ANTERIOR CRUCIATE LIGAMENT RECONSTRUCTION & THE HAMSTRINGS Implications for injury prevention & rehabilitation Daniel J. Messer B. App Sci. HMS. Masters by Research Submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Applied Science (Research) School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences Faculty of Health Queensland University of Technology 2018
167
Embed
ANTERIOR CRUCIATE LIGAMENT RECONSTRUCTION & THE HAMSTRINGS · prevention protocols given that this exercise may be more useful than the Nordic hamstring exercise and other hamstring
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
ANTERIOR CRUCIATE LIGAMENT
RECONSTRUCTION &
THE HAMSTRINGS
Implications for injury prevention & rehabilitation
Daniel J. Messer
B. App Sci. HMS.
Masters by Research
Submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of
Master of Applied Science (Research)
School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences
Faculty of Health
Queensland University of Technology
2018
i
ii
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ......................................................................................................... ii
Abstract ....................................................................................................................... iv
List of Figures ............................................................................................................. ix
List of Tables ................................................................................................................ x
List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................. xi
Statement of Original Authorship .............................................................................. xii
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................... xiii
2.12 Consequences of of anterior cruciate ligament injury .................................................. 34 2.12.1 ACL reconstruction .......................................................................................... 34 2.12.2 Hamstring grafts .............................................................................................. 35 2.12.3 Rehabilitation and return to sport .................................................................... 37 2.12.4 Long term consequences .................................................................................. 39
2.13 Anterior cruciate ligament injury and risk of future injury........................................... 39
2.14 Assessing spatial patterns of muscle activation via functional magnetic resonance imaging ................................................................................................................................... 41
iii
PROGRAM OF RESEARCH ........................................................ 43
STUDY 1 – HAMSTRING MUSCLE USE IN FEMALES DURING HIP-EXTENSION AND THE NORDIC HAMSTRING EXERCISE ................. 45
STUDY 2 – A HISTORY OF ANTERIOR CRUCIATE LIGAMENT INJURY INCREASES THE RISK OF HAMSTRING STRAIN INJURY ACROSS FOOTBALL CODES IN AUSTRALIA ................................................................. 65
STUDY 3 – HAMSTRING MUSCLE ACTIVATION, MORPHOLOGY AND STRENGTH DURING ECCENTRIC EXERCISE 1 TO 6 YEARS AFTER ANTERIOR CRUCIATE LIGAMENT RECONSTRUCTION WITH SEMITENDINOSUS GRAFT ................................................................................. 84
Comparison of tendon and muscle structure of semitendinosus between limbs
Of the 14 surgical ST tendons, seven showed partial and four showed a complete loss of
fibrillary pattern while three appeared normal under ultrasound. All ST tendons from control
limbs appeared normal (Figure 6-5A). Distal ST muscle fascicles were abnormal only in the
surgical limbs. Ultrasound of the tendon harvest site showed variable degrees of scarring,
(Figure 6-5B) while ten surgical tendons exhibited no vascularity in the region of the scar,
three displayed ‘scant’ and one displayed ‘mild’ vascularity.
A
104
Figure 6-5. Example ultrasound images of the semitendinosus (A) distal tendon in the
sagittal view and (B) distal muscle belly in the transverse view, in the injured and uninjured
contralateral limbs.
Eccentric knee flexor strength
Eccentric knee flexor strength, as determined from the highest forces generated in the first set
of the NHE, did not differ significantly between surgical (289 ± 87 N) and control limbs (310
± 71 N) (mean difference = -21 N, 95 % CI = 33 to -74 N, p = 0.550, d = 0.26) (Figure 6-6).
Three participant’s strength tests were not recorded due to equipment failure during testing.
C D
B
INJURED A
B INJURED UNINJURED
UNINJURED
B
A
105
Figure 6-6. Peak eccentric knee flexor force measured at the ankles during the Nordic
hamstring exercise. Bars depict the average peak knee flexor force, while the jitter dots
represent each participant’s response. Strength is reported in absolute terms (N).
6.6 DISCUSSION
To our knowledge, this is the first fMRI study to explore hamstring muscle activation during
eccentric exercise in recipients of ACLR involving ST grafts. One to six years after surgical
intervention, the graft donor ST is activated significantly less than the homonymous muscle
in the control limb during the NHE, an exercise known to place particularly high demands on
this muscle (Bourne, Williams, et al., 2017). Significant deficits in ST muscle size and length
and ultrasound evidence consistent with chronic ST tendon deloading were also apparent in
the surgical limbs. BFSH volume and ACSA and SM volume were slightly higher in surgical
106
than control limbs and there were only minor deficits in total hamstrings volume (9%) while
the total hamstrings ACSA was not significantly different. These modest differences in total
muscle size may explain the statistically insignificant between-limb difference eccentric knee
flexor strength, despite large deficits in ST ACSA (~28%).
One previous study used fMRI to evaluate hamstring activation after ACLR (Takeda et al.,
2006) and it showed no difference in exercise-induced T2 changes in the ST muscles of
surgical and contralateral limbs after concentric isokinetic knee flexion exercise. It is possible
that the greater demands imposed by the supramaximal eccentric exercise in this study were
able to reveal muscle activation deficits while concentric exercise as employed by Takeda
and colleagues (2006) could not. It should also be noted that Takeda and colleagues (2006)
only measured the T2 changes in a single fMR image that was 1cm distal to the middle of
each hamstring muscle. By comparison, the T2 changes in the current study were measured in
five slices between 30 and 70 % of the distance down the thigh.
Deficits in ST volume and maximum ACSA after ACLR involving ST grafts have previously
been reported (Konrath et al., 2016; Nomura et al., 2015; Snow et al., 2012). In contrast to
our study, Konrath and colleagues (2016) reported that BFLH muscles were and BFSH muscles
were not larger in surgical than control limbs. We observed that BFSH muscles in the surgical
limbs were larger than those in the control limbs, while there was no significant between-
limb difference in BFLH size. It is possible that the larger BF muscles in surgical limbs have
experienced compensatory hypertrophy after ST tendon grafts, although this is obviously
impossible to prove in retrospective studies like these. Differences in relative hamstring
muscle volumes between studies (Konrath et al., 2016; Nomura et al., 2015; Snow et al.,
107
2012) may reflect variable rehabilitation strategies or subsequent training of the participants
in each study. Alternatively, the diversity of relative hamstring volumes may simply reflect
differences that pre-dated surgery. Like Konrath and colleagues (2016), we observed that SM
volume but not ACSA was larger in surgical than control limbs and that the summed volumes
and ACSAs of the medial hamstrings were significantly in deficit in surgical limbs. These
observations have implications for internal knee rotation strength, which has been reported to
be in deficit long after ACLR with ST grafts (Konrath et al., 2016).
The persistent deficit in medial hamstring muscle mass after ACLR with ST graft is a
concern given the role of these muscles in countering external tibial rotation torques and knee
valgus moments (Buchanan et al., 1996), both of which are thought to be risk factors for ACL
injury and re-injury (Alentorn-Geli et al., 2009a; Paterno et al., 2010). Given the devastating
effects of ST tendon grafts, it may be beneficial to develop rehabilitation strategies that target
the SM, the only other internal rotator of the knee that also acts as a hip extensor. Bourne and
colleagues (2017) reported that 10 weeks of hip extension strength training resulted in
significant SM hypertrophy while training with the NHE (in which overload is largely limited
to the knee) did not. So hip-extension exercises may be particularly effective in compensating
for the medial hamstrings size deficits that we and others have reported (Konrath et al.,
2016). In uninjured athletes, the ST muscle has been shown to hypertrophy significantly in
response to both hip extensor and knee flexor strength training (specifically, the NHE), with a
trend towards greater responses after the knee-oriented exercise (Bourne, Duhig, et al., 2017).
However, it is doubtful that similar benefits occur after ST grafts, because the persistent
deficits in ST muscle size shown here and by others (Konrath et al., 2016; Nomura et al.,
2015) are evident 1 to 6 years after surgery despite the completion of standard rehabilitation
programs and successful return to sport. The present findings of relatively low levels of post-
108
surgical ST activation in the demanding NHE also suggest that this muscle receives a limited
stimulus for adaptation, even during a supramaximal exercise which is known to
preferentially target this muscle (Bourne, Duhig, et al., 2017; Bourne, Williams, et al., 2017).
It should also be considered that ST tendon regeneration after ACLR may take approximately
18 months (Papandrea, Vulpiani, Ferretti, & Conteduca, 2000) and may not occur at all in 10
to 50 % of patients (Konrath et al., 2016; Nomura et al., 2015; Snow et al., 2012).
Rehabilitation during this time and for individuals with no tendon regeneration would
presumably not load the ST significantly. Future studies may examine the effectiveness of
hip-extension exercises in promoting SM hypertrophy, improving knee internal rotation
strength and altering dynamic lower limb function during running gait after ACLR with ST
grafts.
Contrary to our hypothesis, there were no significant differences in eccentric knee flexor
strength between surgical and control limbs, although there was considerable between-subject
variability. The literature regarding knee flexor strength after ACLR is mixed, with most
studies reporting persistent deficits (Nakajima et al., 1996; Nomura et al., 2015; Timmins et
al., 2016a) and others showing none.(Simonian et al., 1996) The study by Timmins and
colleagues (2016a) is the most similar to ours because it also assessed eccentric forces during
the NHE. By contrast, they observed a ~14 % strength deficit in surgical limbs, with an effect
size approximately twice as big as the one reported here (d = 0.51 v 0.26).
One limitation of the present study is its lack of a measure of internal knee rotation strength.
It should also be acknowledged that skeletal muscle’s T2 response to exercise is influenced
by a range of factors, including the metabolic capacity of the active tissue (Cagnie et al.,
109
2011; Patten, Meyer, & Fleckenstein, 2003). It is feasible that some differences in the T2
changes between injured and uninjured limbs may relate more to changes in metabolic
characteristics of tenotomised muscles, than to changes in muscle activation. However, it can
be argued that such metabolic changes are secondary to reduced muscle activation. Finally,
while there was no control group (without a history of ACLR) in this study, the activation
patterns of the uninjured control limbs are very similar to those that have been observed in
healthy uninjured limbs (Bourne et al., 2016; Bourne, Williams, et al., 2017; Messer, Bourne,
Williams, & Shield, 2017).
In conclusion, this is the first fMRI study to show ST activation is significantly reduced
during eccentric exercise 1 to 6 years after ACLR with ST graft. Diminished ST activation
may partially explain this muscle’s persistent atrophy and have implications for the design of
more effective rehabilitation programs.
110
GENERAL DISCUSSION &
CONCLUSION
Both ACL and hamstring injuries are major problems in sport and despite some progress in
the development of injury prevention and rehabilitation practices, the incidence and
recurrence rates of each are still high. Recent trends in elite male professional football
suggest that ACL (Walden et al., 2016) and hamstring injury rates (Ekstrand, Walden, &
Hagglund, 2016) are not declining, although results may vary in different sports and at
different levels of competition.
The results from this program of research suggest that it is possible to preferentially target
specific hamstring muscles with different exercises in women (Study 1) as shown previously
in men (Bourne, Williams, et al., 2017). Once we better understand risk factors for injury
(ACL or hamstring) the current work may allow us to design better rehabilitation programs.
