Ancient Khorezm

Ancient Khorezm

VN. Yagodin & A.V.G. Betts

UNESCO

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Lonely Planet for permission to use thevisitor's map of Khiva which was adapted with permission from CentralAsia, Edition 3 © 2004 Lonely Planet Publications. Dr GairatdinKhozhaniyazov provided valuable advice in the preparation of themanuscript. Maps and Site Plans were prepared by M.Negus Clearywithassistance from the Archaeology Computing Laboratory, University ofSydney. Line drawings of Ayaz-kala, Dzhanbas-kala and Toprak-kalaare taken from S.P. Tolstov, Drevnii Khorezm, Izdanie MGU, Moscow,

1948. The reconstruction of Koi-kril-gan-kala is taken from S.P.Tolstovand B.I. Vainberg (eds) Koi-Kr'ilgan-kala. Pamyatnik kul'turii drevnegoKhorezma, 1967, Moscow. Images of traditional Turkman jewelleryare taken from Y. R. Vinnikov, Khozyaiistvo, Kul'tura i B'it Sel'skogoNaseleniya Turkmenskoii SSR, 1969, Moscow. Lithographs of Khiva andthe Khorezmian landscape and people have been reproduced from J.A.MacGahan, Campaigning on the Oxas and the Fall ofKhiva, 1874, Harperand Brothers, New York. The text was prepared under the auspices of theUniversity of Sydney Central Asian Programme.

The ideas and opinions expressed in this publication are those of theauthors and are not necessarily those of UNESCO. The designationsemployed and the presentation of material in this publication do notimply the expression ofany opinion whatsoever on the part ofUNESCOconcerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, orconcerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Published by UNESCO 2006 within the framework of the UNESCOCross-Cutting project, Innovative and Intersectoral Approaches to theAral Sea Basin.

Designed by Ben Churcher, Astarte Resources, Australia

Ancient Khorezm 2

^t Introduction

Central Asia is a land of oases, formed

by rivers filled with snowmelt fromthe mountains, flowing out to end inmarshes in the desert or in inland seas.

Khorezm is one of the largest of theseoases, formed by the great river Amu-dar'ya, the ancient Oxus recorded byGreek historians over two thousand

years ago, known in medieval times asthe Jeihun. Although still massive today,it is a shadow of its former splendour,sapped of its energy by hundreds ofcanals diverting its waters to the townsand fields along its banks. Where once itfilled the Aral Sea, nourishing a thrivingfishing industry, now there is little leftbut dry salt pans. To left and right ofthe river lies the desert, the Kara-kum,

Black Sands, and the Kiz'il-kum, the Red

Sands. To the north, between the Aral and

Caspian seas, is a long line of stark whitecliffs marking the edge of the Ustiurtplateau, the border between the lands of thenorthern steppic nomads and the settledfarmers of the oasis towns and villages.

^r The Region Today

In the oasis atKhiva.

Much of ancient Khorezm falls within modern day Karakalpakstan, a semi-autonomous republic with its own local administration, based in the major cityof Nukus.The population today is around one and a half to two million peopleand comprises a rich mix of Karakalpaks, Uzbeks and Kazakhs, together withsmaller numbers of Russians, Turkmen, Tartars and other ethnic groups. Morethan 80 per cent of the land in Karakalpakstan is desert, but along the rivercanals support extensive agricultural communities, while cattle and sheep areherded in the Kiz'il-kum steppe. Cotton is the main cash crop, while rice, alfalfaand maize are grown for food and livestock fodder. Most farmers also grow avariety of fruits and vegetables for both home and market. Karakalpakstan has avariety ofmineral resources including oil and gas fields on the Ustiurt plateau andeconomically significant geological deposits, particularly in the Sultan-uiz-daghrange. On the west bank of the Amu-dar'ya is the modern administrative regionthat still bears the ancient name of Khorezm. The main city is Urgench, while afew kilometers away to the south-west lies the medieval capital of Khiva.

Ancient Khorezm 3

>n Historical Background

The Amu-dar'ya river, the lifeblood of Khorezm, has changed its course manytimes over the years and in places the ancient river beds can be traced bylines of archaeological sites. The earliest settlements are Paleolithic, Neolithicand Bronze Age encampments, used by hunter-fishermen who lived a simplelife among the marshes and scrub of the river banks. The first Neolithic sitesdate from around six thousand years BCE, but this simple fashion of livingcontinued almost unchanged until the 7th century BCE. At this time, quitesuddenly, the first fortified sites appear in the region. From around the 6th tothe 4th century BCE, the region was known as Khorezm and was a vassal stateor satrapy of the Persian/Achaemenid Empire. From the 4th century BCE upto the 1st century CE, it seems likely that Khorezm freed itself from Persianpower, and flourished as an independent state. When Alexander the Greatmarched his armies into Central Asia, he made no effort to control Khorezm.

It was during this period that the Greek historian Arrian records the visitof a Khorezmian king, Pharasmenes, to Alexander the Great in Markanda(Samarkand) where he offered the conqueror assistance in subjugating thelands he claimed bordered Khorezm. Despite the fact that these includedthe fabled homeland of the Amazons, Alexander declined and went on to

India, leaving Khorezm untouched by the Hellenistic influence that changedso much of southern Central Asia.

Following the death of Alexander, the kingdoms he conquered became thesubject of numerous power struggles among his successors, while Khorezmquietly prospered in the western reaches of Central Asia. Meanwhile, anew wind was blowing out of the east. Nomadic tribes displaced by warsalong the Chinese frontier began to move westwards into the region aroundSamarkand. Out of these tribes grew a new and powerful empire, that of theKushans, who became fully established in northern Afghanistan by about the1st century CE. The Kushan kings eventually ruled over lands from CentralAsia to northern India. To the north and west, their influence was felt in

Khorezm, although it is not clear as to whether the region became a formalpart of the empire. This was a time of prosperity, when trade flourished andmerchants traveled across Central Asia, trading goods from China to Rome,and from the Baltic Sea to India.

