churchill Livingstone. 2005

Gambetta, Vernon A. The Gambetta Method – A Common Sense Guide To Functional Training for AthleticPerfromance. Sarasota, FL: Gambetta Sports Training.2002

Gambetta, Vernon A. Athletic Development – The Art & Science of Functional Sports Conditioning. Champaign, IL:Human Kinetics Publishing Company. 2007

Komi, P. V., Editor,(Second Edition) Strength and Power In Sport, London: Blackwell Scientific Publications. 2003

Training In Sport – Applying Sport Science. Edited by Elliot, Bruce and Mester, J. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, WestSussex. England. 1998

Radcliffe, James C. and Faentinos, Robert C. (1999) High- Powered Plyometrics. Champaign, IL: Human KineticsPublishing Company.

Starzynski, Tadeusz. And Sozanski, Henryk. (1999) Explosive Power and Jumping Ability for all Sports. IslandPond, VT: Stadion Publishing Company.

Planning

Berkun, Scott. The Art of Project Management, Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly Media, Inc. 2005

Harre, Dietrich. Principles of Sports Training – Introduction to the Theory and methods of Training. Berlin, GDR:Sportverlag. 1982

Kurz, Thomas., Science of Sports Training, Second Edition. Island Pont, Vt: Stadion Publishing Company, 2001

Olbrecht, Jan. The Science of Winning – Planning, Periodizing and Optimizing Swim Training. Swim Shop, Luton,England. 2000

Sports Science

Enoka, Roger M. Neuromechanical Basis of Kinesiology Second Edition. Champaign, Illinois: Human KineticsBooks, Inc.1994.

Kreighbaum, Ellen and Barthels, Katharine M. Biomechanics - A Qualitative Approach for Studying HumanMovement. Fourth edition. Boston, Allyn and Bacon. 1996.

Lieber, Richard L. (2002) Skeletal Muscle Structure, Function & Plasticity – The Physiological Basis ofRehabilitation. Second Edition. Philadelphia: Lippincot Williams & Wilkins.

Newton, Robert U. Expression and Development of Maximal Muscle Power. Doctoral Dissertation, Southern CrossUniversity, 1997

Creativity & Innovation

Dweck, Carol. Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. New York: Random House.2006

Gardner, Howard. Five Minds For The Future. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. 2006

Hargadon, Andrew. How Breakthroughs Happen: The Surprising Truth About How Companies Innovate. Boston:Harvard Business School Press. 2003

I would like to thank Vern Gambetta for his time and enthusiasm, which has culminated in anoutstanding interview.

If you have an interesting individual you would like us to meet, why not submit a similar articlefor the next edition? Vern can be contacted at [email protected]

Anthony Turner Fighting s Amp c

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