For example, targeting the ST may be beneficial for hamstring injury prevention in certain
circumstances and it appears that the Nordic hamstring exercise does this better than the hip
extension exercise. Moreover, the semitendinosus has been argued to play a particularly
important role in preventing ACL injury given that this muscle functions to prevent excessive
anterior tibial translation and knee valgus, which are both movements commonly associated
with ACL injury. By contrast, reversing biceps femoris long head atrophy, occasionally
reported after hamstring strain injuries, would be better achieved by the hip extension
exercise.
111
The current work suggests the need for improvements in ACLR rehabilitation programs
because athletes are at significantly elevated risk of hamstring strain injury (Study 2) despite
successfully returning to sport, often with ~12 months of rehabilitation. Despite some recent
progress, hamstring rehabilitation programs must also be improved in light of evidence that
recurrence rates are still high in sport (Brooks et al., 2006; Croisier, 2004; Orchard &
Seward, 2002; Orchard & Seward, 2010; Woods et al., 2004). Study 2 demonstrated that
athletes with a prior ACL injury had a significantly greater risk of future HSI than athletes
without such a history, despite there being no significant differences in peak eccentric knee
flexor forces during the Nordic hamstring test. Moreover, for those athletes with a prior
ACLR, their risk of future HSI was augmented if they had also suffered a recent (12 months)
HSI.
The results from Study 3 provided novel evidence to suggest that despite successful
rehabilitation and return to sport, large deficits in ST muscle size and activation persist long
after ACLR and successful return to sport. The relatively poor activation of this muscle
suggests that it may be relatively unresponsive to the Nordic hamstring exercise and possibly
all others during rehabilitation. Whether or not alternative exercises can compensate better
for the dysfunctional ST is not yet known. Moreover, exercises that target the other medial
rotator, semimembranosus, may gain a place in future rehabilitation programs to offset
deficits in internal tibial rotator strength, although neither of the exercises investigated in
Study 1 appear to preferentially activate the semimembranosus muscle.
In conclusion, this program of research has provided novel data to suggest that the hamstring
activation patterns in women are similar to those previously reported in men. Additionally, it
has provided prospective data on the impact of ACL injury and HSI on the future risk of
112
hamstring injury and provided novel data on the activation patterns and morphology of the
hamstrings following ACLR. Future studies are needed to ascertain whether training
interventions are effective in increasing ST muscle size and activation after ACLR and
subsequent rehabilitation and whether there are exercises that can significantly compensate
for the loss of medial rotation strength, perhaps via targeting the semimembranosus. In
addition, future work on the hip extension exercise should be included in hamstring injury
prevention protocols given that this exercise may be more useful than the Nordic hamstring
exercise and other hamstring exercises at activating the commonly injured BFLongHead muscle.
These data highlight the maladaptations that occur after ACL injury and subsequent
reconstruction, while also providing evidence to form decisions regarding exercise selection
in ACL and hamstring injury prevention and rehabilitation programs.
113
Bibliography
Aagaard, P., Simonsen, E. B., Magnusson, S. P., Larsson, B., & Dyhre-Poulsen, P. (1998). A new concept for isokinetic hamstring: quadriceps muscle strength ratio. Am J Sports Med, 26(2), 231-237. doi:10.1177/03635465980260021201
Abourezk, M. N., Ithurburn, M. P., McNally, M. P., Thoma, L. M., Briggs, M. S., Hewett, T.
E., . . . Schmitt, L. C. (2017). Hamstring Strength Asymmetry at 3 Years After Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction Alters Knee Mechanics During Gait and Jogging. Am J Sports Med, 45(1), 97-105. doi:10.1177/0363546516664705
Adams, G. R., Duvoisin, M. R., & Dudley, G. A. (1992). Magnetic-Resonance-Imaging and
Electromyography as Indexes of Muscle Function. J Appl Physiol, 73(4), 1578-1589.
Adirim, T. A., & Cheng, T. L. (2003). Overview of injuries in the young athlete. Sports Med,
33(1), 75-81.
Aglietti, P., Buzzi, R., Zaccherotti, G., & De Biase, P. (1994). Patellar tendon versus doubled
semitendinosus and gracilis tendons for anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Am J Sports Med, 22(2), 211-217; discussion 217-218. doi:10.1177/036354659402200210
Agre, J. C. (1985). Hamstring injuries. Proposed aetiological factors, prevention, and
treatment. Sports Med, 2(1), 21-33.
Ahmad, C. S., Clark, A. M., Heilmann, N., Schoeb, J. S., Gardner, T. R., & Levine, W. N.
(2006). Effect of gender and maturity on quadriceps-to-hamstring strength ratio and anterior cruciate ligament laxity. Am J Sports Med, 34(3), 370-374. doi:10.1177/0363546505280426
Alentorn-Geli, E., Myer, G. D., Silvers, H. J., Samitier, G., Romero, D., Lazaro-Haro, C., &
Cugat, R. (2009a). Prevention of non-contact anterior cruciate ligament injuries in soccer players. Part 1: Mechanisms of injury and underlying risk factors. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc, 17(7), 705-729. doi:10.1007/s00167-009-0813-1
114
Alentorn-Geli, E., Myer, G. D., Silvers, H. J., Samitier, G., Romero, D., Lazaro-Haro, C., & Cugat, R. (2009b). Prevention of non-contact anterior cruciate ligament injuries in soccer players. Part 2: a review of prevention programs aimed to modify risk factors and to reduce injury rates. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc, 17(8), 859-879. doi:10.1007/s00167-009-0823-z
Allen, T. J., Leung, M., & Proske, U. (2010). The effect of fatigue from exercise on human
limb position sense. J Physiol, 588(Pt 8), 1369-1377. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2010.187732
Ardern, C. L., Taylor, N. F., Feller, J. A., & Webster, K. E. (2014). Fifty-five per cent return
to competitive sport following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction surgery: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis including aspects of physical functioning and contextual factors. Br J Sports Med, 48(21), 1543-1552. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2013-093398
Ardern, C. L., Webster, K. E., Taylor, N. F., & Feller, J. A. (2010). Hamstring strength
recovery after hamstring tendon harvest for anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: a comparison between graft types. Arthroscopy, 26(4), 462-469. doi:10.1016/j.arthro.2009.08.018
Ardern, C. L., Webster, K. E., Taylor, N. F., & Feller, J. A. (2011a). Return to sport
following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis of the state of play. Br J Sports Med, 45(7), 596-606. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2010.076364
Ardern, C. L., Webster, K. E., Taylor, N. F., & Feller, J. A. (2011b). Return to the preinjury
level of competitive sport after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction surgery two-thirds of patients have not returned by 12 months after surgery. Am J Sports Med, 39(3), 538-543.
Arendt, E., & Dick, R. (1995). Knee injury patterns among men and women in collegiate
basketball and soccer. NCAA data and review of literature. Am J Sports Med, 23(6), 694-701. doi:10.1177/036354659502300611
Armour, T., Forwell, L., Litchfield, R., Kirkley, A., Amendola, N., & Fowler, P. J. (2004).
Isokinetic evaluation of internal/external tibial rotation strength after the use of hamstring tendons for anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Am J Sports Med, 32(7), 1639-1643. doi:10.1177/0363546504263405
115
Arnason, A., Andersen, T. E., Holme, I., Engebretsen, L., & Bahr, R. (2008). Prevention of
hamstring strains in elite soccer: an intervention study. Scand J Med Sci Sports, 18(1), 40-48. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2006.00634.x
Arnason, A., Gudmundsson, A., Dahl, H. A., & Johannsson, E. (1996). Soccer injuries in
Iceland. Scand J Med Sci Sports, 6(1), 40-45.
Arnason, A., Sigurdsson, S. B., Gudmundsson, A., Holme, I., Engebretsen, L., & Bahr, R.
(2004). Risk factors for injuries in football. Am J Sports Med, 32(1 Suppl), 5S-16S. doi:10.1177/0363546503258912
Arnason, S. M., Birnir, B., Guethmundsson, T. E., Guethnason, G., & Briem, K. (2014).
Medial hamstring muscle activation patterns are affected 1-6 years after ACL reconstruction using hamstring autograft. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc, 22(5), 1024-1029. doi:10.1007/s00167-013-2696-4
Arnoczky, S. P. (1983). Anatomy of the anterior cruciate ligament. Clin Orthop Relat Res,
172(172), 19-25.
Askling, C., Karlsson, J., & Thorstensson, A. (2003). Hamstring injury occurrence in elite
soccer players after preseason strength training with eccentric overload. Scand J Med Sci Sports, 13(4), 244-250.
Askling, C., Saartok, T., & Thorstensson, A. (2006). Type of acute hamstring strain affects
flexibility, strength, and time to return to pre-injury level. Br J Sports Med, 40(1), 40-44. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2005.018879
Askling, C. M., Tengvar, M., Saartok, T., & Thorstensson, A. (2007). Acute first-time
hamstring strains during high-speed running: a longitudinal study including clinical and magnetic resonance imaging findings. Am J Sports Med, 35(2), 197-206. doi:10.1177/0363546506294679
Aune, A. K., Holm, I., Risberg, M. A., Jensen, H. K., & Steen, H. (2001). Four-strand
hamstring tendon autograft compared with patellar tendon-bone autograft for anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. A randomized study with two-year follow-up. Am J Sports Med, 29(6), 722-728. doi:10.1177/03635465010290060901
116
Bahr, R., & Bahr, I. A. (1997). Incidence of acute volleyball injuries: a prospective cohort study of injury mechanisms and risk factors. Scand J Med Sci Sports, 7(3), 166-171.
Bahr, R., & Engebretsen, L. (2011). Handbook of Sports Medicine and Science, Sports Injury
Prevention (Vol. 17): John Wiley & Sons.
Bahr, R., & Krosshaug, T. (2005). Understanding injury mechanisms: a key component of
Bahr, R., Thorborg, K., & Ekstrand, J. (2015). Evidence-based hamstring injury prevention is
not adopted by the majority of Champions League or Norwegian Premier League football teams: the Nordic Hamstring survey. Br J Sports Med, 49(22), 1466-1471. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2015-094826
Barber-Westin, S. D., & Noyes, F. R. (2017). Effect of Fatigue Protocols on Lower Limb
Neuromuscular Function and Implications for Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury Prevention Training: A Systematic Review. Am J Sports Med, 45(14), 3388-3396. doi:10.1177/0363546517693846
Bauer, M., Feeley, B. T., Wawrzyniak, J. R., Pinkowsky, G., & Gallo, R. A. (2014). Factors
affecting return to play after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: a review of the current literature. Phys Sportsmed, 42(4), 71-79. doi:10.3810/psm.2014.11.2093
Bellabarba, C., Bush-Joseph, C. A., & Bach, B. R., Jr. (1997). Patterns of meniscal injury in
the anterior cruciate-deficient knee: a review of the literature. Am J Orthop (Belle Mead NJ), 26(1), 18-23.
Bennell, K., Wajswelner, H., Lew, P., Schall-Riaucour, A., Leslie, S., Plant, D., & Cirone, J.
(1998). Isokinetic strength testing does not predict hamstring injury in Australian Rules footballers. Br J Sports Med, 32(4), 309-314.
Besier, T. F., Lloyd, D. G., & Ackland, T. R. (2003). Muscle activation strategies at the knee
during running and cutting maneuvers. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 35(1), 119-127. doi:10.1249/01.MSS.0000043608.79537.AB
117
Besier, T. F., Lloyd, D. G., Ackland, T. R., & Cochrane, J. L. (2001). Anticipatory effects on knee joint loading during running and cutting maneuvers. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 33(7), 1176-1181.