Following the decline of the Kushan Empire and its absorption by the risingpower of the Sasanians in Persia, Central Asia suffered another of numerousinvasions from the northern steppes, this time by the Huns in the 4th centuryCE. In the 6th century CE, the Huns were followed by the Turks. Fromthe Hunnish period up until the 10th century, Khorezm was ruled by theAfrighids, a long period punctuated by the turmoil of the Arab conquest inthe 7th century CE, when the Muslim armies brought a new and powerfulfaith to the region. Finally, in the 13th century, when Khorezm was part of the

Ancient Khorezm 4

Crossing the Oxus River.

kingdom of the Khwarezmshahs, the whole region was ravaged and destroyedby the Mongols under Genghiz Khan. The population was slaughtered,the cities were burned to the ground, the canals broken, villages and fieldsdevastated, and the whole region reverted to desert. However, the lands onthe west bank of the river recovered and under the Golden Horde became

important nodes for international trade. This renewed prosperity lasteduntil the end of the 14th century when Tamerlane once again laid waste tothe country.

It was not until the middle of the twentieth century, under Soviet rule, thatthe canals were rebuilt and the land became settled again. While this broughtpeople back to the region, the construction of new canals on a massive scalealso brought about the destruction of many archaeological sites and led tosevere ecological problems which still trouble the area today. In 1924 theKarakalpak Autonomous Region was created within the Kazakh Republicand in 1932 it was converted to the Karakalpak Autonomous Republic withinthe structure of the Russian Federation. In 1936 the Karakalpak AutonomousRepublic was reassigned to the Republic of Uzbekistan and retains thisstatus today.

TheHazarAsp Gate at Khiva.

Ancient Khorezm 5

^r Khorezmian Time Chart

neolithic period

Bronze Age

Early Iron Age

archaic period

Early Antique Period

late antique period

Early Middle ages

Afrighid, Early Kerder

Arab [Muslim] Conquest

Middle Ages

Afrighid-samanid, Late Kerder

Khorezmshah

golden horde

6,000-4,000 BCE

4,000-900 BCE

8 -7"1 Centuries bce

7"' - 5 Centuries bce

4,H Century bce - lST Century Ce

Pr-5 Centuries Ce

6Centuries Ce

9th century Ce

9-H Centuries Ce

12th - Early 13 Centuries Ce

13-14 Centuries Ce

Interior ofa tent.

Ancient Khorezm 6

*% Advice for the Visitoi

To make your visit easier, places of interest described here have been given aStar Rating. Three Stars (***) means that the site is highly recommended andeasily accessible. Two Stars (**) means that the site is of interest to the moreserious visitor or those with more time to spend in the region. Some Two Starsites are slightly less easily accessible. One Star sites (*) may have little visibleon the surface or are relatively inaccessible and are recommended only for thehistorical specialist.

<n Suggested Basic Itineraries

From Urgench:

te- Half day visit to Toprak-kala and Ayaz-kala. Approx. 3 hrs driving andone hour at each site.

te- Full day visit to Toprak-kala, Bustan, Ayaz-kala and Karakalpak StateMuseum of Arts. Approx. 5-6 hrs driving and one hour at each location(30 mins at Bustan).

te Full day visit to Toprak-kala, Baday-Tugai Reserve, Chil'pyk andKarakalpak State Museum ofArts. Approx. 4-5 hrs driving and one hourat each location (30 mins at Chil'pyk).

From Nukus:

te- Half day visit to Mizdakh-khan. Approx. 2 hours driving and one hour atthe site.

te Full day visit to Chil'pyk, Toprak-kala, Bustan and Ayaz-kala. Aprox. 4-5hours driving and three hours visiting all the sites.

te- Full day visit to Muynak. Approximately 6 hours driving and 2 hoursat Muynak.

Ancient Khorezm 7

T

tri

\ X>

JMUKUS

vKHODZHEYLl

'mjzdakhan/JCUNYA URGENttH

\f" KAI^yAKSTAN - ~".'TURKMENISTAN

/Xx *h5SpXCHIL'P'IK

v >

V, X '

Places ofinterest in the Nukus region.

Ancient Khorezm 8

Places ofinterest in southern Karakalpakstan.

Ancient Khorezm 9

KHIVA

03 sn

Isfandiyar b¿Palace m .£

S3 f

To National Bank of

Uzbekistan (300m);

Urgench (35km)

To Post & Telephone Office (300m);Bengali Internet Office (650m)

AUabergenov (Budermogo)

Ichon-Qala

Zindon

MohammedRakhim Khan

_ . . Medressa _Tourist #

Information Arabhana

Dost AlimjobMedressa _. ,_ .

0 Tosh-KhovliDostAlyam PaJ*ceMedressa Ï1U

AlloquilihonBazaar &

Caravanserai

Dekhon

Bazaar

Office

O

Square PahlavoiMahmud

Medressa

Camel MatpanaBayPen Medressa

KutlimurodinokMedressa

408

Abdulla KhanMedressa

3

Alloquli KhanMedressa

EastGate

1 S Sayid Aiauddin Mau& Music Museum

soleum

2Qozi-Kalon

Medressa

3 Matniyaz DivanbegMedressa

4 3 Aq Mosque

HarkTo Koy Darvoza

Gate (650m);Cotton Factory (1km);Chaudra Hauli (11km)

ffi Regional CentresCity map ofKhiva.

