Anth.310 Ppt. lecture-9: Egyptian relations with Canaanite vassals (Amarna Letters), neighbouring kingdoms (Aegean; Anatolia [Hatti]; Cyprus [Alaysha]; Mitanni; Assyria; Babylonia),

ANTH 310:

Imperial & Post-Imperial Egypt: 1550 – 332 BCE

(New Kingdom Egyptian international relations)

Lecture 9: Trade & diplomacy© Gregory Mumford 2021

Egypt’s international relations during New Kingdom (LB Age)

Diplomacy, trade, and overlordship:

1. Overall relations with neighbouring regions 4

2. Relations with Vassal city-states (northern empire). 13

3. Relations with Neighbouring kingdoms & empires. 40

3.a. Greece & the Aegean 46

3.b. Hatti (i.e., Anatolia; modern Turkey) 60

3.c. Alaysha (Cyprus) 67

3.d. Mitanni (Naharin) 76

3.e. Assyria 93

3.f. Babylonia 97

4. Trade with Neighbouring states & peoples. 112

4.a. East Mediterranean 113

4.b. Red Sea trade 127

5. Sources 156

Instructor tips for lectures, etc.:

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reinforcement & reviews of materials/concepts.

(2). Take notes on lectures, etc. …→ The act of writing down notes, even with

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serves as an invaluable aid to one focusing on

a class topic and retaining information better.

(3). Complete the required textbook

readings, and/or review the ppt.,

prior to the specific class day …→ This will provide greater clarity and

comprehension of the material, and will enable

asking focused questions where something

may be less clear (in the textbook or lecture).

(4). Ask questions during the class if

you are confused/wish more data→ The class is an ideal place to ask for more

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NEW KINGDOM

Dynasties 18-20

Ca.1550-1070 BC

1. Overall Relations

with neighbouring

States & peoples

E.g., Egyptian (traditional) portrayal of ALL LANDS being subject to Egypt

→ What is the reality?

Year 12: Akhenaten receives tribute / gifts from vassal states & other lands

i.e., re-affirmation of loyalty of all subjects (& visits by foreign envoys)

Akhetaten: Records Office “Place of the Letters of the Pharaoh”

• 382 tablets (including some tablets found elsewhere/Palestine)

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

Background to the “Amarna” Letters:

- Letters are on small, baked clay tablets

using mainly Hurro-Akkadian and

“Babylonian” cuneiform (= international

lingua franca during Late Bronze Age).

- Most discovered in 1887-88 by farmers

at el-Amarna (Egypt).

- Subsequent excavation in and near

Akhenaten’s records’ office (“The Place

of the Letters of the Pharaoh”)

produced 34 letters.

- 150-200 letters may remain lost, but

the majority eventually appeared in

private and museum collections.

- Other similar letters have been found

in the Levant at Tel el-Hesi, Tel Aphek,

Taanach, Ras Shamra (Ugarit), and

Boghazköy (Hattusas: Ramesside

correspondence).

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

The Amarna Letters span reigns of

a. Amenhotep III (year 30+), Dyn.18

b. Akhenaten, Dyn.18

c. Smenkhkare, Dyn.18, and

d. Tutankhamun (years 1-2).

ca. 1360-1335/4 BC in late Dyn.18.

Letters form a corpus of at least 382:

a. foreign communications,

b. diverse texts (e.g., myths & epics;

syllabaries; lexical texts; a god-list;

a Hurrian tale), and

c. draft copies of correspondence btw.

Egypt, its Syro-Palestinian vassals, &

neighbouring states.

Tushratta

Amarna international correspondence:

New Kingdom (LB Age) Imperialism

Egyptian(izing) items → Near East

Amman: Historical Setting: LB Age (ca. 1,550–1,200 BC) Egypt and Asia.

EGYPTIAN EMPIRE: Near Eastern items → Egypt

Dyn.20 example

of barter-rates at

Deir el-Medineh

(Ostracon 73).

5 = coffin

12.5 = coffin8.5 = coffin

Bartering (i.e., non-monetary) economy

NEW KINGDOM

Dynasties 18-20

Ca.1550-1070 BC

2. Relations with

vassal city-states

(northern empire)

1

2

3?Amarna Letters:

Vassal correspondence:→ 2-3 provinces during Amarna period

1. GAZA (HQ): - Province of Canaan

Palestine-Phoenician coast.

2. KUMIDU (HQ): - Province of Upe

Hazor (N.Pal.) → Qadesh (S. Syria)

3? SUMUR (HQ): - Prov. of Amurru

Amurru (W. Syria)

(gradual removal from Egypt)

Egyptian commissioners commanding

- Headquarter cities

- Egyptian subordinates

- Indigenous vassal rulers

a. “mayors”

b. “rulers”

c. “kings”

d. “princes”Gaza

Amarna Letters: 1350-1320 BC

• 15-30 year time span:

-Amenhotep III year 30+

-Akhenaten

-Smenkhare

-Tutankhaten year 1

• 382 tablets → 350 letters

→ 32 other documents

Neighbouring nations/empires:

-Babylonia: EA.1-14

-Assyria: EA.15-16

-Mitanni: EA.17, 19-30

-Arzawa: EA.31-32

-Alashia: EA.33-40

-Hatti: EA.41-44

Egyptian vassals:

-Vassals EA.45-382

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

Letters btw. Egypt & its N-vassals:

Egypt’s vassal correspondence (EA

45-382) took place between:

a. local rulers (“mayors”; “rulers”; “kings”;

“princes”),

b. a vassal queen,

c. Egyptian officials, and

d. The pharaoh.

The royal letters normally

a. command the recipients to be on

guard and protect pharaoh’s property,

b. Issue orders, and

c. conclude by summarizing pharaoh’s

well-being and power.

The pharaoh often …

a. requests particular items & personnel,

b. mentions Egyptian officials, and

c. relays commands to vassal rulers.

Amarna Letters:

Vassal correspondence:

Pharaoh’s letters to vassals:

1. Naming inferior first

2. Introducing message with

“He hereby sends this tablet to you,

Saying to you …”

3. Emphasizing command

a. to be on one’s guard

b. to guard “the place of the king

where you are”

4. (Pharaoh’s approval) “this is good”

5. Ending letter

Formulaic information noting that

the king is prosperous and powerful.

Gaza

1

2

3?Amarna Letters:

Vassal correspondence:

Pharaoh’s letters to vassals:

Objective of extant letters:

→ To obtain personnel

→ To obtain other goods

→ To dispatch Egyptian officials

(informing vassal)

→ To secure acquiescence to his

commands

→ To facilitate supplies for troops

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

Northern vassal letters to Egypt:

Most vassal and subordinate letters

are replies to the pharaoh: i.e., what

was received and kept in the royal

archives in Egypt.

They regularly address the recipient

scribe:

E.g., “Say to the King; Message of PN”

or “To the King”,

They sometimes omit greetings,

They express their various

prostrations (i.e., = obsequious):

E.g., “seven times and seven times

([both] on the belly and the back).”

Vassal letters to pharaoh: read out by scribes

Gaza

1

2

Amarna Letters:Vassals’ letters to Pharaoh/Egy.:

1. Address:

a. “Say to the King / PN …; message

of PN …”

b. “To the king …”

King = virtually always addressed by

his title and honorifics (epithets)

Vassal writer identifies himself using

expressions of obeisance

Byblos (Gubla) letters = exceptions

e.g., “Rib-Hadda speaks to the king”

*Well-wishing from Byblos,

“the goddess, the Lady of Byblos,

grant power to the king”

e.g., Byblos: letters to Egy. officials

express hope that Aman, or the

Lady of Byblos, or both, give the

addressee honour in the king’s

sight.

Byblos = Gubla

A privileged vassal city

Gaza

1

2

3?Amarna Letters:Vassals’ letters to Pharaoh/Egy.:

2. Prostration before king:

a. Vassals in general:

Say “seven times and seven times

(both) on the belly and on the back”

b. Byblos letters (i.e., Gubla):

Say “seven times and seven times”

→ implies elevated status for Byblos

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

Northern-vassal letters to Egypt:

These vassal letters range broadly in

content:

E.g.,Repeating relevant royal commands

and relating the rulers’ compliance

with required duties:

E.g., Safeguarding local grain supplies,

settlements, Egyptian officials, and

caravans.

E.g., Other duties include supplying

Egyptian garrisons & campaigning

forces with ships, auxiliary troops

(including escorts for royal

caravans), chariots and horses,

corvée labour, donkeys, oxen,

sheep, goats, birds, straw, grain,

food, honey, oil, strong drink, and

lumber.