Beynnon, B. D., Fleming, B. C., Johnson, R. J., Nichols, C. E., Renstrom, P. A., & Pope, M.
H. (1995). Anterior cruciate ligament strain behavior during rehabilitation exercises in vivo. Am J Sports Med, 23(1), 24-34. doi:10.1177/036354659502300105
Beynnon, B. D., Johnson, R. J., Abate, J. A., Fleming, B. C., & Nichols, C. E. (2005).
Treatment of anterior cruciate ligament injuries, part I. Am J Sports Med, 33(10), 1579-1602.
Bjordal, J. M., Arnly, F., Hannestad, B., & Strand, T. (1997). Epidemiology of anterior
cruciate ligament injuries in soccer. Am J Sports Med, 25(3), 341-345. doi:10.1177/036354659702500312
Blackburn, J. T., Norcross, M. F., Cannon, L. N., & Zinder, S. M. (2013). Hamstrings
stiffness and landing biomechanics linked to anterior cruciate ligament loading. J Athl Train, 48(6), 764-772. doi:10.4085/1062-6050-48.4.01
Boden, B. P., Dean, G. S., Feagin, J. A., Jr., & Garrett, W. E., Jr. (2000). Mechanisms of
Bourne, M. N., Duhig, S. J., Timmins, R. G., Williams, M. D., Opar, D. A., Al Najjar, A., . . .
Shield, A. J. (2017). Impact of the Nordic hamstring and hip extension exercises on hamstring architecture and morphology: implications for injury prevention. Br J Sports Med, 51(5), 469-477. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2016-096130
118
Bourne, M. N., Opar, D. A., Williams, M. D., Al Najjar, A., & Shield, A. J. (2016). Muscle
activation patterns in the Nordic hamstring exercise: Impact of prior strain injury. Scand J Med Sci Sports, 26(6), 666-674. doi:10.1111/sms.12494
Bourne, M. N., Opar, D. A., Williams, M. D., & Shield, A. J. (2015). Eccentric Knee Flexor
Strength and Risk of Hamstring Injuries in Rugby Union: A Prospective Study. Am J Sports Med, 43(11), 2663-2670. doi:10.1177/0363546515599633
Bourne, M. N., Williams, M. D., Opar, D. A., Al Najjar, A., Kerr, G. K., & Shield, A. J.
(2017). Impact of exercise selection on hamstring muscle activation. Br J Sports Med, 51(13), 1021-1028. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2015-095739
Bradley, J. P., Klimkiewicz, J. J., Rytel, M. J., & Powell, J. W. (2002). Anterior cruciate
ligament injuries in the National Football League: epidemiology and current treatment trends among team physicians. Arthroscopy, 18(5), 502-509. doi:10.1053/jars.2002.30649
Bradley, P. S., & Portas, M. D. (2007). The relationship between preseason range of motion
and muscle strain injury in elite soccer players. J Strength Cond Res, 21(4), 1155-1159. doi:10.1519/R-20416.1
Briem, K., Ragnarsdottir, A. M., Arnason, S. I., & Sveinsson, T. (2016). Altered medial
versus lateral hamstring muscle activity during hop testing in female athletes 1-6 years after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc, 24(1), 12-17. doi:10.1007/s00167-014-3333-6
Brockett, C. L., Morgan, D. L., & Proske, U. (2001). Human hamstring muscles adapt to
eccentric exercise by changing optimum length. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 33(5), 783-790.
Brockett, C. L., Morgan, D. L., & Proske, U. (2004). Predicting hamstring strain injury in
elite athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 36(3), 379-387.
Brooks, J. H., Fuller, C. W., Kemp, S. P., & Reddin, D. B. (2005a). Epidemiology of injuries
in English professional rugby union: part 1 match injuries. Br J Sports Med, 39(10), 757-766. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2005.018135
119
Brooks, J. H., Fuller, C. W., Kemp, S. P., & Reddin, D. B. (2005b). Epidemiology of injuries in English professional rugby union: part 2 training Injuries. Br J Sports Med, 39(10), 767-775. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2005.018408
Brooks, J. H., Fuller, C. W., Kemp, S. P., & Reddin, D. B. (2006). Incidence, risk, and
prevention of hamstring muscle injuries in professional rugby union. Am J Sports Med, 34(8), 1297-1306. doi:10.1177/0363546505286022
Buchanan, T. S., Kim, A. W., & Lloyd, D. G. (1996). Selective muscle activation following
rapid varus/valgus perturbations at the knee. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 28(7), 870-876. doi:10.1097/00005768-199607000-00014
Buchheit, M., Cholley, Y., Nagel, M., & Poulos, N. (2016). The Effect of Body Mass on
Eccentric Knee-Flexor Strength Assessed With an Instrumented Nordic Hamstring Device (Nordbord) in Football Players. Int J Sports Physiol Perform, 11(6), 721-726. doi:10.1123/ijspp.2015-0513
Burkett, L. N. (1970). Causative factors in hamstring strains. Med Sci Sports, 2(1), 39-42.
Burks, R. T., Crim, J., Fink, B. P., Boylan, D. N., & Greis, P. E. (2005). The effects of
semitendinosus and gracilis harvest in anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Arthroscopy, 21(10), 1177-1185. doi:10.1016/j.arthro.2005.07.005
Cagnie, B., Elliott, J. M., O'Leary, S., D'Hooge, R., Dickx, N., & Danneels, L. A. (2011).
Muscle functional MRI as an imaging tool to evaluate muscle activity. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther, 41(11), 896-903. doi:10.2519/jospt.2011.3586
Carr, A. J., Robertsson, O., Graves, S., Price, A. J., Arden, N. K., Judge, A., & Beard, D. J.
Chaudhari, A. M., Briant, P. L., Bevill, S. L., Koo, S., & Andriacchi, T. P. (2008). Knee
kinematics, cartilage morphology, and osteoarthritis after ACL injury. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 40(2), 215-222. doi:10.1249/mss.0b013e31815cbb0e
Chaudhari, A. M., Zelman, E. A., Flanigan, D. C., Kaeding, C. C., & Nagaraja, H. N. (2009).
Anterior cruciate ligament-injured subjects have smaller anterior cruciate ligaments
120
than matched controls: a magnetic resonance imaging study. Am J Sports Med, 37(7), 1282-1287. doi:10.1177/0363546509332256
Chechik, O., Amar, E., Khashan, M., Lador, R., Eyal, G., & Gold, A. (2013). An
international survey on anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction practices. Int Orthop, 37(2), 201-206. doi:10.1007/s00264-012-1611-9
Chimera, N. J., Swanik, K. A., Swanik, C. B., & Straub, S. J. (2004). Effects of Plyometric
Training on Muscle-Activation Strategies and Performance in Female Athletes. J Athl Train, 39(1), 24-31.
Choi, J. Y., Ha, J. K., Kim, Y. W., Shim, J. C., Yang, S. J., & Kim, J. G. (2012).
Relationships among tendon regeneration on MRI, flexor strength, and functional performance after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction with hamstring autograft. Am J Sports Med, 40(1), 152-162. doi:10.1177/0363546511424134
Chumanov, E. S., Heiderscheit, B. C., & Thelen, D. G. (2007). The effect of speed and
influence of individual muscles on hamstring mechanics during the swing phase of sprinting. J Biomech, 40(16), 3555-3562. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2007.05.026
Chumanov, E. S., Heiderscheit, B. C., & Thelen, D. G. (2011). Hamstring musculotendon
dynamics during stance and swing phases of high-speed running. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 43(3), 525-532. doi:10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181f23fe8
Cochrane, J. L., Lloyd, D. G., Buttfield, A., Seward, H., & McGivern, J. (2007).
Characteristics of anterior cruciate ligament injuries in Australian football. J Sci Med Sport, 10(2), 96-104. doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2006.05.015
Coombs, R., & Cochrane, T. (2001). Knee flexor strength following anterior cruciate
ligament reconstruction with the semitendinosus and gracilis tendons. Int J Sports Med, 22(8), 618-622. doi:10.1055/s-2001-18528
Croisier, J. L. (2004). Factors associated with recurrent hamstring injuries. Sports Med,
34(10), 681-695.
Croisier, J. L., Forthomme, B., Namurois, M. H., Vanderthommen, M., & Crielaard, J. M.
(2002). Hamstring muscle strain recurrence and strength performance disorders. Am J Sports Med, 30(2), 199-203. doi:10.1177/03635465020300020901
121
Croisier, J. L., Ganteaume, S., Binet, J., Genty, M., & Ferret, J. M. (2008). Strength
imbalances and prevention of hamstring injury in professional soccer players: a prospective study. Am J Sports Med, 36(8), 1469-1475. doi:10.1177/0363546508316764
Culliford, D. J., Maskell, J., Kiran, A., Judge, A., Javaid, M. K., Cooper, C., & Arden, N. K.
(2012). The lifetime risk of total hip and knee arthroplasty: results from the UK general practice research database. Osteoarthritis Cartilage, 20(6), 519-524. doi:10.1016/j.joca.2012.02.636
Cvjetkovic, D. D., Bijeljac, S., Palija, S., Talic, G., Radulovic, T. N., Kosanovic, M. G., &
Manojlovic, S. (2015). Isokinetic Testing in Evaluation Rehabilitation Outcome After ACL Reconstruction. Med Arch, 69(1), 21-23. doi:10.5455/medarh.2015.69.21-23
Darrow, C. J., Collins, C. L., Yard, E. E., & Comstock, R. D. (2009). Epidemiology of severe
injuries among United States high school athletes: 2005-2007. Am J Sports Med, 37(9), 1798-1805. doi:10.1177/0363546509333015
Doherty, T. J. (2001). The influence of aging and sex on skeletal muscle mass and strength.
Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care, 4(6), 503-508.
Dugan, S. A. (2005). Sports-related knee injuries in female athletes: what gives? American
journal of physical medicine & rehabilitation, 84(2), 122-130.
Ejerhed, L., Kartus, J., Sernert, N., Kohler, K., & Karlsson, J. (2003). Patellar tendon or
semitendinosus tendon autografts for anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction? A prospective randomized study with a two-year follow-up. Am J Sports Med, 31(1), 19-25. doi:10.1177/03635465030310011401
Ekegren, C. L., Miller, W. C., Celebrini, R. G., Eng, J. J., & Macintyre, D. L. (2009).
Reliability and validity of observational risk screening in evaluating dynamic knee valgus. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther, 39(9), 665-674. doi:10.2519/jospt.2009.3004
Ekstrand, J., & Gillquist, J. (1983). Soccer injuries and their mechanisms: a prospective
study. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 15(3), 267-270.
122
Ekstrand, J., Hagglund, M., & Walden, M. (2011a). Epidemiology of muscle injuries in professional football (soccer). Am J Sports Med, 39(6), 1226-1232. doi:10.1177/0363546510395879
Ekstrand, J., Hagglund, M., & Walden, M. (2011b). Injury incidence and injury patterns in
professional football: the UEFA injury study. Br J Sports Med, 45(7), 553-558. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2009.060582
Ekstrand, J., Walden, M., & Hagglund, M. (2016). Hamstring injuries have increased by 4%
annually in men's professional football, since 2001: a 13-year longitudinal analysis of the UEFA Elite Club injury study. Br J Sports Med, 50(12), 731-737. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2015-095359
Engebretsen, A. H., Myklebust, G., Holme, I., Engebretsen, L., & Bahr, R. (2008).
