AnN OVERVIEW OF HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT APPROACHES

AN OVERVIEW OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNINGAPPROACHES:By; Shida Mohamedi

Undergraduate student

TABLE OF CONTENTS

AN OVERVIEW OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING APPROACHES:INTRODUCTIONPgs.

Definition of planning…………………………………………..…...…...1 Definition of Educational planning…………………………………...

….1 Five key Educational planning questions……………………...

…..….….1 Definition and Concept of Approach……………..………………..

……..2

MAIN BODY HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENTAPPROACH (HRDA)………..…....3

Definition and Concept of HRDA………………………….……….3 The need for HRDA in educational

Planning…………....…….…....4 The arguments for HRDA in Educational

Planning…………….......5 The Implications of HRDA in Educational

Planning…………....….6 The Critics of HRDA………………………………………….…....6

SOCIAL DEMAND APPROACH (SDA)………………………...….……........7 Definition and Concept of SDA…………………….………...

….....7 The Implications of SDA in Educational

Planning……………........8 The Critics of SDA…………………………………………….…...9

MANPOWER APPROACH (MA)…………………………………………...….9 Definition and Concepts of MA…………………………………..…9 The needs for the application of MA in

Educational Planning….….10 Procedural stages for MA

projection…………………………...…..10 The implications of MA in Educational

Planning…………….....….11 The critics of MA……………………………………………..….…11

COST BENEFITS AND COST EFFECTIVE APPROACH (CBA&CEA)….12 Definition and Concepts of CBA………………………………….12 Steps for CBA projection………………….………………….……13 Definition and Concept of CEA………….………………………..14 Advantages to both CBA and CEA……………….……………….15 Critics to both CBA and CEA………………….………………….15

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

Adesina (1990) defines planning as a way of projecting our

intentions, that is, a method of deciding what we want to

accomplish. Ejiogu (1990) holds that to plan, means to

project, forecast, design or make or chart our course.

From these views, it can be summarized that planning refers

to the act of deciding in advance what is to be done, how

and when to do it, where and who is to do it in order to

achieve the goals or objectives of the system. For example,

when arrangements are made as to how many students are to be

in a class, how many classes will be needed to accommodate

all the available children seeking admission into our school

system, we say we have planned the educational system.

Educational planning is the application of rational,

systematic analysis to the process of educational

development with the aim of making education more effective

and efficient in responding to the needs and goals of its

students and society. (Philip H. Coombs, 1970).This process

of intelligently trying to organize education so as to

respond to the needs of its recipients is what can be termed

educational planning.

Planning is a continuous process, concerned not only with

where to go but with how to get there and by what best

route. Its work does not cease when a plan gets on paper and

has won approval. Planning, to be effective, must be

concerned with its own implementation.

Otherwise in educational planning, the following are the

five key planning questions;

What should be the priority objectives and

functions of the educational system and of each of

its sub-systems (including each level, each

institution, each grade, each course, and each

class)?

What are the best of the alternative possible ways

of pursuing these various objectives and

functions? (This involves a consideration of

alternative educational technologies, their

relative costs, time require- ments, practical

feasibility, educational effectiveness, etc.

How much of the nation’s (or community’s)

resources should be devoted to education at the

expense of other things?

Who should pay? How should the burden of

educational costs and sacrifices be distributed as

between the direct recipients of education and

society at large, and among different groups in

society

How should the total resources available to

education (whatever the amount may be) be

allocated among different levels, types and

components of the system (e.g. primary, secondary,

higher education ; technical, general education,

teachers’ salaries, building and equipment

textbooks, free meals, scholarships, etc.) ?

According to Gbadamosi (2005) the objectives of Educational

Planning must cut across various dimensions such as

political, legal, economic, social, cultural, demography,

scientific and technological.

The word approach according to Cambridge dictionary means “to

come near or nearer to something” or ”someone in space,

time, quality, or

amount”(dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british)

According to oxford dictionary, the word “approach” means “start to

deal with a situation or problem) in a certain way”.