Amarna Letters:Vassals’ letters to Pharaoh/Egy.:

3. Contents: Some vassal cities …

a. Report on situation around their

city-state

b. Mention anything of interest to the

Egyptian officials/king.

e.g., “May the king, my lord, know that

…”

e.g., The city is - “safe and sound”

- “threatened”

e.g., Territory has been lost

e.g., Update on political situation

Etc.

Amarna Letters:Vassals’ letters to Pharaoh/Egy.:

3. Contents of letters: (varied)

- Most vassals responding to letters

from pharaoh

- Letters cite that the vassal ruler

a. received king’s letter and often

gives citations (part/full).

b. being on guard

c. heeding king’s commissioner

- Letters affirm compliance with

orders

- In other matters, vassal replies:

a. Blunt responses

b. Express displeasure at var. orders

c. Denial of charges (e.g., Amurru)

Gaza

1

2

3?Amarna Letters:Vassals’ letters to Pharaoh/Egy.:

3. Contents of letters: (varied)

- Byblos (Gubla) has unusual

correspondence:

a. Rib-Hadda writes incessantly

b. He claims it is impossible

e.g., to guard the city

e.g., to send wood

c. When Pharaoh and the foreign office

complain that Rib-Hadda is writing

far more than any other vassal, →

Rib-Hadda asserts this is because

he alone is loyal.

d. Rib-Hadda stands out as being very

tiresome in his letters, which comes

across in Egyptian replies to him.

Gaza

1

2

3?Amarna Letters:

Gleanings from vassal letters:

Vassal ruler obligations:

1. Tribute payment

2. Furnishing goods & personnel

3. Providing corvee labour for state

lands

4. Supplying Egyptian troops

in-transit

5. Reinforcing Egyptian troops

6. Protecting trade caravans

7. Etc.

Byblos

Sumur

Ugarit

Tunip

Amki

AMURRU

HATTI

MITANNI

EGYPT

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

Egyptian letters with N.-Pal.-vassals:

The northern vassals, esp. Rib-Hadda

of Byblos, often report either all is well,

or list innumerable problems:

a. hostilities by Amurru (a new &

expanding state), the ‘Apiru, and

disloyal vassal states.

b. many attacks against, sieges and

defeats of loyal vassals, Egyptian

garrisons, strongholds and shipping

(e.g., Sumur; Ullassa).

c. The capture, enslavement, and

murder of Egyptian officials, vassal

rulers and troops.

d. The desertion of the peasantry

owing to food shortages from enemy

raids.

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

Egyptian letters with N.-Pal.-vassals:

innumerable problems (continued):

e. Corruption amongst various Egyptian

officials.

f. Some wrongful Egyptian killings &

enslavement of local citizens

(e.g., širdanu-people).

g. Treasonous acts by Egyptian

officials.

h. Increasing Hittite hostility, troop

movements, and attempts to subvert

Egyptian vassals.

Vassal rulers sometimes:

a. Express dissatisfaction over various

commands,

b. Deny charges of disloyalty, and

c. Provide a wide range of information

on other matters: pestilence in Sumur

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

Egyptian letters with S-Pal.-vassals:

The relatively more stable southern

vassals also write about varying

rivalries, alliances and conflict

between different city-states ...

This includes …

a. Serious widespread hostilities by

the ‘Apiru and Suteans,

b. Kidnappings with costly ransoms,

c. Egyptian officials seizing housing, &

d. Serious problems with Kushite

soldiers in Jerusalem.

Other southern vassals simply

report carrying out pharaoh’s commands

and assert their loyalty.

Gaza

1

2

3?Amarna Letters:Vassals’ letters to Pharaoh/Egy.:

1. Northern vassal letters (summary):

- Reflect the emergence of Amurru

Abdi-Asirta threatening Byblos (A3)

Aziru threatening Byblos (A4)

- Resurgence of the Hittites

(A-IV): Aziru of Amurru and

Aitagama of Qadesh are called

traitors and allies of Hittites.

2. Southern vassal letters (summary):

- More localized events

- Less political tensions than in the

north (e.g., Amurru & the Apiru).

- Southern city-states exhibit

a. rivalries

b. changing situations

c. some skirmishes between cities

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

Vassal requests to Egypt:

In general, most Levantine vassal

rulers ask pharaoh to send

a. Archers,

b. Egyptian and Kushite troops and

chariots,

c. Garrisons, and

d. Egyptian officials to protect them

and Egypt’s interests.

The ruler of Ugarit also asks for a

doctor.

Requests for military aid range from

10 to 400 soldiers and 30-50 chariots.

Rib-Hadda of Byblos later asks Egypt’s

assistance to re-take his city, which

fell into enemy hands through Egyptian

inactivity.

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

Vassals note trade caravans to Egypt:

Other vassal letters mention sending

various things in caravans to Egypt:

a. Sons (as hostages/attendants),

b. A daughter,

c. Female slaves (10; 20; 21; 46),

d. Eight porters,

e. Five male slaves,

f. Prisoners (10-80),

g. 500 oxen,

h. Tribute payments,

i. 100 - 5,000 silver shekels,

j. 30 - 100 units of glass,

k. Boxwood logs,

l. A jar of aromatics (for the Egyptian

queen from Ugarit),

m. 5 talents of bronze,

n. Harnessing for a pair of horses,

o. A horse cover,

p. A whip, a spear, a bow, and a quiver

(of arrows). i.e., chariot equipment.

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

Egyptian payments to vassals:

Some vassals mention Egyptian

payments for their loyalty and

specific services.

E.g., Milkilu, the ruler of Gezer, received

a. Silver,

b. Gold,

c. Linen garments,

d. ma-al-ba-ši,

e. Carnelian items,

f. Precious stones, and

g. An ebony chair

→ as payment for his provision,

to pharaoh, of 40 female cupbearers

(valued at 40 shekels each).

Dyn.1

example

Akhenaten and Vassals in

Syria-Palestine:

Egyptian payments to vassals:

EA369 to Milkilu ruler of Gezer:

mentions the shipment of

a. silver,

b. gold,

c. linen garments,

d. ma-al-ba-ši,

e. carnelian item(s),

f. precious stones,

g. an ebony chair

As payment for 40 female

cupbearers (valued at 40

shekels of silver apiece).

MAP

Location of

Gezer (Gazru)

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

Vassal requests & receipt from Egypt:

Some vassal rulers request:

a. Grain transfers,

b. Horses, and

c. Myrrh for medication.

Other vassal rulers note receiving:

a. Grain transfers,

b. Provisions (often from Yarimuta),

c. Presents,

d. Linen garments,

e. A gold goblet,

f. A horse (for a messenger of Akko),

g. A divine statue, and

h. Gold and silver.

In one case, an ‘Apiru guide is paid

13 shekels of silver and two mantles

to smuggle an Egyptian official

into the besieged garrison at Sumur.

Akhenaten and Vassals in

Syria-Palestine:Some vassals refer to:

1. The transfer of grain or provisions

(often from Yarimuta) to their city

states (EA 85, 86, 112, 121, 122,

130, 125, and 126)

2. The receipt of presents or some

"kindness" (EA 119 and 265).

3. The provision of a horse to the

messenger of Akka (Akko) (EA 88)

4. The former presentation of a divine

statue to the father of Akkizi (EA 55)

(Qatna)

5. The dispatch of gold and silver to

Azirru (EA 161) in Amurru.

6.Requests for grain transfers or horses

as payment for various services

(EA 86 and 308).

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

Means of communications:

The means of contact vary between

Egypt, its vassal states & neighbouring

Near Eastern kingdoms.

Reference is made to …

a. Military and commercial shipping,

b. Overland caravans,

c. The exchange of regular pairs of

Egyptian and foreign messengers

(who travel by chariot), and

d. Troop escorts for caravans,

messengers, gifts, and high-ranking

persons (e.g., foreign princesses

sent to Egypt).

Pack animals, wagons, and troops

were employed to transport bulkier,

costlier, and more important items

and personages overland.

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

Means of communications:

Communications were often slow:

The ruler of Qatna claims he waited

3 years for a caravan bound for Egypt.

He enquires whether he can send

a messenger with the presumably

more regular Egyptian royal envoys.

Caravans are sometimes

a. Attacked by bandits,

b. Delayed,

c. Diverted, or

d. Denied passage through a vassal

state.

Model of wagon from Syria EB IV

NEW KINGDOM

Dynasties 18-20

Ca.1550-1070 BC

3. Relations with

neighboring kingdoms

and empires:

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

Amarna Letters’ Intl. correspondents:

- In letters to/from Near Eastern states

(EA 1-44), many letters are addressed

to the recipient scribe.