Prevention of injuries among male soccer players: a prospective, randomized intervention study targeting players with previous injuries or reduced function. Am J Sports Med, 36(6), 1052-1060. doi:10.1177/0363546508314432
Engebretsen, A. H., Myklebust, G., Holme, I., Engebretsen, L., & Bahr, R. (2010). Intrinsic
risk factors for hamstring injuries among male soccer players: a prospective cohort study. Am J Sports Med, 38(6), 1147-1153. doi:10.1177/0363546509358381
Faude, O., Junge, A., Kindermann, W., & Dvorak, J. (2006). Risk factors for injuries in elite
Ferretti, A., Conteduca, F., De Carli, A., Fontana, M., & Mariani, P. P. (1991). Osteoarthritis
of the knee after ACL reconstruction. Int Orthop, 15(4), 367-371.
Fink, C., Hoser, C., Hackl, W., Navarro, R. A., & Benedetto, K. P. (2001). Long-term
outcome of operative or nonoperative treatment of anterior cruciate ligament rupture--is sports activity a determining variable? Int J Sports Med, 22(4), 304-309. doi:10.1055/s-2001-13823
Fleckenstein, J. L., Haller, R. G., Lewis, S. F., Archer, B. T., Barker, B. R., Payne, J., . . .
Peshock, R. M. (1991). Absence of exercise-induced MRI enhancement of skeletal muscle in McArdle's disease. J Appl Physiol (1985), 71(3), 961-969. doi:10.1152/jappl.1991.71.3.961
123
Ford, K. R., Myer, G. D., Toms, H. E., & Hewett, T. E. (2005). Gender differences in the
kinematics of unanticipated cutting in young athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 37(1), 124-129.
Freedman, K. B., D'Amato, M. J., Nedeff, D. D., Kaz, A., & Bach, B. R., Jr. (2003).
Arthroscopic anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: a metaanalysis comparing patellar tendon and hamstring tendon autografts. Am J Sports Med, 31(1), 2-11. doi:10.1177/03635465030310011501
Friden, T., Roberts, D., Ageberg, E., Walden, M., & Zatterstrom, R. (2001). Review of knee
proprioception and the relation to extremity function after an anterior cruciate ligament rupture. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther, 31(10), 567-576. doi:10.2519/jospt.2001.31.10.567
Frobell, R. B., Roos, E. M., Roos, H. P., Ranstam, J., & Lohmander, L. S. (2010). A
randomized trial of treatment for acute anterior cruciate ligament tears. N Engl J Med, 363(4), 331-342. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0907797
Frobell, R. B., Roos, H. P., Roos, E. M., Roemer, F. W., Ranstam, J., & Lohmander, L. S.
(2013). Treatment for acute anterior cruciate ligament tear: five year outcome of randomised trial. Bmj, 346, f232. doi:10.1136/bmj.f232
Fyfe, J. J., Opar, D. A., Williams, M. D., & Shield, A. J. (2013). The role of neuromuscular
Gabbe, B. J., Bennell, K. L., & Finch, C. F. (2006). Why are older Australian football players
at greater risk of hamstring injury? J Sci Med Sport, 9(4), 327-333.
Gabbe, B. J., Bennell, K. L., Finch, C. F., Wajswelner, H., & Orchard, J. W. (2006).
Predictors of hamstring injury at the elite level of Australian football. Scand J Med Sci Sports, 16(1), 7-13. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2005.00441.x
Garrett, W. E., Jr. (1990). Muscle strain injuries: clinical and basic aspects. Med Sci Sports
Exerc, 22(4), 436-443.
124
Garrett, W. E., Jr., Safran, M. R., Seaber, A. V., Glisson, R. R., & Ribbeck, B. M. (1987). Biomechanical comparison of stimulated and nonstimulated skeletal muscle pulled to failure. Am J Sports Med, 15(5), 448-454. doi:10.1177/036354658701500504
Gehring, D., Melnyk, M., & Gollhofer, A. (2009). Gender and fatigue have influence on knee
joint control strategies during landing. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon), 24(1), 82-87. doi:10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2008.07.005
Gianotti, S. M., Marshall, S. W., Hume, P. A., & Bunt, L. (2009). Incidence of anterior
cruciate ligament injury and other knee ligament injuries: a national population-based study. J Sci Med Sport, 12(6), 622-627. doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2008.07.005
Giove, T. P., Miller, S. J., 3rd, Kent, B. E., Sanford, T. L., & Garrick, J. G. (1983). Non-
operative treatment of the torn anterior cruciate ligament. J Bone Joint Surg Am, 65(2), 184-192.
Gobbi, A., & Francisco, R. (2006). Factors affecting return to sports after anterior cruciate
ligament reconstruction with patellar tendon and hamstring graft: a prospective clinical investigation. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc, 14(10), 1021-1028. doi:10.1007/s00167-006-0050-9
Greenky, M., & Cohen, S. B. (2017). Magnetic resonance imaging for assessing hamstring
injuries: clinical benefits and pitfalls - a review of the current literature. Open Access J Sports Med, 8, 167-170. doi:10.2147/OAJSM.S113007
Greig, M. (2008). The influence of soccer-specific fatigue on peak isokinetic torque
production of the knee flexors and extensors. Am J Sports Med, 36(7), 1403-1409. doi:10.1177/0363546508314413
Griffin, L. Y., Agel, J., Albohm, M. J., Arendt, E. A., Dick, R. W., Garrett, W. E., . . .
Wojtys, E. M. (2000). Noncontact anterior cruciate ligament injuries: risk factors and prevention strategies. J Am Acad Orthop Surg, 8(3), 141-150.
Griffin, L. Y., Albohm, M. J., Arendt, E. A., Bahr, R., Beynnon, B. D., Demaio, M., . . . Yu,
B. (2006). Understanding and preventing noncontact anterior cruciate ligament injuries: a review of the Hunt Valley II meeting, January 2005. Am J Sports Med, 34(9), 1512-1532. doi:10.1177/0363546506286866
125
Grimm, N. L., Jacobs, J. C., Jr., Kim, J., Denney, B. S., & Shea, K. G. (2015). Anterior Cruciate Ligament and Knee Injury Prevention Programs for Soccer Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Am J Sports Med, 43(8), 2049-2056. doi:10.1177/0363546514556737
Grindem, H., Snyder-Mackler, L., Moksnes, H., Engebretsen, L., & Risberg, M. A. (2016).
Simple decision rules can reduce reinjury risk by 84% after ACL reconstruction: the Delaware-Oslo ACL cohort study. Br J Sports Med, 50(13), 804-808. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2016-096031
Habelt, S., Hasler, C. C., Steinbruck, K., & Majewski, M. (2011). Sport injuries in
Hagglund, M., Walden, M., & Ekstrand, J. (2006). Previous injury as a risk factor for injury
in elite football: a prospective study over two consecutive seasons. Br J Sports Med, 40(9), 767-772. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2006.026609
Hawkins, R. D., & Fuller, C. W. (1999). A prospective epidemiological study of injuries in
four English professional football clubs. Br J Sports Med, 33(3), 196-203.
Hawkins, R. D., Hulse, M. A., Wilkinson, C., Hodson, A., & Gibson, M. (2001). The
association football medical research programme: an audit of injuries in professional football. Br J Sports Med, 35(1), 43-47.
Heiderscheit, B. C., Hoerth, D. M., Chumanov, E. S., Swanson, S. C., Thelen, B. J., &
Thelen, D. G. (2005). Identifying the time of occurrence of a hamstring strain injury during treadmill running: a case study. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon), 20(10), 1072-1078. doi:10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2005.07.005
Heiderscheit, B. C., Sherry, M. A., Silder, A., Chumanov, E. S., & Thelen, D. G. (2010).
Hamstring strain injuries: recommendations for diagnosis, rehabilitation, and injury prevention. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther, 40(2), 67-81. doi:10.2519/jospt.2010.3047
Heidt, R. S., Jr., Sweeterman, L. M., Carlonas, R. L., Traub, J. A., & Tekulve, F. X. (2000).
Avoidance of soccer injuries with preseason conditioning. Am J Sports Med, 28(5), 659-662. doi:10.1177/03635465000280050601
126
Heiser, T. M., Weber, J., Sullivan, G., Clare, P., & Jacobs, R. R. (1984). Prophylaxis and management of hamstring muscle injuries in intercollegiate football players. Am J Sports Med, 12(5), 368-370. doi:10.1177/036354658401200506
Henderson, G., Barnes, C. A., & Portas, M. D. (2010). Factors associated with increased
propensity for hamstring injury in English Premier League soccer players. J Sci Med Sport, 13(4), 397-402. doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2009.08.003
Herzberg, S. D., Motu'apuaka, M. L., Lambert, W., Fu, R., Brady, J., & Guise, J. M. (2017).
The Effect of Menstrual Cycle and Contraceptives on ACL Injuries and Laxity: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Orthop J Sports Med, 5(7), 2325967117718781. doi:10.1177/2325967117718781
Hewett, T. E., Di Stasi, S. L., & Myer, G. D. (2013). Current concepts for injury prevention
in athletes after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Am J Sports Med, 41(1), 216-224. doi:10.1177/0363546512459638
Hewett, T. E., Lindenfeld, T. N., Riccobene, J. V., & Noyes, F. R. (1999). The effect of
neuromuscular training on the incidence of knee injury in female athletes. A prospective study. Am J Sports Med, 27(6), 699-706. doi:10.1177/03635465990270060301
Hewett, T. E., Myer, G. D., & Ford, K. R. (2001). Prevention of anterior cruciate ligament
injuries. Curr Womens Health Rep, 1(3), 218-224.
Hewett, T. E., Myer, G. D., & Ford, K. R. (2006). Anterior cruciate ligament injuries in
female athletes: Part 1, mechanisms and risk factors. Am J Sports Med, 34(2), 299-311. doi:10.1177/0363546505284183
Hewett, T. E., Myer, G. D., Ford, K. R., Heidt, R. S., Jr., Colosimo, A. J., McLean, S. G., . . .
Succop, P. (2005). Biomechanical measures of neuromuscular control and valgus loading of the knee predict anterior cruciate ligament injury risk in female athletes: a prospective study. Am J Sports Med, 33(4), 492-501. doi:10.1177/0363546504269591
Hewett, T. E., Paterno, M. V., & Myer, G. D. (2002). Strategies for enhancing proprioception
and neuromuscular control of the knee. Clin Orthop Relat Res, 402(402), 76-94.
