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Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 Anne Baetzel, MD University of Michigan C. S. Mott Children’s Hospital
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Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Feb 24, 2020

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Page 1: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13

Anne Baetzel, MDUniversity of Michigan

C. S. Mott Children’s Hospital

Page 2: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Learning Objectives

• Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21

• Identify anatomic and physiologic differences in Trisomy 21 and their impact on anesthesia

• Outline congenital defects associated with Trisomy 18 and implications for anesthesia

• Discuss ethics of treating patients with Trisomy 18 and 13

Page 3: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Disclosures

• None

Page 4: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

To Proceed or Not Proceed?45 yo woman with Down syndrome presents for dental restorations and extractions.  Her parents are both recently deceased and power of attorney has shifted to her younger brother who’s not certain of her health status.  She currently resides in an assisted living facility.  In pre‐op she is cooperative on physical exam, but you note a well‐healed sternotomy scar.  She is neurologically intact and her only medication is levothyroxine.  Vital signs are all WNL.  What information do you require in order to proceed?• Echocardiogram?• Thyroid function tests?• Complete blood count?• Flexion/extension cervical spine films?• Sleep study?• Disposition?

Page 5: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Embryology…

• Meiotic non‐disjunction• Sperm or egg cell now has extra copy of ch 21• Combines with normal gamete 47 chromosomes• 95%: 3 free copies• 3‐4%: unbalanced translocations• 1%: mosaicism

https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/Trisomy_21

Page 6: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Incidence

• Most common chromosome disorder in live‐born infants

• In the US, ~1/700 live births• ~5400 infants born each year with Trisomy 21

Page 7: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Affected Organ Systems

• Neurologic• Cardiac• Pulmonary• Hematologic• Gastrointestinal• Endocrine• Upper airway

Page 8: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Cognitive Impairment

• Variable degree of impairment• IQ range, 20‐70• Attention problems, ADHD, OCD behaviors, noncompliant behaviors not uncommon 

• Implications for parental separation, induction technique, post‐operative behavior

Page 9: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Dietary Supplements

• Promoted to address cognitive aspects of T21• Inquire specifically about supplements!• Examples include carnitine, curcumin, folic acid, ginkgo biloba, piracetam, MSB Methyl Plus, NuTriVene, Speak

• Piracetam may act as platelet inhibitor• None endorsed by main advocacy organizations

Page 10: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Neurologic

• Absent Moro reflex• Generalized hypotonia• Joint laxity• Hearing loss—conductive, sensorineural or mixed (38‐78%)

• Deficiency in language production• Increased risk of seizures, incl infantile spasms• Increased risk of Moya moya disease• Neuropathological changes typical of Alzheimer’s develop by fifth decade of life

Page 11: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Cervical Spine Instability• Wide variability in reporting• 1‐2% of T21 patients show significant symptoms• Spine films under age 3 years not useful• ADI > 5 mm concerning for instability

Page 12: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

AAP Recommendations

• Previous recommendation—one set of lateral cervical spine films between ages 3 and 5 years

• Newest guideline—routine films for ASYMPTOMATIC children NOT RECOMMENDED at ANY age

• Wide variability even within practitioners in the same institution

Page 13: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Intraoperative Experience

• Only a handful of injuries• Neck flexion carries greatest risk of subluxation

• Neck rotation <60 degrees does not impair SSEP’s in symptomatic patients

• No specific guidelines from anesthesia societies for neck immobilization

Page 14: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Patient Positioning

Maintain neutral position

• Intubation• Tonsillectomy & adenoidectomy

• Myringotomy and tympanoplastytubes 

• DLB• Esophagoscopy• Cleft palate repair• Port placement

Treat all T21 patients as having potential for acute dislocation

Page 15: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Care of the Cervical Spine

• Routine x‐rays under the age of three not recommended

• Careful pre‐op history and physical exam• Routine use of video laryngoscopy• Maintain in‐line stabilization• Protrusion position• Neck in neutral position, rotation <60o

Page 16: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Hypotonia

• Slow feeding, choking with feeds, recurrent pneumonia, persistent respiratory symptoms