- A given letter normally lists

the addressee followed by sender

E.g., “Say to PN. Thus PN.”

- A greeting is frequently issued next

E.g., “For me all goes well,” with an

invariable wish regarding both

the addressee’s well-being

(“May all go well with you”)

and that of his/her household,

personnel and military.

- The correspondents include kings,

queens and princes.

- Messages vary broadly, dealing with

the dispatch of things and/or requests.

Amarna Letters:

• Most letters = received from abroad

• Some letters = copies of ones sent

E.g.., Egyptian drafts in Akkadian language

•14th cent. BC cuneiform = used as the

international language of communication.

a. International letters (to and from Egypt)

b. Vassal letters (to and from Egypt)

International correspondence:

1. addressing a letter (Old Babylonian style):

An inferior names the superior first:

“Say to PN. Thus PN” (inferior to superior)

Superior names himself first:

“Thus PN; Say to PN” (Superior to inferior)

Amarna Letters:

International correspondence:

2. Salutation: (Old Babylonian form)

• Report one’s well-being

e.g., “For me all goes well” (optional)

• Express well-wishes for addressee(required)

e.g., “May all go well with you”

may add your household

wives

children

courtiers

troops

horses and chariots

3. Contents of text:

• Two main types of letters:

a. Envoy letters: “I herewith send” (at end)

b. Injunctions: (commands-requests)

Amarna Letters:

International correspondence:

Relationship between rulers:

• “Brotherhood” of alliances

• Cemented by gift-giving

e.g., “From the time my ancestors

and your ancestors made a

mutual declaration of friendship,

they sent beautiful greeting gifts

to each other, and refused no

request for anything beautiful.”

• Letters between “brothers” / equal kings:

e.g., “Send me much gold, and you,

for your part, whatever you want

from my country, write to me so that

it may be taken to you”

e.g., “If your purpose is graciously one

of friendship, send me much gold”

Amarna Letters:

International correspondence:

Relationship between rulers:

• Other sentiments:

-Acknowledging gifts received

-Praising gifts received

-Disappointed with gifts received

• Diplomatic marriages:

-Dowry, etc., sent with princesses

i.e., vast amounts of wealth and an

exchange of goods

• Letters -declaring friendship

-mentioning gifts

-marriage proposals

-lists of goods exchanged

regarding marriages

-diverse pieces of information

M.H. Sterne library:

Call no.: DS.62.23 A43 2000

NEW KINGDOM: Dynasties 18-20

Ca.1550-1070 BC

STATE ECONOMY:

International relations.

3.a. GREECE

Mycenaeans and Egypt:

• Although it has been estimated that

150-200+ letters are missing from

Akhenaten’s archive (of 382 texts),

none of the known tablets represent

correspondence with the Aegean.

• This could reflect either an absence

of direct Egyptian interaction with

Myc. Greece (i.e., poss. relying on

Levantine mediation: e.g., like the

Ulu Burun shipwreck: Cypriot ship?),

or poss. chance missing letter(s)

from Akhenaten’s archive and/or the

reigns prior to or after Akhenaten.

DYN.18 no.9: Amenhotep III.

Egyptian items in CRETE:

Egyptian items in LM I-IIIA:1 Crete:

a. 30 Egyptian vessels

b. 12 vessels (Knossos)

c. Scarab of A-III & Qn.Tiye

d. A-III-Qn. Tiye scarabs & seal

e. Egyptian-style lapis lazuli

amulets and beads (jewellery).

Distribution of Egy. Items in Crete:

a. Isopata,

b. Sellopoulo (near Knossos),

c. Knossos,

d. Archanes,

e. Katsamba,

f. Kommos.

g. Khania

h. Aya Triadha

DYN.18 no.9: Amenhotep III.

Egyptian items in LH II+ Greece:

Mycenae & Argive Heraion:

a. Egyptian stone & faience vessels

b. 6 fragmentary plaques of A-III

c. Dyn. 18 scarabs (seals)

d. Dagger with Egy. “flying gallop” motif

Mycenae,Ayios Elias,Ialysos (Rhodes):

a. Monkey figurine

(A-III +Tiy cartouches)

b. Faience vase “ “

c. Scarab seals “ “

“Flying gallop” motif

(legs splayed unnaturally)

Egyptian artifacts from Mycenae: Amenhotep III, Qn. Tiye, etc.

Mycenaean trade & exchange:

MH III - LH I-III: 1600 – 1100 BC:

Mycenaeans and Egypt:

• BUT, the presence of Egy.royal items

at Mycenae (even if in LH IIIB levels)

suggest that some direct contact

may have occurred during LH IIIA1-2

Amenhotep III’s cartouche is attested

on six faience plaques (Mycenae), &

A.III+Qn. Tiye’s names on 2 scarabs.

• On the other hand, a range of other

scenarios are possible, including:

(a). Egy. ship with Egy. emissaries;

(b). The passage of Egy. emissaries

on a Levantine ship;

(c). Perhaps a Myc. ship with Egy.

emissaries;

(d).Possibly an indirect transmission

of these items into their later

(LH IIIB) contexts –var. means?

(e). Other options???

DYN.18 no.9: Amenhotep III.

Crete (Minoans - Mycenaeans) → Egypt:

A-III statue lists place-names (toponyms):

a. Keftiu = Crete

b. ry-k3-ti = Lyktos (E. Crete)

c. i-'m-n-y-š3 = Amnisos (N. Crete)

d. k3-in-yw-š = Knossos (central Crete)

e. k3-t-w-n3-y = Kydonia (W. Crete)

f. b3-y-š3-?-y = Phaistos (S. Crete)

- No contemporary (LM II) pottery in Egypt.

Egypt has other Minoan influence & products:

a. Ostracon noting “the Keftiuan”

b. Medical papyrus: remedy for recital in

Keftiu-language to cure “Asiatic disease”

c. Scenes depict Keftiu-ships in royal port.

d. Theban tombs: Keftiu bringing ornate

metal vessels, ingots, leather, cloth.

Dyn.18: Amenhotep III,

Ca. 1388-1350 BCE

Aegean List of Amenhotep III lies

on a royal statue at his Memorial

Temple (‘mortuary temple’).

Aegean list on a statue nearby …

Mycenaean trade & exchange:

MH III - LH I-III: 1600 – 1100 BC:

Mycenaeans and Egypt:

• However, the presence of an

“Aegean list” on a royal statue of

Amenhotep III (on the base, near the

entry of his Theban mortuary temple)

may reflect a “royal mission” to

Myc. Greece, Crete and Anatolia.

• This list mentions key places:

Troy: NW Anatolia (Wilusa)

Mycenae Argolid

Nauplion Mainland Greece

Messenia Mainland Greece

Kythera Island off mainland

Amnisos Northern Crete

Knossos Northern Crete

Phaistos Southern Crete

Kydonia NW Crete

DYN.18 no.9: Amenhotep III.

Crete (Minoans - Mycenaeans) → Egypt:

A-III statue lists place-names (toponyms):

a. Keftiu = Crete

b. ry-k3-ti = Lyktos (E. Crete)

c. i-'m-n-y-š3 = Amnisos (N. Crete)

d. k3-in-yw-š = Knossos (central Crete)

e. k3-t-w-n3-y = Kydonia (W. Crete)

f. b3-y-š3-?-y = Phaistos (S. Crete)

- No contemporary (LM II) pottery in Egypt.

Egypt has other Minoan influence & products:

a. Ostracon noting “the Keftiuan”

b. Medical papyrus: remedy for recital in

Keftiu-language to cure “Asiatic disease”

c. Scenes depict Keftiu-ships in royal port.

d. Theban tombs: Keftiu bringing ornate

metal vessels, ingots, leather, cloth.

Mycenaean trade & exchange:

MH III - LH I-III: 1600 – 1100 BC:

Mycenaeans and Egypt:

• In contrast, Mycenaean contact with

Egypt = poorly attested prior to the

Amarna period: Egypt has yielded

some imported LH IIA (or LM 1B)

potsherds … ca. 1500–1430 BCE

• By LH IIIA2-B (1370/1360-1200 BC),

Myc. pottery occurs at 30+ sites

along Egypt’s Mediterranean coast

and along the Nile to Nubia:

• Myc. LH IIIA2-B pottery appears in

a wide range of settings: royal,

administrative, residential, temple,

and mortuary contexts.

• However, most Myc. pottery occurs

at the royal capital at Amarna (n =

1,500-1,600+ sherds), which is briefly

occupied for 15-16 years in total.