Suru (2013) defined the word approach as a means and method

of dealing with and an course to be followed in

accomplishing an activity.

Therefore approach is the process of focusing a certain

problem in a certain way.

In education planning, an approach is a basis in which

methods of planning are selected and on which implementation

techniques if the plans are basis.

Although education is recognized as a form of investment in

human and social capital that yield economic benefits and

contributes to a country’s future development by increasing

productivity capacity of the people. In situation of

scarcity of resources, planners must face conflicting

priority between education investment and investment in

other social services. For example a planner may face

competing priority of investment between education and

health service. Under this situation one need to make a

better choice between these alternatives of investment.

Therefore expenditure on education should be justified in

relation to potential contribution of education to economic

growth and future social benefits. Now the questions are,

how does education compare with other forms of national

investment? Which makes the greater contribution to the

future economic growth? Investment in human capital or

investment in physical capital? Are all forms of education

equally productive? Is education a profitable form of

investment for a individual as well as for the society? If

so do the students and pupils or their families take this

into account when making educational and occupational

choices? To respond to these questions planners may justify

the decisions to invest in education sector base in one of

the following four major types of educational planning

approaches:-

Human resource development approach;

Leonard Nadler from George Washington University is regarded

the father of Human Resource Development. He is the first to

write about this field and encourage a systematic approach

to learning within organizations. In the first edition of

his 1970 book, Developing Human Resources, Nadler explains

that the function of HRD is to ensure an organization

develops a learning culture and a learning strategy to

achieve its mission and goals. In essence this is still

accepted today.

Human Resource Development is a new field that only began

emerging as a discipline about thirty years ago. Today in

many large organizations we have HRD managers that are

managers who manage the learning of employees within

organizations.

Harbisou, (1973) argued that human development approach is

the process of building the knowledge, skills, the working

ability and the innate capacities of all people in a

society. He continue by saying that capital and natural

resources are passive factors of production, while human

beings are the active agents who accumulates capital,

exploit natural resources, build social economic and

political organization and carry forward national

development, that means human resources contribute the

ultimate basis of the wealth of nation.

Human resources development is, therefore, regarded as

facilitating the development of national human capacities to

achieve sustainable, inclusive, equitable development and,

at the same time, enhance well-being of individuals.

A comprehensive, cross-sector and integrated human resources

development approach that is sensitive to gender

considerations and attuned to specific needs of vulnerable

population should be adopted, incorporating multiple vital

areas, such as population, health, nutrition, water,

sanitation, housing, communications, education and training,

science and technology, and employment.

In education planning the need of the human resource

development are as follows:

Employment-Unemployment Situation; though in general the

number of educated unemployment is on the rise, there is

acute shortage for a variety of skills. This emphasis is the

need for more effective recruitment and retaining people.

Technological Change; The myriad changes in production

technologies, marketing methods and management techniques

have been extensive and rapid. Their effect has been

profound on the job contents and job contexts. These changes

cause problems relating to redundancies, retaining and

redeployment.

Organizational Change; In the turbulence environment marked

by cyclical fluctuations and discontinuities, the nature and

pace of changes in organizational environment, activities

and structures affect manpower requirements and require

strategic considerations.

Demographic Change; The changing profile of the work force

in terms of age, sex, literacy, technical inputs and social

background has implications for HRP.

Skill Shortage; Unemployment does not mean that the labor

market is a buyer’s market. Organizations generally become

more complex and require a wide range of specialist skills

that are rare and scare. Problems arise when such employees

leave.

Otherwise human resource development has the following

arguments to educational planning:

For any economic growth and development to occur, there

must be investment to education which may increase

efficiency of technology because high technology

results in increased production.

The skills and the motivations for productive behavior

in the use and application of technology are imparted

through formal education

An investment in education is an investment in the

productivity of the population; therefore education is

major component of human resource increased production.

The implications of human resource development approach in

educational planning:

Educational planning using human resource development

approach is directed towards providing education to all

members of the society.