127
Hewett, T. E., Stroupe, A. L., Nance, T. A., & Noyes, F. R. (1996). Plyometric training in female athletes. Decreased impact forces and increased hamstring torques. Am J Sports Med, 24(6), 765-773. doi:10.1177/036354659602400611
Hewett, T. E., Zazulak, B. T., & Myer, G. D. (2007). Effects of the menstrual cycle on
anterior cruciate ligament injury risk: a systematic review. Am J Sports Med, 35(4), 659-668. doi:10.1177/0363546506295699
Hiemstra, L. A., Webber, S., MacDonald, P. B., & Kriellaars, D. J. (2007). Contralateral limb
strength deficits after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction using a hamstring tendon graft. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon), 22(5), 543-550. doi:10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2007.01.009
Holcomb, W. R., Rubley, M. D., Lee, H. J., & Guadagnoli, M. A. (2007). Effect of
hamstring-emphasized resistance training on hamstring:quadriceps strength ratios. J Strength Cond Res, 21(1), 41-47. doi:10.1519/R-18795.1
Hunter, S. K. (2009). Sex differences and mechanisms of task-specific muscle fatigue. Exerc
Sport Sci Rev, 37(3), 113-122. doi:10.1097/JES.0b013e3181aa63e2
Huston, L. J., Greenfield, M. L., & Wojtys, E. M. (2000). Anterior cruciate ligament injuries
in the female athlete. Potential risk factors. Clin Orthop Relat Res, 372(372), 50-63.
Jacobs, C. A., Uhl, T. L., Mattacola, C. G., Shapiro, R., & Rayens, W. S. (2007). Hip
abductor function and lower extremity landing kinematics: sex differences. J Athl Train, 42(1), 76-83.
Jayaraman, R. C., Reid, R. W., Foley, J. M., Prior, B. M., Dudley, G. A., Weingand, K. W.,
& Meyer, R. A. (2004). MRI evaluation of topical heat and static stretching as therapeutic modalities for the treatment of eccentric exercise-induced muscle damage. Eur J Appl Physiol, 93(1-2), 30-38. doi:10.1007/s00421-004-1153-y
Johansson, H., Sjölander, P., & Sojka, P. (1990). Receptors in the knee joint ligaments and
their role in the biomechanics of the joint. Crit Rev Biomed Eng, 18(5), 341-368.
Jonhagen, S., Nemeth, G., & Eriksson, E. (1994). Hamstring injuries in sprinters. The role of
concentric and eccentric hamstring muscle strength and flexibility. Am J Sports Med, 22(2), 262-266. doi:10.1177/036354659402200218
128
Kaeding, C. C., Aros, B., Pedroza, A., Pifel, E., Amendola, A., Andrish, J. T., . . . Spindler,
K. P. (2011). Allograft Versus Autograft Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction: Predictors of Failure From a MOON Prospective Longitudinal Cohort. Sports Health, 3(1), 73-81. doi:10.1177/1941738110386185
Katayama, M., Higuchi, H., Kimura, M., Kobayashi, A., Hatayama, K., Terauchi, M., &
Takagishi, K. (2004). Proprioception and performance after anterior cruciate ligament rupture. Int Orthop, 28(5), 278-281. doi:10.1007/s00264-004-0583-9
Khan, T., Alvand, A., Prieto-Alhambra, D., Culliford, D. J., Judge, A., Jackson, W. F., . . .
Price, A. J. (2018). ACL and meniscal injuries increase the risk of primary total knee replacement for osteoarthritis: a matched case-control study using the Clinical Practice Research Datalink (CPRD). Br J Sports Med. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2017-097762
Kirkendall, D. T., & Garrett, W. E., Jr. (1998). The effects of aging and training on skeletal
muscle. Am J Sports Med, 26(4), 598-602. doi:10.1177/03635465980260042401
Knezevic, O. M., Mirkov, D. M., Kadija, M., Nedeljkovic, A., & Jaric, S. (2014).
Asymmetries in explosive strength following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Knee, 21(6), 1039-1045. doi:10.1016/j.knee.2014.07.021
Konishi, Y., Ikeda, K., Nishino, A., Sunaga, M., Aihara, Y., & Fukubayashi, T. (2007).
Relationship between quadriceps femoris muscle volume and muscle torque after anterior cruciate ligament repair. Scand J Med Sci Sports, 17(6), 656-661. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2006.00619.x
Konrath, J. M., Vertullo, C. J., Kennedy, B. A., Bush, H. S., Barrett, R. S., & Lloyd, D. G.
(2016). Morphologic Characteristics and Strength of the Hamstring Muscles Remain Altered at 2 Years After Use of a Hamstring Tendon Graft in Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction. Am J Sports Med, 44(10), 2589-2598. doi:10.1177/0363546516651441
Koulouris, G., & Connell, D. (2005). Hamstring muscle complex: an imaging review.
Koulouris, G., Connell, D. A., Brukner, P., & Schneider-Kolsky, M. (2007). Magnetic resonance imaging parameters for assessing risk of recurrent hamstring injuries in elite athletes. Am J Sports Med, 35(9), 1500-1506. doi:10.1177/0363546507301258
Kraemer, W. J., Adams, K., Cafarelli, E., Dudley, G. A., Dooly, C., Feigenbaum, M. S., . . .
American College of Sports, M. (2002). American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Progression models in resistance training for healthy adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 34(2), 364-380.
Kramer, J., Nusca, D., Fowler, P., & Webster-Bogaert, S. (1993). Knee flexor and extensor
strength during concentric and eccentric muscle actions after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction using the semitendinosus tendon and ligament augmentation device. Am J Sports Med, 21(2), 285-291. doi:10.1177/036354659302100220
Krych, A. J., Jackson, J. D., Hoskin, T. L., & Dahm, D. L. (2008). A meta-analysis of patellar
tendon autograft versus patellar tendon allograft in anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Arthroscopy, 24(3), 292-298. doi:10.1016/j.arthro.2007.08.029
Kvist, J. (2004). Rehabilitation following anterior cruciate ligament injury: current
recommendations for sports participation. Sports Med, 34(4), 269-280.
Kvist, J., Ek, A., Sporrstedt, K., & Good, L. (2005). Fear of re-injury: a hindrance for
returning to sports after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc, 13(5), 393-397. doi:10.1007/s00167-004-0591-8
Kyritsis, P., Bahr, R., Landreau, P., Miladi, R., & Witvrouw, E. (2016). Likelihood of ACL
graft rupture: not meeting six clinical discharge criteria before return to sport is associated with a four times greater risk of rupture. Br J Sports Med, 50(15), 946-951. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2015-095908
LaBella, C. R., Hennrikus, W., Hewett, T. E., Council on Sports, M., Fitness, & Section on,
O. (2014). Anterior cruciate ligament injuries: diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Pediatrics, 133(5), e1437-1450. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-0623
Landry, S. C., McKean, K. A., Hubley-Kozey, C. L., Stanish, W. D., & Deluzio, K. J. (2007).
Neuromuscular and lower limb biomechanical differences exist between male and female elite adolescent soccer players during an unanticipated run and crosscut maneuver. Am J Sports Med, 35(11), 1901-1911. doi:10.1177/0363546507307400
130
Lee, M. J., Reid, S. L., Elliott, B. C., & Lloyd, D. G. (2009). Running biomechanics and
lower limb strength associated with prior hamstring injury. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 41(10), 1942-1951. doi:10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181a55200
Levangie, P. K., & Norkin, C. C. (2011). Joint structure and function: a comprehensive
analysis: FA Davis.
Lieber, R. L., & Friden, J. (2000). Functional and clinical significance of skeletal muscle
architecture. Muscle Nerve, 23(11), 1647-1666.
Liow, R. Y., McNicholas, M. J., Keating, J. F., & Nutton, R. W. (2003). Ligament repair and
reconstruction in traumatic dislocation of the knee. J Bone Joint Surg Br, 85(6), 845-851.
Lipscomb, A. B., Johnston, R. K., Snyder, R. B., Warburton, M. J., & Gilbert, P. P. (1982).
Evaluation of hamstring strength following use of semitendinosus and gracilis tendons to reconstruct the anterior cruciate ligament. Am J Sports Med, 10(6), 340-342.
Liu, H., Garrett, W. E., Moorman, C. T., & Yu, B. (2012). Injury rate, mechanism, and risk
factors of hamstring strain injuries in sports: A review of the literature. Journal of Sport and Health Science, 1(2), 92-101. doi:10.1016/j.jshs.2012.07.003
Lloyd, D. G., & Buchanan, T. S. (2001). Strategies of muscular support of varus and valgus
isometric loads at the human knee. J Biomech, 34(10), 1257-1267.
Lohmander, L. S., Englund, P. M., Dahl, L. L., & Roos, E. M. (2007). The long-term
consequence of anterior cruciate ligament and meniscus injuries: osteoarthritis. Am J Sports Med, 35(10), 1756-1769. doi:10.1177/0363546507307396
Lohmander, L. S., Ostenberg, A., Englund, M., & Roos, H. (2004). High prevalence of knee
osteoarthritis, pain, and functional limitations in female soccer players twelve years after anterior cruciate ligament injury. Arthritis Rheum, 50(10), 3145-3152. doi:10.1002/art.20589
Lyman, S., Koulouvaris, P., Sherman, S., Do, H., Mandl, L. A., & Marx, R. G. (2009).
Epidemiology of anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: trends, readmissions, and
Makihara, Y., Nishino, A., Fukubayashi, T., & Kanamori, A. (2006). Decrease of knee
flexion torque in patients with ACL reconstruction: combined analysis of the architecture and function of the knee flexor muscles. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc, 14(4), 310-317. doi:10.1007/s00167-005-0701-2
Malinzak, R. A., Colby, S. M., Kirkendall, D. T., Yu, B., & Garrett, W. E. (2001). A
comparison of knee joint motion patterns between men and women in selected athletic tasks. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon), 16(5), 438-445.
Malisoux, L., Gette, P., Urhausen, A., Bomfim, J., & Theisen, D. (2017). Influence of sports
flooring and shoes on impact forces and performance during jump tasks. PLoS One, 12(10), e0186297. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0186297
Mandelbaum, B. R., Silvers, H. J., Watanabe, D. S., Knarr, J. F., Thomas, S. D., Griffin, L.
Y., . . . Garrett, W., Jr. (2005). Effectiveness of a neuromuscular and proprioceptive training program in preventing anterior cruciate ligament injuries in female athletes: 2-year follow-up. Am J Sports Med, 33(7), 1003-1010. doi:10.1177/0363546504272261
Maniar, N., Shield, A. J., Williams, M. D., Timmins, R. G., & Opar, D. A. (2016). Hamstring
strength and flexibility after hamstring strain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med, 50(15), 909-920. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2015-095311
Markee, J. E., Logue, J. T., Jr., Williams, M., Stanton, W. B., Wrenn, R. N., & Walker, L. B.
(1955). Two-joint muscles of the thigh. J Bone Joint Surg Am, 37-A(1), 125-142.
132
Mather, R. C., 3rd, Koenig, L., Kocher, M. S., Dall, T. M., Gallo, P., Scott, D. J., . . . Group,
M. K. (2013). Societal and economic impact of anterior cruciate ligament tears. J Bone Joint Surg Am, 95(19), 1751-1759. doi:10.2106/JBJS.L.01705
McLean, S. G., Huang, X., & van den Bogert, A. J. (2005). Association between lower
extremity posture at contact and peak knee valgus moment during sidestepping: implications for ACL injury. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon), 20(8), 863-870. doi:10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2005.05.007
McLean, S. G., Walker, K. B., & van den Bogert, A. J. (2005). Effect of gender on lower
extremity kinematics during rapid direction changes: an integrated analysis of three sports movements. J Sci Med Sport, 8(4), 411-422. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1440-2440(05)80056-8
Mendiguchia, J., Alentorn-Geli, E., & Brughelli, M. (2011). Hamstring strain injuries: are we
heading in the right direction? Br J Sports Med, bjsports81695.