• After induction, even more pronounced airway/soft tissue collapsenatural airway obstruction

https://clinicalgate.com/genetics/

Page 17: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Cardiovascular Disease

• Most prevalent malformation associated with Down Syndrome

• Fetal diagnostic rate 56%• Atrioventriculoseptal defect most common• ASD• VSD• Tetralogy of Fallot

Page 18: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

• Retrospective study• 96 children with Down Syndrome • Matched to similar cohort of patients 

without DS• Higher prevalence, greater degree of 

bradycardia with Sevoflurane induction in patients with DS

Page 19: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and
Page 20: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Pulmonary Hypertension

• Higher incidence of PAH in DS children• Most often due to increased PVR • Congenital heart disease L R shunt• Increased incidence of PPHN (1.2% vs. 0.1%)• Upper airway obstruction• Lower airway abnormalities

Page 21: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

ENT

• Stenotic ear canals• Frequent otitis media• Increased frequency of choanal atresia• Enlarged tonsils (extreme hypertrophy of lingual tonsils)

• Enlarged adenoids• Small epiglottis

https://www.boredpanda.com/mom‐fighting‐son‐down‐syndrome

Page 22: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Airway Differences

Anatomic Abnormalities• Flattened nasal bridge• Macroglossia• Shallow hypopharyngeal

dimensions• Tracheal stenosis• Congenital subglottic 

stenosis• Airway malacia• Microdontia

Functional Abnormalities• Pharyngeal muscle 

hypotonia• Hypertrophy of tonsillar 

and adenoid tissue• Increased secretions• Frequent infections

Page 23: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and
Page 24: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Endotracheal Tube Selection

• Subglottic stenosis—acquired or congenital• Endotracheal tube should be at least TWO sizes smaller than you would typically select

• Increased incidence of post‐intubation stridor

Page 25: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Endocrine Disease

• Hypothyroidism most common • TSH check as newborn, at 6 months, at 1 year and then annually

• Check sooner if signs of dysfunction• Congenital hypothyroidism, 1% risk• Risk of hypothyroidism increases with increasing age

Page 26: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Endocrine

• Reduced resting metabolic rate• Higher frequency of obesity• Propensity for diabetes mellitus

Page 27: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Hematologic Disease

• During newborn period ‐‐Neutrophilia in up to 80%‐‐Thrombocytopenia in up to 66%‐‐Polycythemia in up to 34%

• Transient myeloproliferative disease in 10% of neonates 

‐‐very high WBC count (stroke, thrombosis)‐‐decrease in other cell lines‐‐plasmapheresis if WBC >125,000‐‐increased risk of leukemia later in life

Page 28: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Hematologic, cont’d

• Equal frequency of AML and ALL‐‐1 in 300• AML typically arises between 1‐5 years old• Large percentage present first with myelodysplastic syndrome

• ALL has similar presentation to non‐T21 patients

• 10‐20 fold increased risk in patients with T21• Similar survival rates

Page 29: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Risk for Prematurity

• Rate of preterm delivery ~25% (vs. 6.3%)• Average weight of DS babies ~450 gm less than non‐DS babies

• T21 babies may be more sensitive to stressors in the neonatal period

• At higher risk than equivalent non‐T21 babies

http://noahsdad.com/did‐i‐cause‐down‐syndrome/

Page 30: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Ophthalmic Features

Brushfield Spots

Epicanthalfolds

Up‐slanting palpebral fissures

Ambylopia

Page 31: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Ophthalmic Disorders

• Strabismus• Cataracts (15%)• Nystagmus• Severe refractive errors (50%)

Page 32: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

GI system

• Constipation• Hirschsprungdisease (<1%)

• Duodenal atresia (12%)

• Annular pancreas

• Celiac disease• GERD

Page 33: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

• Obesity/skin folds• Xerodermia• Smaller diameter vessels

• Vascular pattern abnormality

• Notoriously more challenging

Page 34: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Other Physical Characteristics

• Short stature• Single transverse palmar crease• Short fifth finger with clinodactyly• Widely spaced “sandal” toe

http://misc.medscape.com/pi/iphone/medscapeapp/html/A1113071‐business.html

Page 35: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

http://thatdadblog.com/category/why‐does‐wil‐fly/

Page 36: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Pre‐operative Preparation