Education provided should be the one that provide

relevant knowledge, skills and altitudes required by

the population for its socio-economic development.

The rationale is that government should create public

education and declare free compulsory education in the

welfare of a state.

Therefore, with the above implication, decision to plan

education system can be made on the basis of human resource

development for economic and social development.

The criticisms against application of human resource

development approach, argue that although investment in

education promotes socio-economic development but;

Education tends to create a docile and adaptive

workforce who serves the needs of the existing power

structure of the society and might become

detrimental to the continued economic growth of the

society, therefore education tends to create

submissive and obedient individuals who are

subjected to passing examination only to serve the

existing power relationship.

There is a growing number of unemployed educated

people that is to say the number of unemployed

educated is much more than uneducated unemployed.

Thus there is large number of educated graduate

chasing jobs because of imperfection of the labor

market while few number of uneducated chasing for

jobs in the labor market.

Education has created rural-urban migration of the

educated rural population instead of improving

productivity in the rural setting. It means that

less educated youths have remained in the rural

areas and they more productive compared to more

educated youths who are running away from the

productive land to seek new jobs in the urban

setting.

Human resource development approach neglected

factors such as job satisfaction and reward

structures for the workers. It means that apart from

education, other factors such as job satisfaction

and reward structure tend to contribute equal to

workers productivity in working environment.

What is therefore required are integrated investment

policies, because is positive evidence suggesting that

education interacting with other factors, produce due impact

of productivity, or attitudes in increased productivity.

The social demand approach;

Social demand approach was used in the Robbins Committee

Report on Higher Education in Britain. In India too, this

approach is a popular one while opening new schools and

colleges.

Campbell (2002) defines social demand approach as a service

demanded by the community just like any other goods and

services and regards educational planning as a process of

forecasting demands and providing sufficient places to

satisfy the demands.

It is most commonly used to mean the aggregate ‘popular’

demand for education, that is, the sum total of individual

demands for education at a given place and time under

prevailing cultural, political and economic circumstances.

If there are fewer classrooms and places than there are

serious candidates to occupy them, one can say that social

demand exceeds supply. There is good evidence of a demand-

supply gap when educational authorities and political

leaders receive mount in complaints from irate parents whose

children cannot get into school.

Social demand approach sees education as a public social

service a necessity and inalienable right of all citizens

who desire it and consider education as an obligation and

not as privilege.

On the other hand the implication of social demand approach

in education planning is as follows:

It provide the educational planner with a precise

target of the number of places to be provided, but

only by assuming that a lot of factors remain

constant that is for stance the standard of entry

remain constant that the price of education in terms

of level of fees and scholarship.

It lead to projection of the expected demand of

education at various level giving opportunity every

school age children to access education service

The emphasis on social demands tends to screen and

obscure the elements of costs embedded in expansion

of educational opportunities. It means that

government will provide free education at primary

level because large community is unable to burden

that responsibility.

Encourages mass education and mass literacy.

It is an instrument for building egalitarian

societies.

It democratizes educational opportunities in the

society.

Adesina, (1991) observed that policy makers and

governments find the social demand approach easy to

defend since the philosophy of the approach is the

satisfaction of the educational needs of the people.

According to Musaazi (1985), the social demand

approach can show the planner the resources that can

be allocated to each level of education as long as

certain existing trends continue and if private

demand is to be satisfied.

Although social demand approach used to plan for educational

expansion particularly in developing countries where

relevant data to justify the application for human resource

development approach are scanty, there are criticisms which

can be reveled against the approach. Some of the criticisms

are as follows:

it ignores the larger national problem of resource

allocation and implicitly assumes that no matter how

many resources go to education this is their best use

for national development as a whole;

it ignores the character and pattern of manpower needed

by the economy and can readily result in producing too

many of some types and not enough of others.

it tends to over-stimulate popular demand, to

underestimate costs, and to lead to a thin spreading of

resources over too many students, thereby reducing

quality and effectiveness to the point where education

becomes a dubious investment.