Myc. pottery from

Amarna

https://www.ceramicsartorscience.co.uk/EicBooks/

Bookpage php?eicbookident=caoslive&eicbookpage=258

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12520-017-0552-z

Mycenaean pottery from Amara West:

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12520-017-0552-z?shared-article-renderer

Lower Nubia

Mycenaean trade & exchange:

MH III - LH I-III: 1600 – 1100 BC:

Mycenaeans and Egypt:

• Some additional evidence from this

site (Amarna) includes a fragmentary

papyrus, which illustrates Myc.-type

warriors (with boar’s tusk helmets)

assisting an Egyptian soldier who is

fighting Libyan archers.

• This papyrus scene is highly

suggestive of Myc. mercenaries

serving/visiting in Egypt –even if

in a transitory fashion (a practice

attested elsewhere in earlier Minoan

frescoes: LM I Thera, etc.).

• The papyrus originated from a royal

cult chapel at Amarna: Akhenaten’s

newly founded royal capital in

Middle Egypt, built during years 5-10

and abandoned after 16 or so years.

Mycenaean trade & exchange:

MH III - LH I-III: 1600 – 1100 BC:

Mycenaeans and Egypt:

• Myc. LH IIIB pottery (1300-1200 BC)

occurs in smaller quantities in Egypt,

but this may reflect fewer excavated

settlement sites from this period:

• A Ramesside fort at Zawiyet Umm

el-Rakham, however, has yielded

Myc., Cypriot, and Levantine pottery

from its magazines (storerooms).

• Other Dyn.19 sites have produced

Myc. pottery in Egypt, Sinai, etc.

• No (Myc.) LH IIIC pottery is attested

in Egypt, which does parallel a drop

in Myc. trade, i.e., post 1200 BC,

whereas a few Egyptian imports

(contemporary?) are known from

LH IIIC contexts in the Aegean: esp.

(a). Perati cemetery; (b) Rhodes.

LH IIIC Perati cemetery

Zawiyet Umm

el-Rakham

NEW KINGDOM: Dynasties 18-20

Ca.1550-1070 BC

STATE ECONOMY:

International relations.

3.b. ANATOLIA

DYN.18 no.9: Amenhotep III.

Anatolia:

A-III maintained contact with Anatolia:

a. Letters (Akkadian: EA41,44; Hittite EA31)

b. A-III statue lists places & peoples.

-Arzawa = S. Anatolia

-Khatte = central Anatolia

-Kaška = NE Anatolia

-Arusna = NW Anatolia

-W3-iw-r-y = Ilios/Troy(?)

Tarkhundaradu of Arzawa promises

daughter in marriage to A-III; A-III sends:

a. Greeting gift of gold

b. 317 linen pieces (garments; mantles)

c. 10 containers of sweet oil

d. 13 ebony chairs (ivory & gold overlay)

e. 100 ebony pieces.

LH IIIA burials at Panaztepe near Troy:

a. Egyptian gold,

b. Alabaster vessel

c. Dyn.18 scarab

d. Scarab of A-III.

Troy

ARZAWA

KHATTE

KASKA

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

Correspondence with Arzawa (W. Anatolia):

Some diplomatic contact occurs

between Egypt and western Anatolia.

- Amenhotep III sent a greeting gift and

the first instalment of a bride-price

to King Tarhundaradu of Arzawa:

a. a gold sack (20 minas),

b. 317 linen garments,

c. 10 containers of sweet oil,

d. 13 ebony chairs, and

e. 100 ebony beams.

- He also promised to dispatch

additional products that Tarhundaradu

had requested previously.

Example of a chair from Tut’s tomb

Amenhotep III and Arzawa:

EA 31 between A-III & king of Arzawa,

Tarhundaradu (in West Anatolia).

A-III sends many products to Arzawa

as a greeting gift & first instalment of

a bride-price:

1. one sack of gold (e.g., 20 minas),

2. a variety of 317 linen garments,

3. 10 containers of "sweet oil",

4. 13 chairs of ebony,

5. 100 beams of ebony

A-III emphasizes his request for a

princess from the king of Arzawa.

A-III promises to send more goods

at a future date.

Cites a request by King Tarhundaradu

for various Egyptian products

Akhenaten and Hatti:

4 letters between Egypt & Hatti:

2 = letters between Akhenaten

& king of Hatti, Šuppiluliumaš;

1 = from Hittite prince, Zita, to

Akhenaten

King Šuppiluliumaš' requests:

a. Standing statue of gold,

b. Seated statue of gold,

c. Silver statues of women,

d. A large piece of lapis lazuli,

e. A large stand for something

(lost in a lacuna).

Zita, Hittite prince, requests:

f. Some gold

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

Correspondence with Hittites:

- In Egypto-Hittite correspondence,

Hittite royal family members ask

Akhenaten for:

a. a gift of gold,

b. gold & silver statuettes,

c. a large piece of lapis lazuli, and

d. a stand.

- Akhenaten received:

a. 16 retainers as a greeting gift, and

b. a pair of silver animal-shaped rhyta,

silver disks, and

nikiptu-trees.

i.e., Earlier cordial relations between

the Hittites and Egypt

(despite troubles in far northern

empire: i.e., defection of N. vassals

to Hittite empire in late Dyn.18).

Akhenaten and Hatti:

Šuppiluliumaš sends to Egypt:

• A silver rhyton in the form of a stag

• A silver rhyton in the form of a

young ram,

c. Two silver disks,

d. Two large nikiptu-trees

Hittite prince sends to Egypt:

e. A greeting-gift of 16 men

Gifts were delivered by Hittite

messengers, the names of whom

remain unrecorded.

i.e., Normally a pair of emissaries

(and their troop escort)

NEW KINGDOM: Dynasties 18-20

Ca.1550-1070 BC

STATE ECONOMY:

International relations.

3.c. CYPRUS

Amenhotep III:

Ugarit: Letter RS 18.113A:

- Rm 77a in palace.

- Addressed to Amenhotep III (Nimmuria)

- Refers to tamkar (merchants) &

Egyptian-Cypriot maritime trade via

Cyprus.

- Copy? of a letter sent to A-III from Egy.

official ("seal-bearer") stationed in Ugarit.

- Letter details this seal-bearer's

trip from Ugarit to Cyprus.

- Asks A-III to intercede with King of

Ugarit, on behalf of 20 men (Egyptian

shipbuilders/owners), regarding sale

of Egyptian(?) ships to a merchant.

- Transaction requiring A-III's authorization.

Ugarit

DYN.18 no.9: Amenhotep III.

International relations:

Cypriot items in Egypt:

Cypriot pottery in Egypt

E.g., Base Ring juglet form/shape:

a. opium poppy

b. pomegranate

-Analysis of BR-juglets reveals

a. oily substance (scents/ointments)

b. possibly opium (contested)

-Muhly suggests other Cypriot exports

may include wine & salt.

Egyptian items in Cyprus:

a. Vessels of alabaster, glass,

faience vessels

b. Jewellery (bronze, gold, silver)

c. Scarab seals

CYPRUS

(Alashiya)

Generic calcite vessels

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

Akhenaten’s letters with Cyprus:

- Akhenaten apparently sent a broad

range of products to Alašia (Cyprus):

a chariot, horse team, linen, ebony

beams, an ebony bed, ivory, silver,

containers of sweet oil and an ox.

- In return, a king on Cyprus writes:

a. Letter EA 35 asking pharaoh to send

a specialist in “vulture” augury;

b. A request for the return of the

property of a Cypriot who has

recently died in Egypt.

c. A reminder about an overdue

payment for lumber.

Akhenaten and Alashiya (Cyprus):

Akhenaten sent many types of

products to Alašia:

a. a chariot,

b. a team of horses,

c. 54 pieces of linen,

d. eight pieces of byssos fabric,

e. 14 beams of ebony,

f. an ebony bed,

g. ivory,

h. quantities of silver,

i. containers of "sweet-oil",

j. an ox

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

Cypriot king’s dispatch to Akhenaten:

Sending a range of products to Egypt:

a. especially copper (3-500 talents),

b. ivory,

c. a donkey-hide for a bed,

d. boxwood beams,

e. jars of sweet oil.

- He also complains on several

occasions that his messengers

have been detained in Egypt.

Akhenaten and Alashiya (Cyprus):

Amarna Letter EA 35:

- Requests an expert in "vulture”

(or eagle) augury from Egypt.

Amarna Letter EA 35:

- Asks for the return of the property

of a man from Alašia who has

recently died in Egypt.

King of Alašia (EA 35)

Complains that the king of Egypt has

not paid for a previous timber

shipment from Alašia.