The main cities of the region today are Nukus and Urgench. Both are modernadministrative centres with little of historical interest. However, Nukus is

home to the Karakalpakstan Museum of Arts which houses the Savitskycollection, one of the finest collections of early 20th century Russian art, andthe Museum of Applied Arts which has extensive collections relating to theculture and lifestyle of the peoples of the lower Amu-dar'ya region. A fewkilometres out of Urgench lies the well preserved late medieval city of Khiva,the seat of the Emirs of Khorezm until the early 20th century. Across theborder in Turkmenistan, but linked historically to Khorezm, is the medievalcapital of Kunya Urgench (Gurgandje).

Ancient Khorezm 10

Khi- ***uva

The site of Khiva dates back to

the Antique period at the end ofthe 5th century BCE. Excavationsrevealed double brick walls with

rectangular towers, completewith outer defensive works such

as ditches and cover walls. The

ancient walls essentially followedthe same plan as the later medievalwalls of the Ichon-Qala of Khiva

that can be seen reconstructed

today, and encompassed anarea of 26 hectares. Ancient

Khiva is considered to have

been one of a system of borderfortresses defending the southernboundaries of ancient Khorezm. . . , .

A vtew of the citadel at Khiva.This early fort is now deeply buriedand the site that today's visitor sees is the much later medieval settlement.

The Khanate of Khiva was established in 1511 by nomadic Uzbeks andsurvived until 1920. At the end of the 16th century Khiva became the capitalof the Khanate. The region was always fairly poor and Khiva developed areputation for brigandry, slavery and barbarism, but despite this the capitalcity contains a rich array of late medieval minarets, madrassehs, mosquesand palaces. During the late 19th century tension grew between Russia andKhiva. The Khivans raided Russian trading caravans and held a great numberof Russian slaves. After a number of military expeditions, Khiva became aRussian protectorate in 1887, but continued to exist largely independentlyuntil 1920 when the last Khan abdicated and the Khanate was proclaimed theKhorezm People's Soviet Republic.

The old city, the Ichon-Qala, has been extensively restored to provide a richimpression of a medieval city tucked within huge mud walls. Near the maingate is the Kalta Minar, a wide blue-tiled stub of an unfinished 18th centuryminaret which, if ever completed, would have been one of the largest inCentral Asia. The Kunya Ark is the fortress and residence of the Khans ofKhiva, much of which dates from the 17th century onwards. The buildingsinclude the beautiful Summer Mosque and the Khan's audience chamber withan elaborately painted roof. In front stands a circular platform that housed theKhan's yurt. The Tosh-Khovli palace was built as a replacement to the KunyaArk. Inside is a series of courtyards decorated with tiled recesses. Perhaps themost beautiful of these is the harem, decorated with ornate wooden columns,

Ancient Khorezm 11

Chest ornamentation.

a bewildering array of geometric tiles and elaboratepainted and gilded wooden ceilings. One of the mostunusual buildings is the Juma Mosque. The first mosquewas built on the site in the 10th century but the presentbuilding dates from the 18th century. It consists of a vasthall with a timber roof supported by over two hundredcarved wooden columns. Some date back to the original10th century building and one or two of the stone columnbases may have been taken from even earlier structures.An open space or clair storey in the centre allows lightto filter in, while the cool shady interior provides awonderful sense of calm away from the heat and bustleof the streets. The Islam Khodja madrassah and minaretdate to the early 20th century. The minaret is decoratedwith a graceful banding of baked brick and glazed tilesand visitors can climb to the top for a view of the city.

Khiva's most revered mausoleum is that of Pahlavon Mahmud, a poet andman ofgreat strength, reknown for his protection of the poor. His tomb restsamong those of later rulers and adjacent to the tomb is a lovely little gardencourtyard with a well containing water with miraculous properties.

Kunya Urgench **

Kunya Urgench was a major regional centre from the 10th to the 13thcenturies and in the 12th century became the capital of the Khanate ofKhorezm. The city was destroyed by the Mongols in the early 13th century,rebuilt under the rule of the Golden Horde following the death of GenghizKhan, destroyed again in the 14th century by Timur, partially rebuilt andthen finally abandoned in the 16th century when the river changed its courseand a new city was established at the site of Khiva near modern day Urgench,150 kilometres upstream. The remains of the city today, although very muchruined, are still significant. There are a number of mausolea, a minaret andtraces of the ancient walled city, including a monumental gateway. WhileKunya Urgench is well worth a visit, special arrangements must be made as itis in Turkmenistan.

Karakalpakstan State Museum ofArts ***

The Museum is a stunning surprise for any visitor unfamiliar with thestory of its background. It houses a world class collection of early 20thcentury art, together with a rich ethnographic assemblage and a selectionof archaeological finds from the numerous sites in the region. The collectionowes its existence to the courage and enthusiasm ofone man, Igor VitalevichaSavitsky (1915-1984). Savitsky first came to Central Asia during the Second

Ancient Khorezm 12

World War when he was at the Moscow Art Institute and was evacuated to

Samarkand. Some years later he had the fortunate opportunity to return whenhe was invited by the ethnographer T. Zhdanko to work as an artist for theArchaeological and Ethnographic Khorezm Expedition in Karakalpakstan.For Savitsky, Karakalpakstan was a place of peace and beauty and he leftMoscow, moving to Nukus permanently. From 1956 to 1966 Savitsky wasan employee of the Karakalpak branch of the Academy of Sciences of theUSSR, and he devoted his time to assembling a collection of Karakalpakapplied arts. He was especially fond of traditional textiles and the forms ofart associated with the nomadic way of life. Karakalpak embroidered dressesare particularly beautiful. The decoration is used to indicate age and statusbut within the strict canons laid down by this, each dress is an individualwork ofart. To further ornament the dresses, Karakalpak women used to wearelaborate silver jewellery including bracelets, rings, necklaces, pendants andhead dresses.