Community demand for education can easily be

manipulated by the public authority that is the level

of demand can be controlled by the factors like system

of financing education, variation in the shape of the

education structure and the situation of the labor

market.

It may result into conservative approach to the process

of educational planning because in a situation of rapid

expansion lead to the falling of education standards

that means there will be large number of school

graduates in the labor market, and result to mass

unemployment.

The fact that it does not show whether there is an

alternative optimum allocation of resources.”

The social demand approach ignores the types and kind

of manpower that is needed by the economy and that

which can readily result in the production of too many

people skilled in one area and not enough in another.

For example, with the UPE, too many people with general

education of the level of primary education were

produced even though much manpower was required in

specialized fields such as medicine, engineering etc.

The social demand approach tends to over-estimate

popular demand and to underestimate costs. Few

countries are in position to afford the cost of

providing education to all and sundry.

Mass education may tend to give rise to low quality

education.

The approach is not usually cost effective as it tends

to require a large chunk of the National budget.

Fails to consider the vacancies and capacity of the

labor market (occupational and industrial) to absorb

the graduates of the educational system.

Never the less, irrespective of criticism against this

approach, planning for expansion of education system in most

developing countries is justified on the increased social

demand for education.

The manpower approach

The term “Manpower” denotes the attempt to develop a

nation’s human resources to meet the demands of her economy.

The Manpower requirements approach is applied purposely to

aspects of skilled manpower in the labor force. This

approach emphasizes the need for planners to reflect on the

manpower needed areas of the society using this as a basis

for planning the educational system. (Nwankwo, 1981,

Thompson, 1981).

Economic growth, however, requires not only physical

resources and facilities but also human resources to

organize and use them. Thus the development of human

resources

through the educational system is an important pre-requisite

for economic growth and a

good investment of scarce resources, provided the pattern

and quality of educational output is geared to the economy’s

manpower needs. Education planning should be skill based, expected man

power. Based on demand - supply principle.

Manpower approach is an educational planning approach that

has it that planning should consider human resource in all

fields required for country. Education planning should be

skilled based, expected man power, Based on demand supply

principle, need based.

The focus of this approach is to forecast the manpower needs

of economy. This is to say that it stresses output from the

educational system to meet the manpower needs at some future

date.

The application of the manpower planning approach in

educational planning depends on these factors:

An appraisal and analysis of the existing employment

conditions and the system of education,

Planning the system of education vis-à-vis the

manpower needs of the economy.

Using the financial resources (which are limited) in

an optimum way so as to fulfill the demands of the

employment sector without incurring wastage on

account of unemployment.

Making an appraisal of the number of students

enrolled, the number of existing teachers and their

qualifications, enrolment in teacher education

institutions (availability of future teachers), as

well as the existing number of school buildings,

equipments, infrastructure and other facilities.

The requirements of the employers regarding

occupational and/ or professional qualifications for

employees, their levels of training and abilities

should also be assessed.

The manpower planning approach takes note of the fact that

the teaching profession requires approximately 60% of the

highly qualified human resources of a country which competes

with the demand for manpower in other economic sectors.

Man power Requirement approach has procedural stages as

follows (Manpower projection):

A projection is made on the level of output for the

target year

Projection of the expected level of output for

workers are prepared

First and second stage are combined and used in the

third stage of project the total number of workers

required

The occupational composition in the expected labor

force is derived, and

The finally, the educational level appropriate to

each occupation (available job opportunities) are

identified.

The implications of manpower demand approach are as follows:

The approach ensures that only the right quantity and

caliber of manpower needed for national development are

produced.

The approach is economic oriented by minimizing waste

of resources.

It emphasizes the acquisition of appropriate

educational qualification as pre requisite for

employment.

It ensures high quality education

Manpower could usefully call attention to extreme gaps

and imbalances in the education output pattern that

need remedy. 2. It helps to reduce the labor cost as

excess staff can be identified and thereby overstaffing

can be avoided.

It gives educators useful guidance on ho roughly

educational qualifications of the labor force ought to

be developed in the future. That is, the relative

proportion of people who would have primary education,

secondary education and various amount of post-

secondary training.