Akhenaten and Alashiya (Cyprus):

King of Alašia sent a wide variety of

products (and personnel) to Egypt.

a. Much copper

(e.g., 3 talents, 5 talents, 10 talents,

100 talents, 120 talents, 500 talents),

b. three pieces of ivory,

c. donkey-hide for a bed,

d. beam of boxwood,

e. two wooden beams for a ship,

f. jars of "sweet oil“

Letter EA 34:

- King of Alašia complains that he did

not receive a gift of oil and linen

from the king of Egypt.

Akhenaten and Alashiya (Cyprus):

Complaints:

Letters EA 39 & 40:

- King of Alashiya points out that the

Egyptians have detained some

merchants from Alašia who belong

to him.

Letters EA 37 and 38:

- Further complaints that the king of

Alashiya’s messengers have been

detained in Egypt.

NEW KINGDOM: Dynasties 18-20

Ca.1550-1070 BC

STATE ECONOMY:

International relations.

3.d. MITANNI

Amenhotep III → Mitanni:

- Amarna letters relate Amenhotep-III

sent many products to Mitanni,

(King Tushratta), including:

a. unspecified gifts,

b. gold vessels (e.g., jars; jugs),

c. gold bars,

d. worked gold,

e. pieces of booty

- These overland expeditions were

accompanied by messengers

(e.g., Mani and Haarmašši),

and troops.

- Upon the occasion of the escort

of a Mitannian princess to Egypt,

it included (many) Egyptian troops.

Amenhotep III and Mitanni:

King Tushratta’s letters to A-III:

Requests for much gold for

a. His daughter's bride price,

b. a construction project

(e.g., mausoleum for grandfather),

c. gold statue of Tušratta's sister

Kelu-Heba (who had been sent to

Egypt by Tušratta's father),

d. gold statue of Tušratta's daughter

Tadu-Heba.

Other requested items include:

e. ivory image & lapis lazuli statues

of Tušratta's sister and daughter.

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

Egypt (A-III) sends to Mitanni: …

Amenhotep III often dispatched:

gifts, booty and gold bars and vessels.

A-III received requests for …

more gold for Tušratta’s daughter’s

bride-price, building projects (e.g.,

a mausoleum), and for statuettes of

this king’s sister and daughter.

The bride-price (for Mitanni) included:

a. 62 pieces of linen (blankets;

bedspreads; fabric),

b. 212 garments (including shoes),

c. 820+ diverse pieces of jewellery,

d. Three mirrors,

e. 120+ combs,

f. Three fly whisks,

g. A sieve,

h. A scraper

i. 284+ utilitarian and luxury containers,

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

Amenhotep III bride-price (continued):

j. 87+ animal-shaped rhyta,

k. 35+ utensils (spoons; bread shovels;

dippers),

l. 25 braziers,

m. nine pieces of furniture,

n. 11 chariots,

o. 10 horse teams,

p. A set of bronze-studded leather

covers for horses,

q. Two sets of body armour (bronze;

leather),

r. Two helmets,

s. 105 bows (with 6,080+ arrows),

t. 41 spears and javelins,

u. 34 daggers and knives,

v. 11 maces,

w. An axe,

x. A throw stick, &

y. 6,037+ items of precious materials.

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

Mitanni sends to Egypt (A-III):

- The Mitannian king sent his daughter

to Amenhotep III in Egypt accompanied

by …

a. 270 female attendants, and

b. 30 male retainers.

→ i.e., The mass movement of foreigners

who would reside and serve at the

Egyptian court:

- Serving Mitannian princess in many

ways.

- Each would need their own housing,

clothing, food, etc.

- Some might be diverted from the

princess’ use to other employment

for the Egyptian state.

Amenhotep III and Mitanni:

King Tushratta’s daughter→ Egypt:

Tušratta's daughter, her possessions,

& gifts to A-III, consisted of numerous

presents.

→Would have required a large, well-

guarded caravan.

1. 5,500 gunte memetu,

2. one ivory item,

3. 10+x stone items,

4. 82+x bronze items,

5. 2+x gold items,

6. 8+x silver items,

7. 434+x unknown items,

8. three fly whisks,

9. one sieve,

10.one scraper,

11.26+x spoons,

12.120+x combs

Amenhotep III and Mitanni:

King Tushratta’s daughter→ Egypt:

13. three mirrors,

14. 5+x containers,

15. three alkali-containers,

16. six bread shovels,

17. two bottles,

18. two helmet-containers,

19. one set of salt containers,

20. an unknown number of goblets,

21. 53+x flasks,

22. two ewers,

23. 12 kettles,

24. three water-dippers,

25. 12+x jars,

26. one tallu-jar,

27. 20 kirru-pots,

28. 52+x aškirušhu-vessels,

29. 11 pot-stands,

Amenhotep III and Mitanni:

King Tushratta’s daughter→ Egypt:

30. 25 bowls,

31. one incense bowl,

32. five sprinkles,

33. 24 wash-basins,

34. 28+x troughs,

35. one tray,

36. 25 braziers,

37. 20 scent-containers,

38. five ointment receptacles,

39. 77+x animal-shaped rhytons,

40. 10 animal-shaped items,

41. 41 pieces of gold jewellery,

42. four plaques,

43. 10 bracelets,

44. 83 hand-bracelets,

45. 18 finger-rings,

46. 429 foot-bracelets,

Amenhotep III and Mitanni:

King Tushratta’s daughter→ Egypt:

47. 34 various items of jewellery,

48. 30+x maninnu-necklaces,

49. 5+x other necklaces,

50. two pins,

51. 115 togglepins,

52. two head pieces,

53. 38 sets of earrings,

54. seven "weaves",

55. 69 garments,

56. two undergarments,

57. one loincloth,

58. 24 pairs of shirts,

59. six shirts,

60. 53 robes,

61. one pair of gloves,

62. 14 pairs of leggings,

63. 15 pairs of shoes,

Amenhotep III and Mitanni:

King Tushratta’s daughter→ Egypt:

64. 20 boots,

65. 11 pieces of fabric,

66. 51 blankets and bedspreads,

67. one halter,

68. two pieces of body armour

(one of bronze; other of leather),

69. two helmets,

70. set of leather body armour with

bronze rings for horses,

71. 105 bows,

72. 6,080+x arrows,

73. three daggers,

74. 31 knives,

75. 11 maces,

76. one axe,

77. one throwstick,

78. 41 spears and javelins,

Amenhotep III and Mitanni:

King Tushratta’s daughter→ Egypt:

79. 10 "bull-toes",

80. 5+x chests,

81. 4+x pieces of furniture,

82. 11 sets of equipment for chariots

and chariot horses,

83. 11 chariots for swift horses,

84. 10 teams of chariot horses,

85. 270 female attendants and

30 male attendants for

Tušratta's daughter.

Note: Some items designated as the

belongings of the 2 principal ladies-

in-waiting for Tadu-Heba,

the 30 women for Tadu-Heba, or

100 women associated with her,

Other gifts likely intended for her

use and Amenhotep III’s use.

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

Mitanni sends to Egypt (A-III):

- On another occasion, the Mitannian

ruler gave Amenhotep III:

a. a chariot,

b. horse team, and

c. male and female attendant captured

from Hatti.

- He presented an additional

d. 15 chariots and horse teams,

e. 30 male and female servants,

f. jewellery,

g. a gold goblet, and

h. a container with sweet oil.

- Short-term loan to A-III in Egypt:

- A cult statuette of Ishtar, reputed to

have healing powers,

was loaned to Amenhotep III (= ailing). Example of a calcite chalice

of Akhenaten

Amenhotep III and Mitanni:

King Tushratta’s sends to A-III:

a. Unspecified items,

b. Captured Hittite chariot & team of

horses,

c. Captured Hittite male attendant,

d. Captured Hittite female attendant,

e. Five chariots with their teams,

f. 10 more chariots with their teams,

g. 30 male and female servants,

h. Gold goblet,

i. Jewellery (e.g., necklaces; gold

togglepins, rings & earrings),

j. Scent-container full of "sweet-oil”

Note:

k. An image of the goddess Šauška

of Nineveh, mistress of all lands,

to visit the court of Amenhotep III.

Akhenaten and Mitanni (Naharin):

4 letters (EA 27-30) between

Akhenaten & king of Mitanni, Tušratta

1 letter (26) from Qn Teye to Tušratta.