With the opening of a Museum of Fine Arts in Karakalpakstan, a localschool of art began to develop. The Museum encouraged artists, andthrough the inspiration of the collections creative work flourished. ManyKarakalpak artists and sculptors, Z.Kuttymuratov, D.Turenijazov, B.Serekeev,A.Utegenov, E.Zholdasov and others, were among Savitsky's pupils. The widedesert horizons encouraged landscape artists, while the colour of domesticlife at home, in the fields and the bazaar was also the focus of many works.Wood carving is another local Karakalpak tradition and the Museum housesa number of beautiful examples. The natural shape of the tree informs thesculptures so that images seem to grow out of the living wood. Stavitsky'sartistic enthusiasm survived years of repression under the Stalinist regimewhen the only acceptable subject matter was Soviet Realism. Many artistsunderwent ruthless persecution because their works did not correspond to thenarrow frameworks of Soviet ideology. Paintings were hidden and art wentunderground. Savitsky managed to find many works of persecuted artistsand bring them to Nukus where he could keep them safe. When conditionsimproved the works could be brought out once again into the daylight, butmuch had been lost. Yet the works that have survived are a magnificentcollection showcasing Russian artists of the first half of the 20ih century.Today, for early 20th century Russian art, the Museum collection is recognizedas second in importance only to that in Saint Petersburg. Items from thecollections are sought by art curators across the world for exhibitions.

Karakalpak State Regional Museum **

This building originally housed the Savitsky Art Collection before it wasmoved to the new premises. For art enthusiasts, there is still a display ofworkby Karakalpak artists on the first floor, while the ground floor has a display ofethnographic and natural history collections.

Ancient Khorezm 13

^f Other Places of Interest

The Aral Sea and Muynak **

The Aral Sea was once one of the world's largest inland salt seas. Today itis reduced to a bare shadow of its recent size through extensive irrigationwhich has seriously depleted the flow of the Amu-dar'ya and the Syr-dar'ya,the two major river systems on which the Aral Sea depends for regeneration.Yet the sea has also gone through a considerable number of changes overmany thousands of years through natural causes. The beds of the rivers areconstantly shifting and satellite photographs clearly show traces of ancientriver beds flowing into different parts of the sea. Sometimes they bypassedthe Aral Sea altogether, turning south and west to run into the Caspian Sea.The ancient branch of the Amu-dar-ya that once drained into the Caspiansea is known as the Uzboi. The dry river bed now runs through empty desertbut archaeological research has found traces of settlements along its banks,showing that it was flowing relatively recently in historical terms.

The effects of the shrinking Aral Sea are very serious indeed for the peoplewho live around it. The town of Muynak was once a flourishing fishing portwith a large cannery. First the fish began to die as the lake became increasinglysaline, and then the shoreline began to retreat until today Muynak is in themiddle of the desert, surrounded only by the rusting hulks of the fishingvessels that once plied the lake. Storms passing over the dry lake bed pickup salty dust contaminated with pesticides, fertilizers and industrial wasteand blow over the towns and villages of Khorezm, creating long term healthissues for their inhabitants and stifling the growth of crops. The climate ofthe region has also changed. Once the sea acted as a buffer against the bitterwinter winds from the north, while summer evaporation cooled and addedmoisture to the dry desert air. Now the summers are dryer and shorter, whilethe winters are longer and colder. In a vicious cycle of destruction the dustis also contributing to the degradation of the mountain glaciers in the Pamirand Tien-Shan Mountains that feed the rivers flowing into the Sea. Oncethe Aral Sea region was rich in wildlife. The sea supported over twenty speciesof fish, while the river delta was home to over 70 varieties of mammals and

over 300 kinds of birds. Today the figure for mammals is reckoned at 32 andthe birds at 160. Plant life has suffered equally. Invaluable wetlands have driedup or turned into salt marsh and increasing salt levels in the groundwater havekilled off many species of fodder and flowering plants.

Some measures are now being taken to attempt to alleviate the problems ofthe Aral Sea. In Kazakhstan, a barrier has been built to contain the water

flowing into the northern end of the sea from the Syr-dar'ya. This has allowedthe small lake thus created to start to grow in size again, with a noticeableimprovement in local environmental conditions. The southern part of the sea

Ancient Khorezm 14

Drx,,^S:;~ <¿s>¿r Z$ j< _^-?^^" ; ' , .-***

_U "-*r * - T^]

l>_

'St *

_«Hé^^ .:.- -vT'.-

>-*

L^^-"" _M »__Kfl___ï__ _* >-* t'; '.*

=2&\\ .iSwillßo^^^^SSRSÄJi« lili - ^:^vT> -: "^ ' v

It . ' . .. ..* .? .¿utfv ; - v: ' -.' - -t'^nmRv,.

i»; í_«*r?

vi raVzu ofAyaz-kala.

is much larger and such measures are not feasible, so that Karakalpkstan doesnot have this option. However, plans are in place to construct a major canalalong the Akcha-dar'ya, the line of the old river bed flowing from south¬eastern Karakalpakstan into the eastern side of the Aral Sea. The canal willdrain irrigation water from the fields in the south of the region, helping tolower the water table and reduce salinisation.

Baday-Tugai Reserve **

The Tugai forests are the original vegetation of the river banks and theirpreservation is critical for the ecological and environmental well-being of theregion. Within Karakalpakstan, on the road from Biruni to Nukus, a parkcovering some six and a half thousand hectares has been established to protectone of the last relatively pristine stretches of Tugai forest along the easternbank of the Amu-dar'ya River. The reserve is a haven for a variety ofbirds andsmall mammals as well as a herd of endangered Bukhara deer.