Higher productivity- productivity level increases when

resources are utilized in best possible manner. Higher

productivity is the result of minimum wastage of time,

money, efforts and energies. This is possible through

the staffing and its related activities ( Performance

appraisal, training and development, remuneration)

There are limitations in the application of the man power

requirements approach. According to Okeke, B.S. (1989),

those limitations are:

Give educational planners a limited guidance. This

is because it hasn’t said anything about primary

education yet primary education is the bedrock of

any education.

Manpower requirements approach ignores the

principles of cost-benefit techniques. That is, it

does not compare the cost of the manpower to be

produced and the benefits to be divided from such

manpower.

The manpower requirements approach ignores social

demands for education. That is, it does not consider

the aggregate popular demand for education. Rather,

it merely considers the shortage of manpower which

needed to be provided.

This approach is more relevant in the higher levels

of education, since it tends to neglect primary

school level.

It takes time to produce results (i.e. manpower

production)

It neglects other skill areas not immediately

required by the economy.

It gave the educational planners only limited

guidance. It had nothing to say about primary

education (which was not considered to be ‘work

connected’) though by implication it suggested

curbing the expansion of primary education until the

nation got richer.

The employment classifications and manpower ratios

(e.g. the desirable ratio of engineers to

technicians, doctors to nurses) used in most

manpower studies in developing countries, as well as

the assumed educational qualifications corresponding

to each category of job, were usually borrowed from

industrialized economies and did not fit the

realities of less developed ones. The actual work of

a building trades worker or agricultural specialist

or health officer in Africa or Asia, for example,

was likely to be quite different.

Another difficulty was the impossibility of making

reliable forecasts of manpower requirements far

enough ahead to be of real value to educational

planning, because of the myriad economic,

technological and other uncertainties involved.

Cost benefits and cost effectiveness approach;

Cost benefit, Historically the concept of cost benefit

approach date back to 1848 article by Jules Dupuit, and the

French economist and late was formalized in subsequent work

by Alfred Marshall.

Cost benefit approach is a systematic approach to estimating

the strength and weakness of alternative that justify

transaction activities or functional requirement for a

business (Boardman N.E 2006).

In that way cost benefit approach refer to an approach of

evaluation tool that is designed to assist choosing among

alternative course of an action or polices when a resources

is limited.

The purpose of cost benefit analysis is to provide a guide

for rational resources allocation by assessing the future

benefit of an investment against the cost incurred in the

present. For educational planners, this type of analysis

made difficult by the non economic cost and benefit in

education and also by the extensive time-lag that exist

between educational investment and realized benefits. In

developing countries where resources are limited and

investment demand are greater, cost analysis provides a

useful framework for comparing returns from educational

investment with those fro other types of investment.

The implication of cost benefit approach is that the

approach uses economic tools that involve comparing costs

and benefits of education. Planning education using the

approach, one has to think education in terms of their cost

and benefit. A program will be selected if benefit exceeds

cost (Dr. Babyegeya, 2002)

The steps that comprise a generic cost benefit analysis in

organization especially in educational planning are as

follows:

To list alternative projects or program which may be

running in the education planning, example the list

of course or subject which may be taught in the

school or university

To list stakeholders who are the programs may be

running by them, here are the peoples who will be

involved so as to achieve the intended goals of the

institution. Example in education planning those

people can be society around teachers and students.

To select measurement and measure all cost benefit

element in this stage the measurement is very

necessary simply because it help to determine if the

program run in the progress.

To predict outcome of cost and benefit over relevant

time period some as to be able to overcome greater

loss to the future

To convert all costs and benefit into a common

currency, this can help to avoid the changes of the

value of the asset invested if in the future may

occur inflation

To apply discount rate. It is one of the necessary

step during education planning because help in

serving of the capital for other alternative use.

To calculate net present value of the project

option, this is also the necessary step in education

planning so as to determine the real value of the

project invested.