Mendiguchia, J., Arcos, A. L., Garrues, M. A., Myer, G. D., Yanci, J., & Idoate, F. (2013).
The Use of Mri to Evaluate Posterior Thigh Muscle Activity and Damage during Nordic Hamstring Exercise. J Strength Cond Res, 27(12), 3426-3435.
Mendiguchia, J., Garrues, M. A., Cronin, J. B., Contreras, B., Los Arcos, A., Malliaropoulos,
N., . . . Idoate, F. (2013). Nonuniform changes in MRI measurements of the thigh muscles after two hamstring strengthening exercises. J Strength Cond Res, 27(3), 574-581. doi:10.1519/JSC.0b013e31825c2f38
Messer, D., Bourne, M., Williams, M., & Shield, A. (2017). Knee flexor muscle use during
hip extension and the Nordic hamstring exercise: An fMRI study. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 20, e125. doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2017.01.221
Messina, D. F., Farney, W. C., & DeLee, J. C. (1999). The incidence of injury in Texas high
school basketball - A prospective study among male and female athletes. Am J Sports Med, 27(3), 294-299.
Morgan, D. L. (1990). New insights into the behavior of muscle during active lengthening.
Murphy, D. F., Connolly, D. A., & Beynnon, B. D. (2003). Risk factors for lower extremity injury: a review of the literature. Br J Sports Med, 37(1), 13-29.
Myer, G. D., Ford, K. R., Barber Foss, K. D., Liu, C., Nick, T. G., & Hewett, T. E. (2009).
The relationship of hamstrings and quadriceps strength to anterior cruciate ligament injury in female athletes. Clin J Sport Med, 19(1), 3-8. doi:10.1097/JSM.0b013e318190bddb
Myer, G. D., Ford, K. R., Brent, J. L., & Hewett, T. E. (2007). Differential neuromuscular
training effects on ACL injury risk factors in"high-risk" versus "low-risk" athletes. BMC Musculoskelet Disord, 8, 39. doi:10.1186/1471-2474-8-39
Myer, G. D., Ford, K. R., & Hewett, T. E. (2005). The effects of gender on quadriceps
muscle activation strategies during a maneuver that mimics a high ACL injury risk position. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 15(2), 181-189. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jelekin.2004.08.006
Myer, G. D., Ford, K. R., Palumbo, J. P., & Hewett, T. E. (2005). Neuromuscular training
improves performance and lower-extremity biomechanics in female athletes. J Strength Cond Res, 19(1), 51-60. doi:10.1519/13643.1
Myer, G. D., Ford, K. R., Paterno, M. V., Nick, T. G., & Hewett, T. E. (2008). The effects of
generalized joint laxity on risk of anterior cruciate ligament injury in young female athletes. Am J Sports Med, 36(6), 1073-1080. doi:10.1177/0363546507313572
Myer, G. D., Paterno, M. V., Ford, K. R., Quatman, C. E., & Hewett, T. E. (2006).
Rehabilitation after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: criteria-based progression through the return-to-sport phase. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther, 36(6), 385-402. doi:10.2519/jospt.2006.2222
Myer, G. D., Sugimoto, D., Thomas, S., & Hewett, T. E. (2013). The influence of age on the
effectiveness of neuromuscular training to reduce anterior cruciate ligament injury in female athletes: a meta-analysis. Am J Sports Med, 41(1), 203-215. doi:10.1177/0363546512460637
Myklebust, G., & Bahr, R. (2005). Return to play guidelines after anterior cruciate ligament
Myklebust, G., Engebretsen, L., Braekken, I. H., Skjolberg, A., Olsen, O. E., & Bahr, R. (2003). Prevention of anterior cruciate ligament injuries in female team handball players: a prospective intervention study over three seasons. Clin J Sport Med, 13(2), 71-78.
Myklebust, G., Maehlum, S., Holm, I., & Bahr, R. (1998). A prospective cohort study of
anterior cruciate ligament injuries in elite Norwegian team handball. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports, 8(3), 149-153.
Nakajima, R., Maruyama, Y., Shitoto, K., Yamauchi, Y., & Nakajima, H. (1996). Decreased
hamstring strength after harvest of semitendinosus and gracilis tendons for anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. J Clin Sports Med, 13, 681-686.
Nishino, A., Sanada, A., Kanehisa, H., & Fukubayashi, T. (2006). Knee-flexion torque and
morphology of the semitendinosus after ACL reconstruction. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 38(11), 1895-1900. doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000230344.71623.51
Nomura, Y., Kuramochi, R., & Fukubayashi, T. (2015). Evaluation of hamstring muscle
strength and morphology after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Scand J Med Sci Sports, 25(3), 301-307. doi:10.1111/sms.12205
Noyes, F. R., & Barber-Westin, S. D. (2012). Treatment of meniscus tears during anterior
Ono, T., Higashihara, A., & Fukubayashi, T. (2010). Hamstring functions during hip-
extension exercise assessed with electromyography and magnetic resonance imaging. Res Sports Med, 19(1), 42-52.
Ono, T., Higashihara, A., & Fukubayashi, T. (2011). Hamstring functions during hip-
extension exercise assessed with electromyography and magnetic resonance imaging. Res Sports Med, 19(1), 42-52. doi:10.1080/15438627.2011.535769
135
Ono, T., Okuwaki, T., & Fukubayashi, T. (2010). Differences in activation patterns of knee flexor muscles during concentric and eccentric exercises. Res Sports Med, 18(3), 188-198. doi:10.1080/15438627.2010.490185
Opar, D. A., Drezner, J., Shield, A., Williams, M., Webner, D., Sennett, B., . . . Cafengiu, A.
(2014). Acute hamstring strain injury in track‐and‐field athletes: A 3‐year observational study at the Penn Relay Carnival. Scand J Med Sci Sports, 24(4), e254-e259.
Opar, D. A., Piatkowski, T., Williams, M. D., & Shield, A. J. (2013). A novel device using
the Nordic hamstring exercise to assess eccentric knee flexor strength: a reliability and retrospective injury study. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther, 43(9), 636-640. doi:10.2519/jospt.2013.4837
Opar, D. A., Williams, M. D., & Shield, A. J. (2012). Hamstring strain injuries: factors that
lead to injury and re-injury. Sports Med, 42(3), 209-226. doi:10.2165/11594800-000000000-00000
Opar, D. A., Williams, M. D., Timmins, R. G., Dear, N. M., & Shield, A. J. (2013). Knee
flexor strength and bicep femoris electromyographical activity is lower in previously strained hamstrings. J Electromyogr Kinesiol, 23(3), 696-703. doi:10.1016/j.jelekin.2012.11.004
Opar, D. A., Williams, M. D., Timmins, R. G., Hickey, J., Duhig, S. J., & Shield, A. J.
(2015a). Eccentric hamstring strength and hamstring injury risk in Australian footballers. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 47(4), 857-865. doi:10.1249/MSS.0000000000000465
Opar, D. A., Williams, M. D., Timmins, R. G., Hickey, J., Duhig, S. J., & Shield, A. J.
(2015b). The effect of previous hamstring strain injuries on the change in eccentric hamstring strength during preseason training in elite Australian footballers. Am J Sports Med, 43(2), 377-384. doi:10.1177/0363546514556638
Orchard, J. (2002). Is there a relationship between ground and climatic conditions and
injuries in football? Sports Medicine, 32(7), 419-432.
weakness associated with hamstring muscle injury in Australian footballers. Am J Sports Med, 25(1), 81-85. doi:10.1177/036354659702500116
136
Orchard, J., & Seward, H. (2002). Epidemiology of injuries in the Australian Football
League, seasons 1997-2000. Br J Sports Med, 36(1), 39-44.
Orchard, J., & Seward, H. (2010). Injury report 2009: Australian football league. Sport
Health, 28(2), 10.
Orchard, J., Seward, H., McGivern, J., & Hood, S. (1999). Rainfall, evaporation and the risk
of non-contact anterior cruciate ligament injury in the Australian Football League. Med J Aust, 170(7), 304-306.
Orchard, J., Seward, H., McGivern, J., & Hood, S. (2001). Intrinsic and extrinsic risk factors
for anterior cruciate ligament injury in Australian footballers. Am J Sports Med, 29(2), 196-200. doi:10.1177/03635465010290021301
Orchard, J. W. (2001). Intrinsic and extrinsic risk factors for muscle strains in Australian
football. Am J Sports Med, 29(3), 300-303. doi:10.1177/03635465010290030801
Orchard, J. W., Seward, H., & Orchard, J. J. (2013). Results of 2 decades of injury
surveillance and public release of data in the Australian Football League. Am J Sports Med, 41(4), 734-741. doi:10.1177/0363546513476270
Osborne, H. R., Quinlan, J. F., & Allison, G. T. (2012). Hip abduction weakness in elite
junior footballers is common but easy to correct quickly: a prospective sports team cohort based study. Sports Med Arthrosc Rehabil Ther Technol, 4(1), 37. doi:10.1186/1758-2555-4-37
Papandrea, P., Vulpiani, M. C., Ferretti, A., & Conteduca, F. (2000). Regeneration of the
Semitendinosus Tendon Harvested for Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction Evaluation Using Ultrasonography. Am J Sports Med, 28(4), 556-561.
Paterno, M. V., Rauh, M. J., Schmitt, L. C., Ford, K. R., & Hewett, T. E. (2012). Incidence of
contralateral and ipsilateral anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury after primary ACL reconstruction and return to sport. Clin J Sport Med, 22(2), 116-121. doi:10.1097/JSM.0b013e318246ef9e
137
Paterno, M. V., Rauh, M. J., Schmitt, L. C., Ford, K. R., & Hewett, T. E. (2014). Incidence of Second ACL Injuries 2 Years After Primary ACL Reconstruction and Return to Sport. Am J Sports Med, 42(7), 1567-1573. doi:10.1177/0363546514530088
Paterno, M. V., Schmitt, L. C., Ford, K. R., Rauh, M. J., Myer, G. D., Huang, B., & Hewett,
T. E. (2010). Biomechanical measures during landing and postural stability predict second anterior cruciate ligament injury after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction and return to sport. Am J Sports Med, 38(10), 1968-1978. doi:10.1177/0363546510376053
Patten, C., Meyer, R. A., & Fleckenstein, J. L. (2003). T2 mapping of muscle. Semin
Petersen, J., Thorborg, K., Nielsen, M. B., Budtz-Jorgensen, E., & Holmich, P. (2011).
