animal 497 animal - Mark Daviesdavies-linguistics.byu.edu/ling485/for_class/Chapter_2... · Web view... fiction, or non-fiction registers. In each case, the word is in the top ten
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12. Professions (profesión 1206-F) TOP WORDS # 1-5000
autor 538-M/F writer; medico 564-M/F doctor; profesor 621-M/F professor, teacher; jefe 761-M/F boss, manager; doctor 778-M/F doctor; director 816-M/F director, manager; artista 928-C artist; maestro 961-
M teacher (m); escritor 1011-M/F writer; policía 1017-C police officer; estudiante 1019-C student; dueño 1093-M owner, landlord (m); empleado 1104-M/F employee; político 1237-M/F politician; secretario 1245-M/F secretary; juez 1259-M/F judge; poeta 1262-C poet; periodista 1464-C journalist; ministro 1519-M/F minister, secretary; soldado 1568-M/F soldier; abogado 1680-M/F lawyer; militar 1697-
M/F soldier, military person; actor 1705-M actor; trabajador 1714-M/F worker, laborer; ingeniero 1761-
Comments: Psychologists and linguists have noted that the more basic color distinctions
(light/dark; white/black) and the primary colors (red, yellow, and blue) are lexicalized
more frequently in languages of the world than secondary colors like orange or purple.
The frequency data for these color terms in Spanish shows the same tendency.
17. Opposites TOP 50 WORDS # 1-8000
más 24 more / menos 98 lessprimero 60 first / último 139 lastgrande 62 large / pequeño 184 smallmucho 45 many / poco 74 fewnuevo 99 new / viejo 281 oldbueno 115 good / malo 275 badmejor 121 better / peor 1965 worsemayor 138 older / menor 334 youngerposible 225 possible / imposible 592
impossible
largo 175 long / corto 537 shortalto 185 tall / bajo 412 lowblanco 250 white / negro 317 blackverdadero 420 true / falso 1140 falseabierto 439 open / cerrado 680 closedlleno 508 full / vacío 1532 emptyfácil 514 easy / difícil 314 difficultrico 627 rich / pobre 373 poor
Comments: In nearly every case, the positive term (más, largo, lleno) is more common
than the “negative” term (menos, corto, vacío). The two exceptions are difícil/fácil and
The following lists show the adjectives that occur with a much higher frequency than
would be expected in either the spoken, fiction, or non-fiction registers. In each case, the
word is in the top ten percent of words for that register, in terms of its relative frequency
to the other two registers.
Spoken: ese 32 that; mucho 45 many, much; mi 49 my; bueno 115 good; importante 207 important; claro 259 clear; bastante 270 rather, quite a bit; social 280 social; difícil 314 difficult; tu 349 your (sg/+fam); económico 426 economic; supuesto 511 por s.: of course; profesional 640
Comments: As might be expected, the adjectives from fiction texts tend to provide
information on physical appearance, personality, and emotions. Adjectives in non-fiction
texts tend to refer to more properties of more abstract nouns. The adjectives in spoken
texts that are more common vis a vis the other registers tend to express very basic notions
(ese that, mucho much/many).
22. Verbs of movement (go from A to B) TOP 40 WORDS # 1-8000
ir 30 to go; (pasar) 67 to pass; salir 111 to go out; entrar 179 to enter; caer 245 to fall; correr 332 to run; mover 402 to move, incite; subir 443 to go up, on; andar 536 to walk; bajar 569 to come down; avanzar 618 to advance; viajar 790 to travel; conducir 868 to lead, drive; manejar 916 to drive, handle; caminar 919 to walk; saltar 1071 to jump, leap; marchar 1203 to go, walk, march; trasladar 1219 to move, transfer; volar 1376 to fly; apartar 1505 to move away, separate; huir 1574 to flee, run away (from); descender 1645 to descend; desplazar 1771 to move, shift, replace; circular 1822 to circulate, go around, flow; pasear 1985 to go for a walk; tropezar 2907 to trip, stumble; nadar 3050 to swim; acelerar 3053 to accelerate, speed (up); rodar 3179 to roll, run, scatter; navegar 3375 to navigate, sail; explorar 3595 to explore; deslizar 3651 to slide, glide, slip; trepar 4116 to climb; transitar 4821 to roam, go by; irrumpir 4994 to burst in, raid; vagar 5320 to wander (about); resbalar 5490 to slip, slide; rondar 5975 to hover, patrol; deambular 6483 to roam, wander; brincar 7761 to leap; revolotear 7814 to flutter, hover
23. Verbs of communication TOP WORDS # 1-10,000