• Annual thyroid function testing• Annual CBC• No need for routine cervical spine x‐ray• Cardiac studies if history of CHD• Induction plan tailored to patient cooperativity

Page 37: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Intraoperative Concerns

• Bradycardia with induction• Natural airway collapse• Smaller ETT size• Cervical spine instability• Increased likelihood of PHTN

Page 38: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Postoperative Concerns

• Suitability for outpatient procedures• Stridor

Page 39: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Trisomy 18

• Prevalence in live‐born infants 1/3600‐1/8500• 91% of infants die before age 1 year• Paradigm shift away from non‐intervention • Since 2004—4 case series of surgery for CHD

Page 40: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Diagnostic Criteria• Prenatal growth deficiency• Cleft lip and palate• Micrognathia• “Rocker‐bottom” feet• Clenched hands• Prominent occiput• Polydactyly• Renal anomalies• Heart defects• Shortened sternum• Microcephaly• Neurodevelopmental delay

https://www.everylifecounts.ie/stories/emily‐elizabeth/

Page 41: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Evolving Management

• Shift to strong parental authority• Poorly defined limits of parental autonomy• Disclosure of all information to make sound decisions

• Improved critical care• Rise of the internet, support groups

Page 42: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Words and phrases to avoid

• “It,” “that,” “vegetable,” “a T18”• “Incompatible with life”• “Futile”• “Hopeless”• “Waste of money/time/energy”• “Lethal”• Parents want providers to see their child as having value, being unique, as being a person

Page 43: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

To Treat or Not to TreatEthical justification for non‐treatment

• Do no harm• Provide burdensome 

treatment• Increase suffering• Limited benefit• Foster consumer model of 

medicine

Ethical justification for treatment

• Parents’ right• Survive infancy• Enjoy reasonable quality of 

life• Loved by family members• Self‐fulfilling prophecy

GOAL DIRECTED TREATMENT PLAN

http://arclegalfunding.org

Page 44: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Airway

• Prominent occiput• Short palpebral fissures• Abnormal dental position• Micrognathia• Cleft lip and/or palate, 60‐80%• Difficult mask fit• Difficult intubation potential

Page 45: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

T18 and CHD

• 1990—first reported cases of surgery for CHD• Two prevailing beliefs—surgery for CHD does not prolong life of child with T18 & children with T18 do not die as a result of CHD‐‐mistaken

• SOFT surgery registry with 132 documented surgeries for heart defect

• No surgeries for ductal‐dependent lesions• Post‐operative course more complicated• Lower hospital survival rate

Page 46: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

In summary

• Duty of parents: give due consideration to best interests of their child

• Duty of physician: facilitate proper exercise of parental authority, fiduciary duty to protect child from harm and suffering

• Overall inability to predict survival• Defer burdensome intervention until likely that child will survive beyond 6 months

• Just distribution of limited societal resources

Page 47: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Trisomy 13

• Also called Patau syndrome• Live birth rate 1/10,000‐1/20,000• Total prevalence ~1.5/10,000• Typically caused by translocation• Only 5% live longer than 6 months

http://trisomy13‐samara.blogspot.com/

Page 48: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Cardinal features• Cleft lip and/or palate, 60‐80%• Microphthalmia/anophthalmia• Postaxial polydactyly of limbs• Holoprosencephaly• Cardiac defects, 80%• Omphalocele• Cystic kidneys• Thin posterior (or missing) ribs• “Shield chest”• Polydactyly• Clinodactyly• Severe developmental delay

https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/trisomy‐13

Page 49: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

References• Bai W et al. Hemodynamic Changes in Children with Down Syndrome during and following Inhalation 

Inductions of Anesthesia with Sevoflurane. Journal of Clinical Anesthesia 2010; 22: 592‐597.• Borland LM et al. Frequency of Anesthesia‐Related Complications in Children with Down Syndrome 

under General Anesthesia for Noncardiac Procedures. Pediatric Anesthesia 2004; 14: 733‐738.• Bull, MJ and Committee on Genetics. Clinical Report—Health Supervision for Children with Down 

Syndrome. Pediatrics 2011; 128 (No 2): 393‐406.• Carey JC Trisomy 18 and Trisomy 13 Syndromes.  In Management of Genetic Syndromes, Third Edition, 

Edited by Suzanne B. Cassidy 2010; Chapter 54: 807‐823.• Courreges P et al. Anaesthetic Management for Edward’s Syndrome. Paediatric Anesthesia 2003; 13: 

267‐269.• Janvier A et al. The Experience of Families with Children with Trisomy 13 and 18 in Social Networks. 