Preventive effect of eccentric training on acute hamstring injuries in men's soccer: a cluster-randomized controlled trial. Am J Sports Med, 39(11), 2296-2303. doi:10.1177/0363546511419277
Peterson, J. R., & Krabak, B. J. (2014). Anterior cruciate ligament injury: mechanisms of
injury and strategies for injury prevention. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am, 25(4), 813-828. doi:10.1016/j.pmr.2014.06.010
Pinczewski, L. A., Deehan, D. J., Salmon, L. J., Russell, V. J., & Clingeleffer, A. (2002). A
five-year comparison of patellar tendon versus four-strand hamstring tendon autograft for arthroscopic reconstruction of the anterior cruciate ligament. Am J Sports Med, 30(4), 523-536. doi:10.1177/03635465020300041201
Pinczewski, L. A., Lyman, J., Salmon, L. J., Russell, V. J., Roe, J., & Linklater, J. (2007). A
10-year comparison of anterior cruciate ligament reconstructions with hamstring tendon and patellar tendon autograft: a controlled, prospective trial. Am J Sports Med, 35(4), 564-574. doi:10.1177/0363546506296042
Pinniger, G. J., Steele, J. R., & Groeller, H. (2000). Does fatigue induced by repeated
Prodromos, C., Joyce, B., & Shi, K. (2007). A meta-analysis of stability of autografts
compared to allografts after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc, 15(7), 851-856. doi:10.1007/s00167-007-0328-6
Prodromos, C. C., Han, Y., Rogowski, J., Joyce, B., & Shi, K. (2007). A meta-analysis of the
incidence of anterior cruciate ligament tears as a function of gender, sport, and a knee injury-reduction regimen. Arthroscopy, 23(12), 1320-1325 e1326. doi:10.1016/j.arthro.2007.07.003
Renstrom, P., Ljungqvist, A., Arendt, E., Beynnon, B., Fukubayashi, T., Garrett, W., . . .
Engebretsen, L. (2008). Non-contact ACL injuries in female athletes: an International Olympic Committee current concepts statement. Br J Sports Med, 42(6), 394-412. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2008.048934
Roi, G., Nanni, G., & Tencone, F. (2006). Time to return to professional soccer matches after
ACL reconstruction. Sport Sci Health, 1(4), 142-145.
Rozzi, S. L., Lephart, S. M., Gear, W. S., & Fu, F. H. (1999). Knee joint laxity and
neuromuscular characteristics of male and female soccer and basketball players. Am J Sports Med, 27(3), 312-319. doi:10.1177/03635465990270030801
Saunders, N., McLean, S. G., Fox, A. S., & Otago, L. (2014). Neuromuscular dysfunction
that may predict ACL injury risk: A case report. Knee, 21(3), 789-792. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.knee.2014.01.005
Schache, A. G., Dorn, T. W., Blanch, P. D., Brown, N. A., & Pandy, M. G. (2012).
Mechanics of the human hamstring muscles during sprinting. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 44(4), 647-658. doi:10.1249/MSS.0b013e318236a3d2
Schache, A. G., Wrigley, T. V., Baker, R., & Pandy, M. G. (2009). Biomechanical response
to hamstring muscle strain injury. Gait Posture, 29(2), 332-338. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2008.10.054
Schmitz, R. J., Shultz, S. J., & Nguyen, A. D. (2009). Dynamic valgus alignment and
functional strength in males and females during maturation. J Athl Train, 44(1), 26-32. doi:10.4085/1062-6050-44.1.26
139
Schuermans, J., Van Tiggelen, D., Danneels, L., & Witvrouw, E. (2014). Biceps femoris and semitendinosus--teammates or competitors? New insights into hamstring injury mechanisms in male football players: a muscle functional MRI study. Br J Sports Med, 48(22), 1599-1606. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2014-094017
Schuermans, J., Van Tiggelen, D., Danneels, L., & Witvrouw, E. (2016). Susceptibility to
Hamstring Injuries in Soccer: A Prospective Study Using Muscle Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Am J Sports Med, 44(5), 1276-1285. doi:10.1177/0363546515626538
Serpell, B. G., Scarvell, J. M., Ball, N. B., & Smith, P. N. (2012). Mechanisms and risk
factors for noncontact ACL injury in age mature athletes who engage in field or court sports: a summary of the literature since 1980. J Strength Cond Res, 26(11), 3160-3176. doi:10.1519/JSC.0b013e318243fb5a
Seward, H., Orchard, J., Hazard, H., & Collinson, D. (1993). Football Injuries in Australia at
the Elite Level. Med J Aust, 159(5), 298-301.
Shelbourne, K. D., Davis, T. J., & Klootwyk, T. E. (1998). The relationship between
intercondylar notch width of the femur and the incidence of anterior cruciate ligament tears. A prospective study. Am J Sports Med, 26(3), 402-408. doi:10.1177/03635465980260031001
Silder, A., Heiderscheit, B. C., Thelen, D. G., Enright, T., & Tuite, M. J. (2008). MR
observations of long-term musculotendon remodeling following a hamstring strain injury. Skeletal Radiol, 37(12), 1101-1109. doi:10.1007/s00256-008-0546-0
Silder, A., Reeder, S. B., & Thelen, D. G. (2010). The influence of prior hamstring injury on
Silvers-Granelli, H., Mandelbaum, B., Adeniji, O., Insler, S., Bizzini, M., Pohlig, R., . . .
Dvorak, J. (2015). Efficacy of the FIFA 11+ Injury Prevention Program in the Collegiate Male Soccer Player. Am J Sports Med, 43(11), 2628-2637. doi:10.1177/0363546515602009
Silvers, H. J., & Mandelbaum, B. R. (2007). Prevention of anterior cruciate ligament injury in
Simonian, P. T., Harrison, S. D., Cooley, V. J., Escabedo, E. M., Deneka, D. A., & Larson, R.
V. (1996). Assessment of morbidity of semitendinosus and gracilis tendon harvest for ACL reconstruction. Am J Knee Surg, 10(2), 54-59.
Skinner, H. B., Wyatt, M. P., Hodgdon, J. A., Conard, D. W., & Barrack, R. L. (1986). Effect
of fatigue on joint position sense of the knee. J Orthop Res, 4(1), 112-118. doi:10.1002/jor.1100040115
Slauterbeck, J. R., Fuzie, S. F., Smith, M. P., Clark, R. J., Xu, K., Starch, D. W., & Hardy, D.
M. (2002). The Menstrual Cycle, Sex Hormones, and Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury. J Athl Train, 37(3), 275-278.
Small, K., McNaughton, L. R., Greig, M., Lohkamp, M., & Lovell, R. (2009). Soccer fatigue,
sprinting and hamstring injury risk. Int J Sports Med, 30(8), 573-578. doi:10.1055/s-0029-1202822
Smith, H. C., Vacek, P., Johnson, R. J., Slauterbeck, J. R., Hashemi, J., Shultz, S., &
Beynnon, B. D. (2012). Risk factors for anterior cruciate ligament injury: a review of the literature - part 1: neuromuscular and anatomic risk. Sports Health, 4(1), 69-78. doi:10.1177/1941738111428281
Smith, J. P., 3rd, & Barrett, G. R. (2001). Medial and lateral meniscal tear patterns in anterior
cruciate ligament-deficient knees. A prospective analysis of 575 tears. Am J Sports Med, 29(4), 415-419. doi:10.1177/03635465010290040501
Snow, B. J., Wilcox, J. J., Burks, R. T., & Greis, P. E. (2012). Evaluation of muscle size and
fatty infiltration with MRI nine to eleven years following hamstring harvest for ACL reconstruction. J Bone Joint Surg Am, 94(14), 1274-1282. doi:10.2106/JBJS.K.00692
Soderman, K., Alfredson, H., Pietila, T., & Werner, S. (2001). Risk factors for leg injuries in
female soccer players: a prospective investigation during one out-door season. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc, 9(5), 313-321. doi:10.1007/s001670100228
141
Solomonow, M., Baratta, R., Zhou, B. H., Shoji, H., Bose, W., Beck, C., & D'Ambrosia, R. (1987). The synergistic action of the anterior cruciate ligament and thigh muscles in maintaining joint stability. Am J Sports Med, 15(3), 207-213. doi:10.1177/036354658701500302
Spindler, K. P., Parker, R. D., Andrish, J. T., Kaeding, C. C., Wright, R. W., Marx, R. G., . . .
Group, M. (2013). Prognosis and predictors of ACL reconstructions using the MOON cohort: a model for comparative effectiveness studies. J Orthop Res, 31(1), 2-9. doi:10.1002/jor.22201
Spindler, K. P., & Wright, R. W. (2008). Clinical practice. Anterior cruciate ligament tear. N
Stearns, K. M., & Powers, C. M. (2014). Improvements in hip muscle performance result in
increased use of the hip extensors and abductors during a landing task. Am J Sports Med, 42(3), 602-609. doi:10.1177/0363546513518410
Sugimoto, D., Myer, G. D., Barber Foss, K. D., Pepin, M. J., Micheli, L. J., & Hewett, T. E.
(2016). Critical components of neuromuscular training to reduce ACL injury risk in female athletes: meta-regression analysis. Br J Sports Med, 50(20), 1259-1266. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2015-095596
Sugimoto, D., Myer, G. D., Foss, K. D., & Hewett, T. E. (2014). Dosage effects of
neuromuscular training intervention to reduce anterior cruciate ligament injuries in female athletes: meta- and sub-group analyses. Sports Med, 44(4), 551-562. doi:10.1007/s40279-013-0135-9
Sugimoto, D., Myer, G. D., Foss, K. D., & Hewett, T. E. (2015). Specific exercise effects of
preventive neuromuscular training intervention on anterior cruciate ligament injury risk reduction in young females: meta-analysis and subgroup analysis. Br J Sports Med, 49(5), 282-289. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2014-093461
Sugimoto, D., Myer, G. D., McKeon, J. M., & Hewett, T. E. (2012). Evaluation of the
effectiveness of neuromuscular training to reduce anterior cruciate ligament injury in female athletes: a critical review of relative risk reduction and numbers-needed-to-treat analyses. Br J Sports Med, 46(14), 979-988. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2011-090895
Tadokoro, K., Matsui, N., Yagi, M., Kuroda, R., Kurosaka, M., & Yoshiya, S. (2004).
Evaluation of hamstring strength and tendon regrowth after harvesting for anterior
142
cruciate ligament reconstruction. Am J Sports Med, 32(7), 1644-1650. doi:10.1177/0363546504263152
muscle function after tendon harvest for anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: evaluation with T2 relaxation time of magnetic resonance imaging. Am J Sports Med, 34(2), 281-288. doi:10.1177/0363546505279574
Takeda, Y., Xerogeanes, J. W., Livesay, G. A., Fu, F. H., & Woo, S. L. (1994).
Biomechanical function of the human anterior cruciate ligament. Arthroscopy, 10(2), 140-147.
Tashiro, T., Kurosawa, H., Kawakami, A., Hikita, A., & Fukui, N. (2003). Influence of
medial hamstring tendon harvest on knee flexor strength after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. A detailed evaluation with comparison of single- and double-tendon harvest. Am J Sports Med, 31(4), 522-529. doi:10.1177/03635465030310040801
Tashman, S., Collon, D., Anderson, K., Kolowich, P., & Anderst, W. (2004). Abnormal
rotational knee motion during running after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Am J Sports Med, 32(4), 975-983. doi:10.1177/0363546503261709
Taylor, J. B., Waxman, J. P., Richter, S. J., & Shultz, S. J. (2015). Evaluation of the
effectiveness of anterior cruciate ligament injury prevention programme training components: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med, 49(2), 79-87. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2013-092358
Tengman, E., Brax Olofsson, L., Nilsson, K. G., Tegner, Y., Lundgren, L., & Hager, C. K.
(2014). Anterior cruciate ligament injury after more than 20 years: I. Physical activity level and knee function. Scand J Med Sci Sports, 24(6), e491-500. doi:10.1111/sms.12212
Thelen, D. G., Chumanov, E. S., Best, T. M., Swanson, S. C., & Heiderscheit, B. C. (2005).
Simulation of biceps femoris musculotendon mechanics during the swing phase of sprinting. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 37(11), 1931-1938.