decir 28 to tell, say; hablar 92 to speak, talk; contar 155 to tell, count; explicar 316 to explain; proponer 500 to propose; expresar 660 to express; anunciar 730 to announce, advertise; comentar 742 to comment on; discutir 859 to argue, discuss; mencionar 905 to mention, cite; pronunciar 944 to pronounce; afirmar 978 to declare, assent; aclarar 1133 to clarify, clear up; declarar 1136 to declare, testify; nombrar 1147 to name, appoint; reclamar 1507 to demand, require; gritar 1597 to shout; criticar 1849 to criticize, gossip; protestar 2288 to protest, object; conversar 2507 to converse; rezar 2847 to pray; rogar 3160 to pray, ask, implore; recitar 3594 to recite; charlar 3671 to chat, talk; alegar 3836 to allege; articular 4101 to articulate; invocar 4252 to invoke; dialogar 4883 to confer, talk; murmurar 5372 to murmur; exclamar 5522 to exclaim; clamar 5660 to cry, clamor; susurrar 6352 to whisper; suplicar 6354 to plead, beg; chillar 6921 to shriek, scream; orar 7384 to pray; gruñir 7824 to grunt, grumble; aullar 7955 to howl, yell; enunciar 8073 to enunciate; mascullar 9401 to mutter, grumble; implorar 9767 to implore, beg; platicar 9862 to chat, converse; cuchichear 9883 to whisper, mutter; vociferar 9944 to proclaim, blare
24. Use of the “reflexive marker” se
Spanish [se] has a wide range of uses, including the true reflexive (Juan se mató “John
killed himself”), replacing other objects (Juan se levantó “John got up” vs. Juan lo
levantó “John picked him up”), use with verbs of movement (Juan se cayó “John fell
down”), lexicalized se (Juan se jactaba “John was boasting”), impersonal (se vive bien
en México “one lives well in Mexico”), passive (se vendieron tres coches “three cars
were sold”), and other suppression of subjects (se hundió el barco “the boat sank” vs. los
piratas hundieron el barco “the pirates sank the boat”), among others. In nearly all cases,
se “focuses” in on a particular participant, to the suppression or exclusion of others.
Mastering the range of uses of se often presents a real problem for language learners.
The following lists provide an overview of which verbs occur with se. The first list
contains the most frequent verbs that occur with se in 100% of the cases, and nearly all of
these are outside of the “top 5000” list. The second list is limited to just those verbs in
the top 5000 list that have the highest percentage of occurrence with se. To round out the
discussion, the final list shows those verbs that never occur with se, beginning with the
most frequent.
All se (explanation: number of cases with se)[TOP 15 VERBS] fotografiar 137 to have a picture taken; aliar 106 to become allied with; obstinar 93 to persist in; empecinar 77 to become stubborn; exceptuar 71 to be excluded; sobreponer 71 to prevail; fugar 61 to flee; avenir 55 to agree to; santiguar 51 to cross oneself; legalizar 46 to be legalized; jactar 46 to brag; eslabonar 45 to be linked together; turnar 45 to take turns; columpiar 44 to seesaw; preciar 42 to be appraisedHigh percentage with se (explanation: % se Spanish WORD # English)[TOP 25 VERBS] 0.99 apoderar 3421 to take power; 0.97 quejar 1530 to complain; 0.96 refugiar 3603 to take refuge; 0.96 percatar 4826 to become aware; 0.95 arrepentir 3528 to regret; 0.92 extinguir 3616 to extinguish; 0.92 adentrar 4721 to get inside; 0.92 atrever 1276 to dare; 0.91 enterar 1543 to find out; 0.90 esforzar 2823 to exert oneself; 0.90 empeñar 1998 to struggle for; 0.89 basar 1430 to base up on; 0.88 resignar 4878 to resign; 0.87 desenvolver 3740 to prosper; 0.87 referir 409 to refer (to); 0.87 deslizar 3651
to slip; 0.86 interponer 4229 to get in the way; 0.85 internar 4899 to penetrate; 0.85 burlar 3047 to mock; 0.84 acostar 3077 to go to bed; 0.84 derrumbar 3544 to knock down; 0.84 aproximar 2070 to come near; 0.84 equivocar 1457 to be wrong; 0.83 inscribir 3993 to register; 0.83 colar 4237 to slip in; 0.83
No se: existir 177 to exist; surgir 553 to arise; consistir 688 to consist of; durar 812 to last; permanecer 821 to remain; transcurrir 1579 to take place; constar 1655 to comprise; colaborar 1943
to collaborate; provenir 1958 to come from; protestar 2288 to protest; estallar 2401 to explode; residir 2764 to reside; derrotar 2951 to defeat; sobrar 2978 to be left over; brotar 2979 to sprout
25. Preterit / imperfect TOP 50 WORDS # 1-8000
Unlike English, Spanish has a morphological distinction between two “simple” past
tenses. The preterit indicates completed actions (María se fue “Mary left”, Jorge lo
compró “George bought it”), while the imperfect refers to an internal point in the action
(Susana miraba[IMPF] la tele cuando lo vio[PRET] “Susan was watching TV when she saw
him”) or habitual actions in the past (siempre íbamos a la playa “we always used to go to
the beach”).