Pediatrics 2012; 130: 293‐298.• Lewanda AF et al. Preoperative Evaluation and Comprehensive Risk Assessment for Children with Down 

Syndrome. Pediatric Anesthesia 2016; 26: 356‐362.• Lorenz JM and Hardart GE. Evolving Medical and Surgical Management of Infants with Trisomy 18. Curr

Opin Pediatrics 2014, 26:169‐176.• Rosa RFM et al. Trisomy 18: Frequency, Types and Prognosis of Congenital Heart Defects in a Brazilian 

Cohort. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A 158A: 2358‐2361.• Sulemanji DS et al. Vascular Catheterization is Difficult in Infants with Down Syndrome. Acta

Anaesthesiol Scand 2009; 53: 98‐100.

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CHD and T13

• VSD, ASD, PDA most common• Individualized goals of therapy• Treat when symptoms interfere with life• Maximize other therapeutic options• Limiting pulmonary blood flow?• Minimally‐invasive methods?• Would the infant’s life be long enough to die from fixed pulmonary hypertension?

Page 52: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Respiratory

• Development of pulmonary hypertension• Laryngomalacia• Recurrent aspiration• Susceptibility to RSV• Development of OSA in older children• Referral to sleep specialist? Home monitoring? Oxygen therapy? Synagis?

Page 53: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Neurologic

• Hypotonia during infancy, hypertonia in later childhood

• Seizures, 25‐50%• Central apnea • Holoprosencephaly

http://prenatalpediatrics.org/conditions/brain/holoprosencephaly/#.Wq1Z6lrwaCg

Page 54: Anesthetic Implications for Trisomy 21, 18 and 13 · 2019-02-21 · Learning Objectives • Describe pre‐operative testing for patients with Trisomy 21 • Identify anatomic and

Growth and Feeding

• Weight and length remain <3rd percentile, Trisomy‐specific growth charts used

• Feeding difficulties in surviving neonates remain biggest challenge

• Suck, swallow reflexes may be diminished• GERD• Malrotation• Cleft lip and palate• Consider gastrostomy tube placement at 6 months?  Nissen fundoplication has been performed

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Ears and Hearing

• Middle ear and temporal bone abnormalities common

• Moderate to severe sensorineural hearing loss

• Microtia• Meatal atresia• Hearing test at >6 months

http://www.earaidnepal.org/education/teaching/teachingimages.html

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Ophthamologic

• Microphthalmia• Anophthalmia• Coloboma• Ocular findings associated with holoprosencephaly

• Congenital cataracts• Early onset glaucoma

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Genitourinary

• Cystic dysplasia• Increased frequency of UTI’s• Renal failure uncommon• Screening ultrasound recommended for all T13 infants

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Musculoskeletal

• Postaxial polydactyly, especially of hands (60‐70%)

• Limb deficiency defects

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Congenital Heart Disease

Rosa RFM, Rosa RCM Lorenzen MB et al. Trisomy 18: frequency, types and prognosis of congenital heart defects in a Brazilian cohort. Am J Med Genet A 2012; 158A: 2358‐2361

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Neurodevelopmental Delay

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Improved mortality

• Smith’s Recognizable Patterns of Human Malformation‐‐4th edition: limitation of all medical means of prolonging life‐‐5th edition: limitation of extraordinary means…personal feelings of parents and individual circumstance of each infant

Lorenz JM and Hardart GE. Evolving Medical and Surgical Management of Infants with Trisomy 18. Curr Opin Pediatrics 2014, 26:169‐176.