Akhenaten sent many items:

a. wooden statues plated with gold,

b. a variety of unspecified products,

c. other unspecified goods.

d. expeditions contained messengers

(e.g., Mane and Haamašši)

Requests from Mitannian king for

e. A solid gold statue of Tušratta,

f. A lapis lazuli statue of Tušratta,

g. A solid gold statue of Tadu-Heba,

h. A lapis lazuli statue of Tadu-Heba,

i. Much gold,

j. Other goods beyond measure,

k. 10 times as many items in future

Akhenaten and Mitanni (Naharin):

Mitannian king sent many items to

Egypt (i.e., Akhenaten):

a. Unspecified gifts and goods,

b. Garments (e.g., shirts, robes, and

other garments),

c. Jewellery (necklaces),

d. Precious stones (e.g., lapis lazuli),

e. Utensils (e.g., a comb),

f. Weapons (e.g., 90 arrows, 3 bows,

3 quivers, and 4 maces),

g. Scent-containers filled with

"sweet oil“

Mitannian messengers dispatched to

Egypt include Akiya, Pirissi, Tulubri,

Keliya, Masibaldi (an uncle of Keliya)

and an unnamed brother of Keliya.

Ref. to small escorts (of troops) that

accompanied these messengers.

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

Correspondence with Mitanni:

Akhenaten dispatched to Mitanni:

a. greeting gifts,

b. gold-plated wooden statues, and

c. other items.

The Mitannian king wrote asking for

a. two lapis lazuli statuettes,

b. a gold statuette,

c. large amounts of gold, and

d. even more gifts in future shipments.

In return, Mitannian king sent (A-IV):

a. garments,

b. jewellery,

c. precious stones (e.g., lapis lazuli),

d. a comb,

e. weapons,

f. cosmetic containers with sweet oil, &

g. unnamed things to Egypt.

NEW KINGDOM: Dynasties 18-20

Ca.1550-1070 BC

STATE ECONOMY:

International relations.

3.e. ASSYRIA

Pre-Amenhotep III(?) and Assyria:

EA 16 = letter from King of Assyria,

Aššur-uballit, to king of Egypt (A-IV)

- It mentions letters between earlier

Assyrian king, Aššur-nadin-ahhe,

and Egypt:

Aššur-nadin-ahhe I (c.1452-33 BC) or

Aššur-nadin-ahhe II (c.1402-1393 BC)

May date to A-II, T-IV, A-III?

- Aššur-uballit mentions when his

ancestor “... wrote to Egypt,

20 talents of gold were sent to him”

= greeting-gifts between Egypt

and Assyria during reign of A-II?,

or more likely Amenhotep III.

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

Correspondence with Assyria:

In a letter to Akhenaten, the Assyrian

ruler refers to the past receipt of ..

- 20 talents of gold (from Egypt).

In other letters, Akhenaten’s gifts to

Assyria included

- unquantified amount of gold (to Assyria),

The Assyrian ruler requested

- more gold to adorn a new palace.

In return, this Assyrian king provided

a. a chariot and horse team, and

b. a lapis lazuli jewel and seal

(to Akhenaten).

Egypt is famous for plentiful gold

Akhenaten and Assyria:

Akhenaten sent to Assyria:

a. gold as a greeting-gift

- No mention of other presents.

Assyrian king, Aššur-uballit,

requests:

b. much gold for the adornment of

a new palace, which is currently

under construction

Assyrian king sends:

a. a beautiful chariot & team of horses

b. a beautiful royal chariot with a team

of white horses

c. a date-stone of genuine lapis lazuli

d. a seal-stone of genuine lapis lazuli

NEW KINGDOM: Dynasties 18-20

Ca.1550-1070 BC

STATE ECONOMY:

International relations.

3.f. BABYLONIA

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

A-III correspondence with Babylonia:

King Amenhotep III is identified in

contemporary and later letters with

having furnished many presents to

Babylonia:

a. greeting gifts,

b. silver,

c. gold (30 minas),

d. oil,

e. garments,

f. furniture (chairs; footrests; beds) &

g. other presents.

The Babylonian king requested

- large quantities of Egyptian gold

- animals, and

- either an Egyptian princess, or

a female in the guise of a princess.

Note: By custom, Egypt did NOT

send Egyptian princesses abroad.

E.g., furniture from Tutankhamun’s tomb

Amenhotep III sends to Babylonia:

Amenhotep III sent numerous items

to Babylonia:

a. beautiful greeting gifts,

b. silver,

c. gold (30 minas),

d. oil,

e. solemn garb,

f. furniture (beds, chairs, thrones,

and footrests),

g. every sort of finery.

Messengers (e.g., Kasi) & troops

accompanied these overland

expeditions.

Amenhotep III and Babylonia:

Babylonian king also requested:

a. Much gold and animals,

b. He desired to marry either an

Egyptian princess or, failing this

request,

c. a substitute for an actual Egyptian

princess.

The Babylonian letters discuss the

use of chariots for transportation in

association with messengers.

Some texts mention armed escorts

of (foot) soldiers.

Pack animals & wagons = undoubtedly

used to facilitate security-transport of

large+costly gifts & important persons.

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

A-III correspondence with Babylonia:

In return, the Babylonian king presented

a. a princess,

b. various gifts,

c. gold (120 shekels),

d. lapis lazuli (60 shekels),

e. chariots and horse teams, and

f. 50 male and female courtiers.

EA 11 alludes to 3,000 Egyptian troops

escorting the Babylonian princess

to Amenhotep III

i.e., Egyptian troops would have met a

Babylonian and intermediary escort

somewhere in Syria, presumably

at the border of Egypt’s empire.

Note: Assyria (& Mitanni) lay between

Egypt and Babylonia.

Gold sent to Egypt: i.e., prestige gift

E.g., Egyptian Soldiers

Amenhotep III and Babylonia:

Babylonian king dispatched many

products and personnel to Egypt:

a. unspecified presents,

b. gold (e.g., 120 shekels),

c. lapis lazuli (e.g., 60 shekels),

d. chariots & horses (e.g., 10 teams),

e. 25 men and 25 women from the

Babylonian court.

He also sent one daughter to Egypt

as a bride for Amenhotep III

(= strengthening political ties).

Upon the occasion of the escort of a

Babylonian princess to Egypt, A-III

provided an escort numbering up to

3,000 Egyptian troops

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

Correspondence with Babylonia:

Akhenaten’s letters to Babylonia

mention shipping multiple greeting gifts:

a. Gold (2, 5, 10, 20, and 40 minas),

b. Over 1,000 containers of sweet oil,

c. 163 empty stone containers,

d. 1,092 pieces of linen,

e. Over 300 items of bronze

(worth 860 minas, 20 shekels),

f. Gold (1,200 minas, [x] shekels), and

g. Silver (292 minas, 3 shekels).

→ Such gifts and cordial relations

formed a prelude to obtaining a

Babylonian princess for Akhenaten’s

“harem”: i.e., composed of many

foreign princesses.

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

Correspondence with Babylonia:

Such gifts accompanied a cedar ship &

six tow-boats with a huge bride price:

a. 1,125 linen garments,

b. six pairs of shoes,

c. 51+ pieces of jewellery,

d. 75 razors,

e. 117 whetstones,

f. 204 mirrors,

g. 19 combs,

h. six knives,

i. 770+ containers of various materials

and forms,

j. 127 ladles,

k. two sieves,

l. 26 statuettes of gold and silver,

m. 29+ boxes,

n. 10 chairs, five beds, eight headrests,

o. four chariots, and

p. many unknown items (lacunae/gaps)

Akhenaten and Babylonia:8 letters (EA7-14) = correspondence between

Akhenaten& king Burra-Buriyaš.

Akhenaten dispatched greeting gifts:

a. gold amounting to 2, 5, 10, 20, and 40 minas,

and unspecified amounts.

Akhenaten sent a large caravan of gifts (bride-

price for a Babylonian princess):

a. [x],007 stone vessels full of "sweet oil“

b. 163 empty stone vessels

c. 1,092 pieces of linen cloth

d. six-and-a-half pieces of ullu-cloth

e. 300+x items of bronze (860 minas, 20 shekels)

f. gold (1,200 minas & [x] shekels),

g. silver (292 minas, 3 shekels),

h. Overall total of gold and silver valued

at 1,500+x minas and 46 and-a-half shekels.