Bustan - Elli-kala **

Bustan is the small but pretty regional centre of the administrative district ofElli-kala (Fifty Castles). The town lies beside a scenic lake and is home to asmall museum that showcases some of the principal fortresses in the region.The displays include dioramas and some artifacts from the excavations.

Ancient Khorezm 15

y Major SitesMany ofthe most important sites in Khorezm date in the late Archaic and EarlyAntique periods, the time of the floruit of Khorezmian independence. By thebeginning of the 4th century BCE, the Early Antique period, ancient Khorezmhad reached a high level of cultural development. By now independent ofPersian control, Khorezm was clearly strong and prosperous. This period sawmajor developments in military architecture with the construction of a seriesof imposing frontier fortresses on the boundaries of the settled lands. Most ofthese are in the south-east of the region but in the north the frontier townsof Bol'shoi Aibuiir-kala and Dèvkesken faced the Ustiurt plateau, wintergrazing grounds of the nomads. The material culture experienced a period ofconservatism lasting until the late 1st or early 2nd century A.D. which suggestslittle outside influence until contact with the Kushan empire effected a majorcultural shift. By the early 1st century A.D. Khorezm fell under the culturalinfluence of the expanding Kushan empire, most clearly manifest in theconstruction of the magnificent fortified citadel and township ofToprak-kala.There is a new pattern of construction in this period with the appearance ofsmaller fortresses within the settled lands. A good example of this is the siteof Kz'il-kala which lies among fields within sight of Toprak-kala. This newpattern may be indicative of a different political structure.

The Khorezmians adopted religious practices which had their origins inIran and are linked to the teachings of the prophet Zoroaster. Some scholarsbelieve that Khorezm may even have been the homeland of the ministry ofZoroaster. Archaeological remains reflecting these religious beliefs includefire temples and funerary monuments. The Zoroastrian doctrine is based onthe duality of good and evil represented by Ahura Mazda, the Wise Lord,and Ahriman, who embodies the principles of evil. For practitioners of thefaith, the four elements of the universe, fire, water, earth and air, were sacred.

This notion of purity is reflected in funerary rituals. The bones of the corpsewere deemed to have been created by Ahura Mazda and were therefore pure,while the soft tissue was believed to have been created by Ahriman and wasimpure. After death it was necessary to purify the body by removing theflesh. To achieve this, the body would be placed in a special building open tothe sky known as a dachma, where the birds could come and clean the fleshfrom the bones. The bones were then gathered up and placed in an ossuary,usually made of baked clay, and then buried. A very fine example of an earlydachma can be seen at the site of Chil'pyk, overlooking the east bank of theAmu-dar'ya River.

Ancient Khorezm 16

Ayaz-kala ***

Ayaz-kala is one of the mostspectactular fortresses inKhorezm. There are in fact,not one but three fortresses

clustered together ' on andaround a prominent hill atthe eastern end ofthe Sultan-

uiz-dagh range. The earliestis Ayaz-kala I, located onthe top of the hill, one of theforts along the edge of theK'iz-il-kum desert, providingdefence against nomad raidsand the Saca lands of the

Syr-dar'ya delta to the north.The site is best approachedfrom the back. A gravel roadleads up to a small clusterof yurts, a tourist rest centreoverlooking a shallow butpicturesque lake. From herevisitors can walk across the

sand and up the slope toenter over the walls at the

north-west corner of the

fortress. A better option, however, is to follow the track leading eastwardsfrom the rest centre. This curves round to come out at the main gate on thesouth side. From here there is a spectacular view of the surrounding country,and stretching away to the west can be seen the next links in the chain offrontier defence, the sites ofMal'ii and Bol'shoi K'irk-k'iz-kala.

Ayaz-kala I has an area of 2.7 hectares and is rectangular in plan. The wallsare well preserved up to 10 metres in height with regularly spaced towers,double storey archer's galleries and arrow slits that can still be seen clearly. Thelower gallery was entered at ground level next to the gate. The galleries wouldhave provided cover and ease of movement for the many archers needed todefend the fort. The arched vaults of the lower galleries are still preservedin places and the visitor can walk along inside them. Construction began inthe 4th century BCE when the galleried enclosure was built. Later, in the 3rdcentury BCE, rounded towers were added. The complex gateway is typical ofKhorezmian frontier fortresses. The approach lies parallel to the south eastwall where invaders would be vulnerable to attack from above. A massive

gateway defended by two rectangular towers leads into a small rectangular

Plan ofAyaz-kala I.

Ancient Khorezm 17

Plan ofAyaz-kala II.

chamber overlooked on all sides by high walls from which bowmen couldshoot at the enemy should the first gate be breached. A right angle turntowards the second gate leading directly into the fort would break the forceof a charge through the first breach. The fortress is thought to have continuedin use up to around the 1st century CE, although it may have provided refugefor local inhabitants well into the early medieval period.