Thelen, D. G., Chumanov, E. S., Hoerth, D. M., Best, T. M., Swanson, S. C., Li, L., . . .
Heiderscheit, B. C. (2005). Hamstring muscle kinematics during treadmill sprinting. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 37(1), 108-114.
143
Thomas, A. C., Villwock, M., Wojtys, E. M., & Palmieri-Smith, R. M. (2013). Lower
extremity muscle strength after anterior cruciate ligament injury and reconstruction. J Athl Train, 48(5), 610-620. doi:10.4085/1062-6050-48.3.23
Timmins, R. G., Bourne, M. N., Shield, A. J., Williams, M. D., Lorenzen, C., & Opar, D. A.
(2016a). Biceps Femoris Architecture and Strength in Athletes with a Previous Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 48(3), 337-345. doi:10.1249/MSS.0000000000000783
Timmins, R. G., Bourne, M. N., Shield, A. J., Williams, M. D., Lorenzen, C., & Opar, D. A.
(2016b). Short biceps femoris fascicles and eccentric knee flexor weakness increase the risk of hamstring injury in elite football (soccer): a prospective cohort study. Br J Sports Med, 50(24), 1524-1535. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2015-095362
Timmins, R. G., Shield, A. J., Williams, M. D., Lorenzen, C., & Opar, D. A. (2015). Biceps
femoris long head architecture: a reliability and retrospective injury study. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 47(5), 905-913. doi:10.1249/MSS.0000000000000507
Uhorchak, J. M., Scoville, C. R., Williams, G. N., Arciero, R. A., St Pierre, P., & Taylor, D.
C. (2003). Risk factors associated with noncontact injury of the anterior cruciate ligament: a prospective four-year evaluation of 859 West Point cadets. Am J Sports Med, 31(6), 831-842. doi:10.1177/03635465030310061801
Vacek, P. M., Slauterbeck, J. R., Tourville, T. W., Sturnick, D. R., Holterman, L. A., Smith,
H. C., . . . Beynnon, B. D. (2016). Multivariate Analysis of the Risk Factors for First-Time Noncontact ACL Injury in High School and College Athletes: A Prospective Cohort Study With a Nested, Matched Case-Control Analysis. Am J Sports Med, 44(6), 1492-1501. doi:10.1177/0363546516634682
van Beijsterveldt, A. M., van de Port, I. G., Krist, M. R., Schmikli, S. L., Stubbe, J. H.,
Frederiks, J. E., & Backx, F. J. (2012). Effectiveness of an injury prevention programme for adult male amateur soccer players: a cluster-randomised controlled trial. Br J Sports Med, 46(16), 1114-1118. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2012-091277
Verrall, G. M., Kalairajah, Y., Slavotinek, J. P., & Spriggins, A. J. (2006). Assessment of
player performance following return to sport after hamstring muscle strain injury. J Sci Med Sport, 9(1-2), 87-90. doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2006.03.007
144
Verrall, G. M., Slavotinek, J. P., Barnes, P. G., & Fon, G. T. (2003). Diagnostic and prognostic value of clinical findings in 83 athletes with posterior thigh injury: comparison of clinical findings with magnetic resonance imaging documentation of hamstring muscle strain. Am J Sports Med, 31(6), 969-973. doi:10.1177/03635465030310063701
Verrall, G. M., Slavotinek, J. P., Barnes, P. G., Fon, G. T., & Spriggins, A. J. (2001). Clinical
risk factors for hamstring muscle strain injury: a prospective study with correlation of injury by magnetic resonance imaging. Br J Sports Med, 35(6), 435-439; discussion 440.
Walden, M., Atroshi, I., Magnusson, H., Wagner, P., & Hagglund, M. (2012). Prevention of
acute knee injuries in adolescent female football players: cluster randomised controlled trial. Bmj, 344, e3042. doi:10.1136/bmj.e3042
Walden, M., Hagglund, M., & Ekstrand, J. (2005). Injuries in Swedish elite football--a
prospective study on injury definitions, risk for injury and injury pattern during 2001. Scand J Med Sci Sports, 15(2), 118-125. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2004.00393.x
Walden, M., Hagglund, M., & Ekstrand, J. (2006). High risk of new knee injury in elite
Walden, M., Hagglund, M., Magnusson, H., & Ekstrand, J. (2016). ACL injuries in men's
professional football: a 15-year prospective study on time trends and return-to-play rates reveals only 65% of players still play at the top level 3 years after ACL rupture. Br J Sports Med, 50(12), 744-750. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2015-095952
Walden, M., Krosshaug, T., Bjorneboe, J., Andersen, T. E., Faul, O., & Hagglund, M. (2015).
Three distinct mechanisms predominate in non-contact anterior cruciate ligament injuries in male professional football players: a systematic video analysis of 39 cases. Br J Sports Med, 49(22), 1452-1460. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2014-094573
Warren, P., Gabbe, B. J., Schneider-Kolsky, M., & Bennell, K. L. (2010). Clinical predictors
of time to return to competition and of recurrence following hamstring strain in elite Australian footballers. Br J Sports Med, 44(6), 415-419. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2008.048181
145
Webster, K. E., & Feller, J. A. (2016). Exploring the High Reinjury Rate in Younger Patients Undergoing Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction. Am J Sports Med, 44(11), 2827-2832. doi:10.1177/0363546516651845
Webster, K. E., Feller, J. A., Kimp, A. J., & Whitehead, T. S. (2018). Revision Anterior
Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction Outcomes in Younger Patients: Medial Meniscal Pathology and High Rates of Return to Sport Are Associated With Third ACL Injuries. Am J Sports Med, 46(5), 1137-1142. doi:10.1177/0363546517751141
Webster, K. E., Feller, J. A., & Whitehead, T. S. (2017). Return to Sport following ACL
Reconstruction: The Australian Experience. In Rotatory Knee Instability (pp. 413-426): Springer.
Weiler, R., Monte-Colombo, M., Mitchell, A., & Haddad, F. (2015). Non-operative
management of a complete anterior cruciate ligament injury in an English Premier League football player with return to play in less than 8 weeks: applying common sense in the absence of evidence. BMJ Case Rep, 2015. doi:10.1136/bcr-2014-208012
West, R. V., & Harner, C. D. (2005). Graft selection in anterior cruciate ligament
reconstruction. J Am Acad Orthop Surg, 13(3), 197-207.
Wickiewicz, T. L. (1990). Meniscal injuries in the cruciate-deficient knee. Clin Sports Med,
9(3), 681-694.
Wilkerson, G. B., Colston, M. A., Short, N. I., Neal, K. L., Hoewischer, P. E., & Pixley, J. J.
(2004). Neuromuscular Changes in Female Collegiate Athletes Resulting From a Plyometric Jump-Training Program. J Athl Train, 39(1), 17-23.
Witvrouw, E., Danneels, L., Asselman, P., D'Have, T., & Cambier, D. (2003). Muscle
flexibility as a risk factor for developing muscle injuries in male professional soccer players - A prospective study. Am J Sports Med, 31(1), 41-46.
Woodley, S. J., & Mercer, S. R. (2005). Hamstring muscles: architecture and innervation.
Woods, C., Hawkins, R., Hulse, M., & Hodson, A. (2002). The Football Association Medical
Research Programme: an audit of injuries in professional football-analysis of preseason injuries. Br J Sports Med, 36(6), 436-441; discussion 441.
146
Woods, C., Hawkins, R. D., Maltby, S., Hulse, M., Thomas, A., Hodson, A., & Football
Association Medical Research, P. (2004). The Football Association Medical Research Programme: an audit of injuries in professional football--analysis of hamstring injuries. Br J Sports Med, 38(1), 36-41.
Yasuda, K., Tsujino, J., Ohkoshi, Y., Tanabe, Y., & Kaneda, K. (1995). Graft site morbidity
with autogenous semitendinosus and gracilis tendons. Am J Sports Med, 23(6), 706-714. doi:10.1177/036354659502300613
Yeung, S. S., Suen, A. M., & Yeung, E. W. (2009). A prospective cohort study of hamstring
injuries in competitive sprinters: preseason muscle imbalance as a possible risk factor. Br J Sports Med, 43(8), 589-594. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2008.056283
Yosmaoglu, H. B., Baltaci, G., Kaya, D., Ozer, H., & Atay, A. (2011). Comparison of
functional outcomes of two anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction methods with hamstring tendon graft. Acta Orthop Traumatol Turc, 45(4), 240-247. doi:10.3944/AOTT.2011.2402
Yu, B., Queen, R. M., Abbey, A. N., Liu, Y., Moorman, C. T., & Garrett, W. E. (2008).
Hamstring muscle kinematics and activation during overground sprinting. J Biomech, 41(15), 3121-3126. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2008.09.005
Zakas, A. (2006). Bilateral isokinetic peak torque of quadriceps and hamstring muscles in
professional soccer players with dominance on one or both two sides. J Sports Med Phys Fitness, 46(1), 28-35.
Zazulak, B. T., Hewett, T. E., Reeves, N. P., Goldberg, B., & Cholewicki, J. (2007). Deficits
in neuromuscular control of the trunk predict knee injury risk: a prospective biomechanical-epidemiologic study. Am J Sports Med, 35(7), 1123-1130. doi:10.1177/0363546507301585
Zebis, M. K., Andersen, L. L., Bencke, J., Kjaer, M., & Aagaard, P. (2009). Identification of
athletes at future risk of anterior cruciate ligament ruptures by neuromuscular screening. Am J Sports Med, 37(10), 1967-1973. doi:10.1177/0363546509335000
Zebis, M. K., Bencke, J., Andersen, L. L., Alkjaer, T., Suetta, C., Mortensen, P., . . . Aagaard,
P. (2011). Acute fatigue impairs neuromuscular activity of anterior cruciate ligament-
147
agonist muscles in female team handball players. Scand J Med Sci Sports, 21(6), 833-840. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2010.01052.x
Zebis, M. K., Bencke, J., Andersen, L. L., Dossing, S., Alkjaer, T., Magnusson, S. P., . . .
Aagaard, P. (2008). The effects of neuromuscular training on knee joint motor control during sidecutting in female elite soccer and handball players. Clin J Sport Med, 18(4), 329-337. doi:10.1097/JSM.0b013e31817f3e35
Zebis, M. K., Skotte, J., Andersen, C. H., Mortensen, P., Petersen, H. H., Viskaer, T. C., . . .
Andersen, L. L. (2013). Kettlebell swing targets semitendinosus and supine leg curl targets biceps femoris: an EMG study with rehabilitation implications. Br J Sports Med, 47(18), 1192-1198. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2011-090281
Zeng, C., Gao, S. G., Wei, J., Yang, T. B., Cheng, L., Luo, W., . . . Lei, G. H. (2013). The
influence of the intercondylar notch dimensions on injury of the anterior cruciate ligament: a meta-analysis. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc, 21(4), 804-815. doi:10.1007/s00167-012-2166-4
148
Appendices
Appendix A. Cardiovascular Questionnaire
CARDIOVASCULAR RISK FACTOR QUESTIONNAIRE
To be eligible to participate in the experiment you are required to complete the following
questionnaire which is designed to assess the risk of you experiencing any harm during the course of
the study. A full and honest disclosure of your medical history is vital for your own safety.
Name: ________________________________________________Date of Birth: ______________