Akhenaten and Babylonia:Bride-price details → Babylonia:

a. many unknown items (lacunae),

b. 14+ items of various materials

(e.g., precious stones, gold, silver,

and copper),

c. 12+ gold items,

d. 1+ copper items,

e. 6+ bronze items,

f. 1+ glass items,

g. 7+ stone items,

h. 4 ivory items,

i. 1+ item of ebony and ivory,

j. 1 item of ebony,

k. 51+ pieces of jewellery

(e.g., necklaces; finger-rings; hand-

bracelets; togglepins; foot-bracelets)

l. 6 pairs of shoesand stone),

m. 2 containers with human figures

(of gold and stone),

n. 496 containers of various materials

(e.g., gold, silver, stone, and ivory),

Akhenaten and Babylonia:

Bride-price details → Babylonia:

o. 13 pots (of bronze & silver),

p. 12 gold containers for eye-paint,

q. 22+ goblets (of gold; silver; stone),

r. 11+ containers with animal figures

(of gold, silver, ivory,

s. 32 floral-shaped containers (of gold,

silver, ivory, and stone),

t. 2 tallu-jars (of gold and silver),

u. 41+ stone jars full of "sweet oil",

v. 3 empty stone jars,

w. 8+ pails (of silver and gold),

x. 7 silver hubunnu-containers,

y. 49+ kukkubu-containers (of gold,

silver, ivory, and stone) of which

36 contained "sweet oil",

z. 36 haragabaš-containers

(of silver and stone),

Akhenaten and Babylonia:

Bride-price details → Babylonia:aa.1 stone kanduru-vessel,

bb.4 silver measuring vessels,

cc.1+ stone jugs full of "sweet oil",

dd.30 bowls of various types (of gold, silver,

and stone),

ee.2 sieves (of silver and stone),

ff.5 ladles (of gold and silver),

gg.122 ladles (of silver and bronze)

associated with hairdressing (a "barber"),

hh.75 razors (of gold and bronze),

ii. 117 whetstones,

jj. 19 stained ivory combs,

kk. 204 mirrors (of silver and bronze),

ll. 6 gold knives.

mm.80 pieces of fine linen of byssos-quality,

nn.1 double-sized piece of fine linen cloth of

byssos-quality for a festive garment,

oo. 6 pieces of fine linen cloth,

pp. 250 pieces of fine linen of adaha-quality,

Akhenaten and Babylonia:Bride-price details → Babylonia:

rr. 2+ pieces of decorated linen cloth for the

front of the body, an elaborate robe,

ss. 125 tunzu-cloaks,

tt. 300 thin mantles of various qualities,

uu.250 thin girdles of adaha-quality,

vv. 100 large pieces of fine linen cloth for

shawls,

ww.Six and-a-half ullu-cloths,

xx. 25 female figurines (of gold and stone),

yy. 1 statue of the king (with gold & silver

overlay),

zz. 29 or more boxes (of gold, silver, stone,

ebony, and ivory), five beds (of silver

and gold overlay),

aaa.8 headrests (of gold, silver, stone, and ivory),

bbb.7 thrones,

ccc.3 chairs,

ddd.4 chariots,

eee.1 cedar ship,

fff. 6 ships for towing

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

Correspondence with Babylonia:

The Babylonian king provides many

gifts in return to Akhenaten:

a. Unspecified greeting gifts,

b. lapis lazuli (1-4 minas; 10 lumps),

c. 10 chariots and horse teams,

d. cloth, and

e. jewellery.

His daughter is accompanied by a

dowry that includes:

a. 23+ pieces of jewellery,

b. 4+ items of furniture,

c. 13+ containers,

d. precious materials, and

e. items lost from the text.

Lapis lazuli cylinder seal from Mesopotamia

Akhenaten and Babylonia:Babylonian king sent numerous item to Egypt:

a. Many unspecified "beautiful" greeting-gifts,

b. Greeting-gifts of lapis lazuli (e.g., 1, 2, 3,

4 minas, and 10 lumps)

c. Two sets of five horse teams for chariots,

d. Coloured cloth,

e. 1 necklace,

f. Other items of jewellery.

g. 23+ items of jewellery,

h. 4+ items of furniture (e.g., beds and chests),

i. 13+ vessels of various types (e.g., cups,

wash-basins, braziers, ewers, jars, kettles,

and flasks),

m.Materials (e.g., gold, silver, bronze, lapis

lazuli, and stone),

n. 4+ unknown items (of bronze, gold, and

lapis lazuli),

0.An unknown quantity of products from

the missing portions of the dowry list.

[……………..]

NEW KINGDOM

Dynasties 18-20

Ca.1550-1070 BC

4. Trade with

neighboring states

and peoples:

4.a. LB Age trade in East Mediterranean

New Kingdom

State-temple trade.

The state & temples

conducted trade &

received foreign

products: revenue,

gifts, and trade.

Dyn.18 tomb of Kenamun: showing Syrian merchant ships docking at Thebes

E.g., Deir el-Medineh: Villagers went to river-side market

and participated in small-scale private trade with foreigners

LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC

Maritime trade:

• Two major LB Age shipwrecks yield

further evidence on maritime trade:

The Cape Gelidonya & Ulu Burin

shipwrecks:

• Off the southern coast of Turkey.

• En-route to Greece carrying Cypriot

copper ingots and other items.

• The crew’s possessions = Canaanite

• Possibly Canaanite merchants sailing

to Cyprus and onwards to Greece.

Other traders:

• Presumably other city-states and

nations had their own mercantile fleets

including Mycenaeans who are known

to have their own ships.

• The Value of Cypriot & Mycenaean

pottery in the Levant is emphasized

by the appearance of local copies!

Ulu Burin

Late Bronze Age

1550-1200 BC:

Maritime trade in

the MediterraneanUlu Burin shipwreck

Late 14th cent. BC

Cypriot copper

poured into

ox-hide shaped

ingots

CYPRUS: primary copper sourceUlu Burin shipwreck (near Turkey)

Items & ingots in (pure) tin

Ingots of copper

Ulu Burin shipwreck

Late 14th cent. BC:

Cargo bearing the basic

ingredients for bronze

production (tin + copper):

Ulu Burin

shipwreck

Late 14th

cent. BC:

Silver bracelets

Gold jewellery

Ulu Burin shipwreck

Late 14th cent. BC:100+ storage jars

Most contained terebinth

resin (incense for rituals).

Ulu Burin shipwreck 14th cent.BC

Large storage jars (pithoi):

contained fine Cypriot pottery

Forward hold: Mycenaean pottery

Glass ingots exported for use in recipient

nation/culture’s glass production.

Hippo ivory exported for use in recipient

nation/culture’s ivory production.

Ulu Burin shipwreck

Late 14th cent. BC:

Luxury items:

Egy. scarab seals

Syro-Mesopotamian

cylinder seals

Late Bronze Age materials, products and trade routes ca. 1550-1200 BC

4.b. Egyptian Red Sea trade

during the New Kingdom

Competing sources?

and middlemen?

Aromatics (incense) trade:

• Textual evidence for Egypt’s contact with

and exploitation of African aromatics

from PUNT span Old Kingdom →

Saite Period (2700-525 BC)

• However, by the Ramesside period

(LB 2B-Iron 1), SW Arabia appears

to form an alternate overland source

for the Levant (via Transjordan).

• Although both sources are exploited

in the 1st millennium BC, the Egyptian,

“Solomonic”(?), Assyrian, Saite (Dyn.26),

Babylonian, & Persian kingdoms/empires

appear to incorporate the Negev into

their expansion to control/dominate the

dispersal of this highly lucrative resource.

ARABIAEthiopia

East Africa

East

Africa

Aloe

East Africa:

Papyrus Ebers 63:

Medical remedy to

expel catarrh in the

nose: stibium, aloe

dry myrrh & honey.

Black pepper (Egyptian name =?)

East Africa:

Peppercorns put

in the abdomen &

nostrils of the body

of Ramesses II.

Kyphi: prod. incense & medicine:

E.g., Ramesses III P. Ebers.

Base: [raisins]

[honey] Honey

Resin: Mastic (jed) Mastic

pine resin Frankincense

(or wood) Genen

Herbs: Camel grass Camel grass

Mint Cyperus grass

Sweet flag Pine kernels

Spices: Cinnamon Cinnamon

Philae door jamb: 2nd – 1st Cent. BC

Numerous Egyptian cultic

& royal mortuary temples

required aromatics daily:

• Offerings & rites

• Anointing cult statues

• Medicine/remedies

produced in temples

([recipes] in wall texts)

• Fumigating temples

There is a constant demand

for aromatics in cultic settings

= non-recyclable resource!

Many non-royal elite have

tomb chapels & funerary

rites requiring aromatics:

• Mummification (aromatics in

anointing deceased’s body)

• Offerings & rites

• Anointing cult statues

• Mortuary cult after death

• Funerary possessions

Aromatics also in

elite & non-elite

private houses:

• Fumigation

• Remedies

• Household cults

for ancestor(s).