For the hardy visitor, a steep rocky path leads down the scree slope fromthe south west corner of Ayaz-kala-I to the saddle between the hill and thesmaller peak on which sits Ayaz-kala II.The less sure footed are recommendedto return to the rest centre and walk down the gravel road to the bottom ofthe hill. Ayaz-kala II is a small, roughly oval fortress linked by a steep rampto an open settlement down on the plain to the west. The site can be enteredfrom the gate on the south west side either by climbing up the ramp or byfollowing a path which leads around the base of the walls from the northernside. The fort dates to medieval times. It was probably founded in the Afrighidperiod, some time around the late 7th to early 8th centuries CE. The walls arebuilt of mud brick on apakhsa socle and the tops of the walls were protectedby battlements with arrowslits in the crenellations. The interior structuresare well preserved and the interior surface is, in fact, the roof of the rooms.Remains of vaulted ceilings can be seen in places where some erosion hasoccurred. A ramp once extended down from the gateway of the fortress to

Ancient Khorezm 18

the entrance of a large palatialbuilding at the base of the hill.This palace has been describedas the most beautiful earlymedieval building in all ofCentral Asia, with its largecolumned halls, elegantbench seating, ceremonialplatform, wall murals, andfire sanctuary. Coins of theAfrighid Khorezmian kingswere found here, notablythose of King Bravik. Thispalace was built around the4th century CE and was laterdestroyed by two successivefires. It was briefly reinhabitedas a domestic dwelling in the6th/7th centuries CE.

Plan ofAyaz-kala III.

Ayaz-kala III is a fortified enclosure in the shape of a parallelogram sited onthe open plain below Ayaz-kala I. The enclosure has a double wall defendedby rectangular towers around the whole perimeter and an elaborate gatewayin the middle of the western wall. The site is about 5 hectares in area and

the enclosure walls date to the lst-2nd centuries CE, while the monumental

building in the north-east corner may have an earlier foundation date aroundthe 5th - 4th centuries BCE. It is likely that Ayaz-kala III was used in Kushantimes in the first centuries CE as a garrison, or possibly as a ruler's residenceand refuge for the local farming population, while a small force may still havemanned the old Ayaz-kala I fortress on the hilltop simply as a lookout post.Surrounding the enclosure were found the remains of many farmsteads, withdwellings, fields, field walls and vineyards.

Chil'pyk **

Chilpik is a circular high-walled enclosure on an isolated peak overlookingthe Amu-dar'ya River which can be seen clearly from the main road. It is adakhma or Tower of Silence which was used by people of the Zoroastrianfaith for exposure of the dead. The bodies were laid out under the open skyfor the birds to eat. When the bones were cleaned, the families collected them

and placed them in clay or stone ossuaries for burial. The hills surroundingChilpik are filled with burials, and examples of these ossuaries can be seen inthe Nukus museum. Chilpik is located 43 kilometres south of Nukus on theroad to TurtkuT. It lies on the right bank of the Amu-dar'ya River and can beapproached by a sandy track from the main Nukus road.

Ancient Khorezm 19

Plan ofChil'pyk.

The walls form a slightlyirregular circle some 65metres in diameter with an

opening to the north-west.Leading up the steepest partof the hill to the entrance

is a 20 metre long staircase.From the base of this a rampleads down towards the river.

The walls are preserved toas much as 15 metres in

places and are of pakhsaconstruction, measuring 2-3 metres in thickness at the

top and a little over 5 metresat the base. The building wasoriginally constructed in thefirst centuries CE but saw

a phase of rebuilding in the7th - 8th centuries and againin the 9th- 10th centuries.

Dzhanbas-kala **

Dzhanbas-kala is a frontier fortress on the south east border of ancient

Khorezm on the way to Turtk'ul. It is a spectacular ruin on a slope overlookingan old branch of the Amu-

dar'ya river. Many BronzeAge sites were found in thevicinity but most have nowdisappearedunderagriculture.The fort is rectangular inplan, measuring 200 by 170metres. Like many of thefortresses, the site dates to the

Early Antique period. It wasfounded in the 4th centuryBCE and was occupieduntil about the 1st centuryCE. It has well preservedwalls still standing up to 20metres high in places and amonumental gateway, butDzhanbas-kala differs from

most of the other fortresses

Plan ofDzhanbas-kala.

Ancient Khorezm 20

in having no towers on itsouter walls. Yet the site was

still well defended. The walls

are double to provide an innercorridor with two levels for

archers to fire from and the

outer faces are well suppliedwith over a thousand arrow

slits. One of the specialfeatures of this site are the

embrasures located at several

points along the upper wall Reconstruction ofDzhanbas-kala.galleries. These are the precursors to towers and they allow a single archer tofire down along the face of the walls through arrow slits positioned at threedifferent angles. From the main gate in the south-east wall a street lined oneither side with residential blocks led up to the top of the town where therewas a monumental building, believed to be a Fire Temple. Finds from the sitesuggest that it was in use from the 4th century BCE to the first century CE.Dzhanbas-kala is visible from the road but the track leading up to it is verysandy and is only suitable for high clearance vehicles.

Dzhanpyk-kala **

The archaeologist S.PTolstovcalled Dhzanpyk-kala themost beautiful fortress in

Khorezm. It is located on the

south-western slopes of theSultan-uiz-dagh range, nearthe banks ofthe Amu-Dar'yariver.The earliest foundations

are ancient (4thBCE -1st CE)

but the walls visible todaydate to the medieval period,in the 9th to 10th centuries

CE. There are domestic and

industrial areas within the

fortress which date to the

12th to 14th centuries CE.

On the northwest side of the

fortress is a palace buildingor citadel with walls that

preserve the elegant flutedfaçade mouldings indicative

Plan ofDzhanpyk-kala.

Ancient Khorezm 21

Plan ofGuVdursun-kala Bolshaya.

of medieval architecture in

Khorezm.

The plan ofthe site is complexas it is not regular but followsthe lie of the land. On top ofthe fortifications was once

an open shooting galleryprotected at the front by alow wall. Access to the gallerywould have been by means ofsteps set against the insideof the walls. There are five

towers preserved, set roughly70 metres apart. Only thetower on the east wall has an

internal chamber; the others

are solid. It is likely that therewere once two entrances. One

in the north wall leads out to

a cemetery while the secondis in a bend of the wall on the

southern side. At the highest point of the site is a rectangular citadel. On thesouthern wall are traces of a breach created and repaired during the Mongolinvasions. The site can be reached by a road leading off" the Nukus- Turtku'lhighway at the end of the Sultan-uiz-dagh range. The first part of the road issealed but the last section of track requires a high clearance vehicle.