The advantage of the cost benefit approach in education

planning was that it help to predict whether the benefit of

a policy out weight its cost and by how much relative to

other alternative. It identifies choice that increases

welfare from utilization perspective in term of economic

efficiency and social welfare.

Therefore cost benefit approaches in education have been

used in case where the education outcomes are market

oriented such as in vocational education or in consideration

of higher income produced by more or better education.

Cost effectiveness, The history of cost effectiveness was

traced back in the 1950’s by the United States department of

defense as a device for adjusting among the demands of the

various branches of the armed service for the increasing the

cost of the weapon systems with different levels of

performance and overlapping missions (Hitch and McKean

1960). By the 1960 it has become widely used as a tool for

analyzing the efficiency of alternative government programs

outside of the military, although its applications to

educational decisions have been made slower to develop

indeed. In the early 1990’s the use of the tool in

considering educational resources allocation is restricted

largely to the united states and has not emerged decision

approach to resource allocation in other countries.

Therefore cost effectiveness approach is the approach of the

evolution tool that is designed to assist in choosing among

alternatives courses of action or policies when resources

are limited (Woodhall, 1992). Most of educational decisions

face cons trance in the availability of budgetary and other

resources, therefore limited evaluation to the educational

consequences of alternative alone without considering their

cost provides an inadequate basis for decision making. Some

alternative may be more costing than other for some result

meaning that society must sacrifice more resources to obtain

a given end. It is desirable to choose that alternative that

are east cost for reaching particular objectives or that

have the largest impact per unit of the cost

The purpose of cost effectiveness analysis in education is

to ascertain which program or combination of program can

achieve particular objectives at the lowest cost. The

underline assumption is that different alternatives are

associated with different costs and different educational

results. By choosing those with the least cost for the given

outcome, society can use its resource more effectively.

Those resources that are served through using more cost

effective approaches can be devoted to expanding program or

to other important educational and social endeavors.

The following are the advantages of to both cost benefit and

cost effectiveness approaches to educational planners:

Help to choose the best plan or program for

implementation from among the alternative plans or

programs

Help to select project for implementation on the

comparison between the cost incurred and anticipated

benefits or effectiveness.

Help to direct the scarce resources and activity toward

the government highest priorities areas

Provide strategic to achieve value for money in

delivering better education services to the community.

Critics to cost analysis for educational planning:-

Giving differential reflect differences in the natural

ability, motivation, social background, sex occupation

and non formal education, workers as well as

differences in education. Therefore earring

differential can not be used as the measure of the pure

benefit of education.

Education does not make workers more productive but

simply act as a filter or screening device that enable

employer to identify those with superior natural

ability. Earning differential therefore reflect this

screening or certification function of education and

employers tend to demand higher and higher educational

qualifications which leads to a wastage of resources.

Earning differentials do not adequately measure

differences in the productivity if workers due to

imperfection in the labor markets. So the difference in

eanings does not provide a measure of direct economic

benefits of education because often times, more

qualifications are likely to enhance the rate of

unemployment due to the imperfection of labor market.

Besides of the direct benefits education generates

indirect or spillover benefits education that is to say

education may raise the productivity of the people

other than the educated worker him or her self and

those benefits are not shown up in the earning

differentials. Nor are non-economic benefits reflected

in earnings differentials.

Rate-of-return calculations assumes full employment of

educated workers where as many developing countries are

experiencing unemployment of the university graduates

and secondary leavers.

This implies a systematic comparison of the magnitude of the

cost and benefit of some form of investment in order to

access its economic profitability

Conclusively, Educational planner must look, for instance,

at the state of the society, where it wants to go, and what

it will require, the nature of the students, their needs,

aspirations and practical prospects, the state of knowledge

itself and the state of the educational art and technology,

the innate ability of the educational system to examine

itself critically and to take intelligent action to improve

its own performance. The major considerations for

educational planning in any country includes; educational

status and the head count, supply and demand of teachers,

educational financing, school buildings, Curriculum

development, educational materials and expansion models.

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