The meaning of the verb is also important. Some verbs refer to actions that naturally
have a clear, sudden endpoint (“to close, die, fall”) while others refer more to actions or
states without clear endpoints (“to believe, to know, to have”) or that refer to naturally
repeated actions (“to breathe, to beat [a heart]”).
The following lists show which verbs most commonly occur in the preterit, in the
imperfect, and which are evenly distributed between the two.
Highly preterite (explanation: % preterite Spanish WORD# English)1.00 fracasar 2278 to fail; 1.00 contratar 2419 to contract; 1.00 enriquecer 2682 to enrich ; 1.00 extinguir 3617 to extinguish; 1.00 mudar 3689 to move; 1.00 concretar 2840 to materialize, fulfill; 1.00 redactar 2871
to edit; 1.00 reiterar 2901 to reiterate; 1.00 diseñar 2911 to design; 1.00 asesinar 3353 to murder; 1.00 emigrar 3851 to emigrate; 1.00 embarcar 3598 to load; 1.00 adherir 4891 to attach; 0.99 entrar 179 to enter; 0.97 conquistar 2359 to conquer; 0.96 derrotar 2952 to defeat; 0.94 heredar 2556 to inherit; 0.94 bautizar 3187 to baptize; 0.94 fundar 1117 to found; 0.94 decidir 381 to decide; 0.93 consolidar 4377 to consolidate; 0.93 modificar 1759 to modify; 0.93 perfeccionar 3367 to perfect; 0.93 reanudar 3687 to resume; 0.93 reponer 3424 to replaceHighly imperfect (explanation: % imperfect Spanish WORD# English)1.00 soler 487 to be accustomed to; 1.00 depender 673 to depend on; 1.00 constar 1655 to comprise; 1.00 desconocer 1662 to not know; 1.00 vigilar 2248 to watch over; 1.00 garantizar 2346 to guarantee; 1.00 charlar 3672 to chat; 1.00 equivaler 3676 to be equivalent; 1.00 adorar 3125 to worship; 1.00 latir 4380 to beat (heart); 1.00 flotar 2968 to float; 1.00 fluir 3351 to flow; 1.00 filtrar 3782 to filter; 1.00 reposar 4633 to rest; 1.00 ostentar 4255 to show off; 1.00 reinar 4055 to reign; 1.00 sudar 4620 to sweat; 0.97 contrastar 3735 to contrast with; 0.95 complacer 3824 to satisfy; 0.94 presidir 3021 to preside over; 0.94 albergar 3823 to harbor; 0.93 haber 11 to have (+Ved); 0.93 lucir 2742 to shine; 0.93 adornar 4180 to adorn; 0.92 poseer 1005 to possessApprox. half preterite, half imperfect (explanation: % imperfect Spanish WORD # English):0.59 ir to go 30; 0.58 creer to believe 91; 0.60 hablar to speak 92; 0.50 llevar to carry 93; 0.49 seguir to
follow 97; 0.54 llamar to (be) name(d) 104; 0.51 venir to come 105; 0.55 conocer to know (someone or place) 124; 0.48 sentir to feel 131; 0.43 mirar to look at 142; 0.44 contar to tell, count 155; 0.51 buscar to look for 173; 0.55 entender to understand 203; 0.54 recordar to remind 215; 0.44 permitir to allow 220; 0.49 servir to serve 226; 0.43 mantener to maintain 234; 0.50 resultar to turn out 238; 0.40 leer to read 244; 0.47 formar to form 287; 0.40 traer to bring 289; 0.44 suponer to suppose 305; 0.42 tocar to touch, play 325; 0.50 correr to run 332; 0.43 utilizar to use 338
26. Subjunctive triggers
Spanish has two “moods” of the verb. As opposed to the indicative, the Spanish
subjunctive (now moribund in English) refers to events or states whose reality is either
negated or uncertain. Examples would be quiero que lo compre “I want him to buy it”,
dudo que lo compre “I doubt that he’ll buy it”, or busco alguien que lo compre “I’m
looking for someone who buys it”. In all cases, it is uncertain whether someone actually
buys it, and the verb comprar “to buy” is in the subjunctive.