Gul'durstin-kala Bolshaya **

The fortified town of Gul'dursun lies beside the road running from Bustanto Turtku'l. Although founded in the Early Antique period, the ruins visibletoday at Gul'dursun-kala show one of the best examples of a major centre ofthe Khorezmshah period. The site is one of the largest fortresses of ancientKhorezm. The exterior walls and towers date to the 12th century CE. It hascomplex fortifications and a monumental gateway located in the middle ofthe east wall. The curtain wall has rounded towers at the corners on one side.

This section ofwall also has the only gateway, flanked by rounded towers. Theoutworks consist of a low parapet incorporating mini-towers and detachedoval towers. Various structures are still visible within the fortifications and

there are outworks dating to the 12th to 13th centuries CE. Much ancientand medieval pottery and many bronze items and coins were found within thesite during archaeological excavations. The coins indicate that the last periodof occupation is related to the year 1220, during the rule of MuhammedKhorezmshah and the time of the Mongol invasion of Khorezm.

Ancient Khorezm 22

Gyaur-kala Sultan-

uizdaghskaya *

The fortress of Gyaur-kalalies on the right bank ofthe Amu-dar'ya river 80kilometres south of Nukus

on the road to Turtku'l. It

can be approached by a smalltarmac road leading downtowards the river that turns

and runs immediately bythe site. It was founded in

the Early Antique periodand continued in use until

the 4th century CE. Todayall that can be seen of the

fortress is the north wall and

a short section of the western

one. The fortress originallyhad a trapezoidal plan, withtypical Khorezmian doublewalls and double storeyarcher's galleries, towers,and arrow slits. The walls

are built of mud brick on

pakhsa socles. Only the baseof the eastern wall remains,while the southern side has

disappeared completely,washed away by the river.This gives a plan of a crosswall with two long walls on either side. However, the remains are preservedto an impressive height and give a good indication of how forbidding thesewalls must once have been. The northern wall is about 200 metres long whilethe east and west walls were once over 400 metres long. A monumentalbuilding was preserved within the north-western corner of the citadel walls.In this were found several small halls, with ornate sandstone column bases,

finely plastered walls with wall paintings in niches, and what appears to havebeen an altar. This building was probably a cultic fire sanctuary. Gyaur-kalaremained in use into the Kushan period, around the 3rd century CE.

Plan ofGyaur-kala Sultan-uizdaghskaya.

Ancient Khorezm 23

Plan ofKazakVi-yatkan.

KazakTi-yatkan **

Kazakl'i-yatkan is one ofthe largest, most complexsites to be found in ancient

Khorezm. The site was

founded possibly aroundthe early 2nd century BCEand continued in use until

the lst/2nd centuries CE. The

site comprises a rectangularfortified enclosure with

outworks, to which was later

added a huge outer enclosure,also well fortified. The earlier

enclosure lies in the north¬

west corner of the later

city. Both enclosures weredefended by galleried wallswith regularly spaced arrowslits and towers. Two complexgateways give access from

the upper (earlier) enclosure into the lower (later) one. Traces of monumentalbuildings can be seen in the upper enclosure. In the north-west corner isa temple or palace, a rectangular building with a massive outer wall linedon the interior and exterior by a colonnade. The bases of the columns weresupported by ornate stepped and drum pedestals. Traces of painted plasterand ornamental stucco work have been found in the interior. In the exact

centre of the site is a building interpreted as a mausoleum, consisting of twosquare towers flanking a partly preserved barrel vault.

The site lies on a minor road to the east of the Biruni-Nukus highway andvery close to the back road from Biruni to Elli-kala. A one kilometre sandytrack leads from the tarmac road to the site. Visitors can either walk or use a

high clearance vehicle.

Kz'il-kala **

Kz'il-kala is 1.3 kilometres west ofToprak-kala, and was built and occupiedduring the same period as the larger site. The site lies about 500 metres off thetarmac road among fields. Visitors can reach it via a sandy track. The fortressstands on level ground among canals and fields, and is nearly square in plan.It has towers on two of the four sides while the walls are well preserved andstill stand 13-16 metres in height. The entrance to the fort is in the southeast wall and is approached by a ramp. Kz'il-kala was originally constructed

Ancient Khorezm 24

in the Late Antique period,1st to 4th centuries CE, butwas abandoned and then

rebuilt in the 12th-13th

centuries on the eve of the

Mongol invasions. The wallsare elaborate, built with

square unfired bricks, andthe outer wall has arrow-

shaped embrasures. There issome debate about how this

fortress may have been usedin ancient times, with some

scholars proposing that itwas a garrison barracks fortroops, whilst others suggestit was an early example ofone of the many fortifiedmanor houses that were

typical of Khorezm in theearly medieval periods. Plan ofKz'il-kala.

Bol'shoi K'irk-k'iz-kala *"

Large K'irk-k'iz-kala dates from the 4th century BCE to the 7th-8thcenturies CE. The site lies on the edge of the irrigated lands and forms partof the chain of frontier fortresses running eastwards from Ayaz-kala. It liesclose to a minor road to the north of the main Bustan to Turtku'l road. It

was founded in the Early Antique period, saw reconstruction in the Kushanperiod in Late Antique times and further rebuilding in the 7th-8th centuriesCE. The fortress is rectangular in plan with double walls containing a doublestorey archer's gallery with arrow-shaped embrasures. The walls are defendedby rectangular two-storeyed towers. The entrance was in the middle of thenorth-east wall and the fortifications were protected by an external cover wallsome ten metres further out. Within the walls are preserved the ruins of afarmstead or manor house, while outside the fields contain scatters of sherds

over a wide area, indicating an extensive suburban complex, now destroyed byploughing. In the Afrighid period the area within and around the fortress wasa pottery production centre.