Frankincense

in bowl used in

fumigation

* Estimate minimum

volume of aromatics:

USAGE: CONTEXT/NUMBER: DAILY amt:

Cult temples – shrines 42 provinces x 5+ = 210

+ intensity of use x 10 = 2,100?

Royal mortuary temples 1 per reign & ancestors = 10+?

Elite mortuary chapels Current and ancestors = 100+?

Mummification Ingredient = 1+?

Household cults Deir el-Medineh; Askut = 50+?

Household fumigation Middle-upper classes = 100?

Ingredients in medicine 42 provinces x 10 = 420?

Miscellaneous Other applications = (?)

TOTAL: 2,781 portions

1 pellet = approx. 0.00645 litres x 2,781 → 17.94 litres x 365 → 6,547 litres/yr.

(one? 25-metre boat-load; 150+ donkey loads)

E.g.,: Thutmose III imported 21,410.6 litres of ‘ntyw in 1 shipment

Thutmose III imported 7,649.9 litres of ‘ntyw another time

Thutmose III imported 1,089.6 litres of ‘ntyw separately

AROMATICS’ BASE REQUIREMENT

Excluding potential exports abroad

PUNTRed

Sea

Egypt

Nubia

“Punt”(?)

“Punt”(?)

Location of Land of

Punt/“God’s Land” =?

• Obsidian source

traced to Ethiopia in

Predyn, ED, OK, MK-NK

• Aromatics trade:

Old Kingdom

Middle Kingdom

New Kingdom

Kushite per. (Dyn.25)

Saite per. (Dyn.26)

PUNT = in SE. Sudan &

Eritrea by discovery of

Egyptian New Kingdom

faience & pottery (Gash).

• Trade sometimes

via Upper Nubia

PUNTRed

Sea

Egypt

Nubia

“Punt”(?)

“Punt”(?)

Sporadic textual ref. to

Egypt’s trade with Punt

Dyn.5: Sahure

Djedkare Isesi

Dyn.6: Teti

Pepy II

Dyn.11: Montuhotep III

Dyn.12: Senwosret I

Amenemhet II

Senwosret II

Dyn.18: Hatshepsut

Thutmose III

Amenhotep II

Thutmose IV

Amenhotep III

Akhenaten

Horemheb

Dyn.19: Sety I

Ramesses II

Dyn.20: Ramesses III

3IP: (?)

Dyn.25: Tanutamun

Dyn.26: Psamtik I

LP (?)

JANUARY JULY

RED SEA

• Sailing

Sea currents

Winds halfway

Sea currents

Winds full way

Kom el-Qolzoum Kom el-Qolzoum

Gawasis Gawasis

Bernike Bernike

TRADE: Hatshepsut’s year 8/9 expedition to Punt (mid-Dyn.18)

• 5 ships with approx. 30-50 crew each (150 - 250 personnel)

• Carrying Egyptian products to Punt (unloading in base register)

• Obtaining Puntite products for Egypt (loading in top register)

Dyn.18 Hatshepsut:Egyptians list bringing:

• Beer, wine, bread, meat,

fruit, all Egyptian things.

Egyptians depict bringing:

• Amphorae, baskets, sacks,

11 necklaces, 2 collars(?),

5 rings(?), 1 axe, 1 dagger,

1 table, and a shrine for cult

statues of Amun-Hatshepsut

Dyn.18 Hatshepsut:

Egyptians list/depict obtaining:

• “All kinds of good herbs of God’s

Land.”

• Many bundles (tied at neck)

• Sacks (of grain?; re-stocking?)

• Heaps of nodules of myrrh

• Trees of fresh myrrh

• Imht-myrrh

• Incense (frankincense?)

• Trays of “green” gold (of Amau)

• Eye-paint (malachite)

• Pieces of ebony wood (freshly

hewn)

• Tishepes-wood (cinnamon)

• ihmt-wood

• Fauna: baboons, monkeys, dogs

• Pure ivory

• Southern leopard skins

• Puntite servants & their children.

• Chiefs of Punt.

Dyn.18: Theban Tomb 143, Thutmose III/Amenhotep II

Several ref. to Puntites sailing & bringing items to Egypt:

• Ovoid bundles, 4 heaps of incense, 1 lidded basket,

pile of black ebony? logs(?), 1 hide (“wine”)-skin container,

red sticks (cinnamon?), 1 leather jar with handle,

a monkey, an incense tree, 11 males, 2 females, boy, infant

Dyn.18: TT143

Thutmose III /

Amenhotep II:

Egyptians shown

giving:

1 trussed ox

2 calves

2 forelegs

3 large jars

1 med-jar

4 jar-stands

5 small jars

1 wood stand

6 loaves

1 date? loaf

1 lettuce(?)

1 mirror(?)

1 case/(?)

1 chest (carried)?

Dyn.19+ see alternate &

secondary(?) trade route

in aromatics to Levant

from SW Arabia (Yemen)

• Overland route along

western coast of Arabian

Peninsula.

Timna

Tayma

Farah

SouthMasos

LachishJedur

Gezer

= distribution of Qurayya

(“Midianite”) pottery

5%

Umm ad-Dananir

0.5%Amman

Qurayya

New Kingdom empire:

Northwest Arabian

overland links with

Southwest Palestine

& Transjordan

• “Midianite” pottery

(Qurayya ware pots)

Qurayya ware

LB 2B

Iron 1A

(T. Barako 2000)

Late Bronze 2B – Iron 1A:

ca. 1300 – 1150 BCTimna copper mines, camps, shrine:

Canaanite (63%), Egyptian (27%),

Negevite (5%), and Midianite (5%)

Mat. culture & cross-cultural relations.

Site 2

Shrine

Site 2, Area F

Site 2,

Area F

“High

Place”

Site 2

Area G

Southern Arabah/Negev

Timna, Site 2, Areas F-G

Links with NW Arabia:

• “Midianite” (Qurayya) sherds

• Camel bones (transport?)

Links with SW Palestine:

• Canaanite pottery, etc.

• [Mediterranean fish remains]

Links with Egypt:

• Egyptian artefacts (R2 scarab)

What evidence exists for LB 2B-Iron 1A

overland Arabian transport for aromatics?Camel domestication and use in transport:

• 4th millennium (?)

• 2000 BC (?)

• 18th century BC (?)

• 13th-12th centuries BC = ? Better evidence

Aromatics

trade via

Transjordan

Camel transport in Arabia → donkeys in Palestine

LB Age 2B (Dynasty 19): SW Palestine

TELL NAMI: Port south of Mt. Carmel.

• Sudden increase in wealth (LB 2B)

• Presence of “incense burners”

• Artzy (1994) suggests = overland

incense trade (collar rim jar containers)

• Linked with NW Arabian overland trade

Amman

HATTI

NAMI

“Incense

burners”

Dyns.19-20: see the rise of new polities

in Transjordan: e.g., Edom, Moab, …

• Egyptian empire largely controls the

re-dispersal of goods (aromatics?) via

Syria-Palestine to East Mediterranean.

• Egypt held ports as far north as Byblos

• Poss. alternate aromatic trade route via

Babylonia, Assyria, Hatti → East Med.

Amman

Amman Airport structure

HATTI

Implications: New Kingdom empire dominated aromatics trade in

East Mediterranean (via Egypt & tariffs via Palestine)

Tariffs

EGYPT

Egypt straddles

main & emerging routes

for both African & Arabian(?)

sources of aromatics/incense

and trade with E. Mediterranean

HattiArzawa

Keftiu

Greece Assyria

LM IIIA 10 cm high

Palaikastro, S. cemetery

LM IIIB 12 cm high

Palaikastro

LB Age Crete:

- Incense burners

→ Aromatics trade

• LM IIIA

1400 – 1300 BC

• LM IIIB

1300 – 1200 BC

CRETE

Palaikastro

Incense burners usually

in shrines and tombs.

QUESTION: is

Minoan “incense”

African/Arabian?

(selected)

SOURCES FOR

Amarna period

(& New Kingdom)

diplomacy & trade

Important studies on East Mediterranean diplomacy and trade

2015

2004

Important studies on East Mediterranean diplomacy and trade

2008

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Important studies on East Mediterranean diplomacy and trade

19981998

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20152011

Important studies on East Mediterranean diplomacy & trade in 2nd mill. BC

20131995

Important studies on East Mediterranean diplomacy & trade in 2nd mill. BC

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2004 2001

Important studies on East Mediterranean diplomacy & trade in LB Age …

1999 1996

Important studies on Amarna period (& LB Age) diplomacy and trade

19972000

Important studies on Amarna period (& LB Age) diplomacy and trade

19921995