In addition to some conjunctions and adverbs (para que “so that”, antes (de) que
“before”, etc.), certain classes of verbs and adjectives tend to serve as “triggers” for the
subjunctive. These include verbs of doubt, desire, force, and emotional reaction, as well
as adjectives expressing opinion, as opposed to fact. The following two lists show the
most common triggers for the subjunctive, where the subjunctive occurs in the three word
frame [trigger + que + subjunctive verb]. In all case, the data refers to [ # as trigger Spanish
WORD# English ]. For example, the first entry shows that querer “to want”, which is word #
57 in our list, is a trigger for the subjunctive in 591 cases.
The following lists show the verbs that occur with a much higher frequency than would
be expected in either the spoken, fiction, or non-fiction registers. In each case, the word
is in the top ten percent of words for that register, in terms of its relative frequency to the
other two registers.
Spoken: ser 8 to be; estar 17 to be; tener 18 to have; decir 28 to tell, say; ir 30 to go; ver 37 to see; saber 46 to know (a fact); querer 57 to want, love; creer 91 to believe; hablar 92 to talk; venir 105 to come; mirar 142 to look at; trabajar 183 to work; entender 203 to understand; oír 263 to hear; tocar 325 to touch; estudiar 328 to study; gustar 353 to be pleasing to; valer 387 to be worth; fijar 407 to fix, set; dedicar 415 to dedicate; comprar 437 to buy; interesar 448 to interest; imaginar 486 to imagine; enseñar 524 to teachFiction: sonreír 2732 to smile; oler 3037 to smell; acostar 3078 to put/go to bed; clavar 3147 to nail; temblar 3256 to shake; calmar 3332 to calm; disimular 3365 to pretend; odiar 3445 to hate; morder 3589 to bite; amanecer 3592 to dawn; aguardar 3599 to await; deslizar 3652 to slide; estirar 3653 to stretch; besar 3697 to kiss; consolar 3706 to console; interrogar 3747 to interrogate; revolver 3753 to stir, mix; mojar 3767 to dampen; coser 3800 to sew; almorzar 3821 to have lunch; tranquilizar 3849 to calm down; meditar 3902 to meditate; reprochar 3983 to reproach; alumbrar 3986 to illuminate; reventar 4010 to burstNon-fiction: reemplazar 3199 to replace; regir 3223 to rule; culminar 3277 to culminate; subrayar 3397 to highlight; asentar 3495 to settle; oscilar 3579 to oscillate; sobrepasar 3621 to excel; clasificar 3643 to sort; equivaler 3676 to be equivalent; fomentar 3677 to promote; contrastar 3735 to contrast with; albergar 3823 to harbor; propiciar 3885 to foster; desencadenar 3934 to unleash; ilustrar 3942 to illustrate; incrementar 3965 to increase; dotar 3999 to endow; perdurar 4086 to endure; debilitar 4113 to weaken; igualar 4115 to equate; regular 4132 to regulate; argumentar 4140 to argue; agravar 4227 to aggravate; configurar 4258 to configure; prevalecer 4266 to prevail
Comments: The words from the spoken register represent some of the most common
verbs in Spanish. This is because verbs are in general more common in conversation,
which tends to express feelings and opinions more than presenting information about
objects and processes. The verbs from fiction texts tend to express concrete actions,
whereas those in non-fiction tend to express relationships between more abstract
concepts.
28. Adverbs – differences across registers
The following lists show the adverbs that occur with a much higher frequency than would
be expected in either the spoken, fiction, or non-fiction registers. In each case, the word
is in the top ten percent of adverbs for that register, in terms of its relative frequency to
the other two registers.
Spoken: no 10 no; ya 36 already, still; muy 42 very; sí 70 yes; bien 73 well; entonces 76 so, then ; ahora 85 now; cómo 126 how?; aquí 129 here; además 159 also, as well; hoy 164 today; ahí 189 there; todavía 211 still, yet; incluso 294 including; solamente 336 only; bueno 337 well…; realmente 416 really; dónde 421 where?; claro 482 of course; precisamente 580 precisely; simplemente 591 simply; totalmente 662 totally; perfectamente 850 perfectly; peor 866 worse; exactamente 977 exactlyFiction: suavemente 3916 softly; adónde 3927 to where?; adonde 4276 to where; bruscamente 4407
sharply; largamente 4889 for a long time; mentalmente 4933 mentallyNon-fiction: asimismo 3512 moreover; simultáneamente 3628 simultaneously; fuertemente 3760 strongly; inevitablemente 3843 inevitably; básicamente 3863 basically; independientemente 4136