Mal'ii K'irk-k'iz-kala *

Small K'irk-k'iz-kala was founded around the 4th - 3rd centuries BCE

and was abandoned at the end of the 3rd or the early 4th century CE. Thefortifications consist of western and eastern parts, abutting each other and

Ancient Khorezm 25

with different plans. Thewestern part has a sub-circular ring of fortificationswith double walls, protectedby two tiers of arrow slits.The eastern part forms asegment of a circle abuttingthe inner fortified enclosure.

The wall is preserved onlyas a thick foundation block

some 3 metres wide. It lies

quite close to Bol'shoi K'irk-k'iz-kala and can be reached

from the same road. Mal'ii

K'irk-k'iz-kala was a border

fortress, forming part of thesystem of defense at the edgeof the oasis. It can be seen

from Ayaz-kala I to the west,and from Kurgashin-kala

Plan of'Mal'ii K'irk-k'iz-kala. to the east, and the garrisonmay have used smoke signals to warn of enemy incursions. Some scholarsalso believe that border fortresses such as this one performed an additionalcommercial role as centres of trade and exchange with the nomadic peoplesroaming the desert and steppe to the north.

Koi-krylgan-kala *

One of the most enigmatic of Khorezmian monuments, Koi-krylgan-kala,lies 22 kilometres north-east of Turtk'ul. While today little is visible but adusty mound, the original plan of the site consisted of a rounded, two storeybuilding 45 metres in diameter fortified by a double ring wall with arrow slitsand towers. There was an elaborate gateway flanked by semi-circular towersin the east of the fortress with a ramp leading into the main building. Theground floor of the central building was divided into eight sectors formingtwo separate complexes. The building stood eight and a half metres at itshighest point. Access to the upper floor was only possible from the secondfloor ofthe archer's gallery by means of ladders. Between the fortifications andthe central building storehouses and informal dwellings were gradually builtup. Finds from excavations at the site suggest that the purpose of the mainbuilding was not residential. Its circular plan and perfectly aligned internalchambers, as well as terracotta figurines and other artifacts, led the excavatorsto conclude that the building was originally constructed as a sacred buildingused for astronomical observations.

Ancient Khorezm 26

Reconstruction ofKoi-krylgan-kala.

There later followed a pe¬riod of abandonment when

squatters used it as a locationfor pottery production, butits original purpose appearsnot to have been forgottenand later it was rebuilt againfor cult practices. Storage ofgrain and other commoditiesagain became important. Thesite saw continuous growthand change, during whichthe fortifications became

redundant and it became

an open settlement. The siteproved very rich in artifactsincluding terracotta figu¬rines, statues and fragmentsof wall paintings, as well asornate clay ossuaries. Amongthe finds were also examplesof some of the oldest written

documents in Central Asia. The site was founded around the 4th centuryBCE but continued in use into the 4th century CE.

Plan ofKoi-krylgan-kala.

Kurgashin-kala **This fortress lies seventeen kilometres north of Dzhanbas-kala, on the same

line of hills. The site is well preserved and some of the towers still stand upto two storeys high. It is 1.4 hectares in size, and was built in the 4th to 3rd

Ancient Khorezm 27

centuries BCE, remaining in use up to the 4th century CE. The fortress hasa rectangular plan. The walls are double thickness with a central corridor andthe outer faces are pierced by arrow slits. The defences are strengthened by acombination of rounded and rectangular towers. This fortress is unusual in itscombination of rounded and rectangular defensive towers, with a differenttreatment used at each corner. The gate was in the centre of the south-eastwall, reinforced by a protecting barbican. Outworks complete the defences.The site is located in a strategic position, guarding the north-east sector ofthe ancient Khorezmian state. According to local herders the name is derivedfrom the Turkic word for 'lead', which is supposed to have been mined nearby.Located right beside the fortress were several large farmsteads, with houses,storehouses, fields, canals, and extensive vineyards.

Mizdakh-khan **

Mizdakh-khan is a large complex first established in the Early Antique periodand reoccupied extensively in the medieval period, up to the 14th century. Theruins sprawl across the road towards Kunya-Urgench on the western borderofKarakalpakstan. Medieval Mizdakhan was mentioned by Persian historiansand the writings of the Arab geographers in the 10th century. The variousmonuments are sited on and between three small hills and the complex hasa number of sectors including a citadel, an outer town and a necropolis. Theoldest settlement was established on the west hill around the 4th centuryBCE. The town was destroyed by fire and a new town was built on top inKushan times. Finds from the necropolis show that the city continued in usefrom the 5th to the 8th century CE and during this time new public buildingswere constructed.

From the 9th to the 11th century the city saw a period of major renaissancewith the construction of a fortified citadel. During this time changes inburial practices indicate the introduction of Islam to the region. Bodies wereno longer exposed before burial in ossuaries but were interred according toMuslim rites. New Mausolea and Mosques were built, but in the early 13thcentury the Mongol invasions caused a short abandonment of the city. By thelater part of the century a new lower town spread across the site, with bazaarsand craft workshops. Medieval Mizdakhan was a flourishing craft centre onthe trade route to Kunya Urgench, and was destroyed by Tamerlame on hisway through to Kunya Urgench in 1388 CE. The main monuments of the siteare located on the northern side of the "Eastern Hill" where there are several

medieval mausolea and tombs. The most notable is the restored Mazlum

Khan Slu mausoleum and ablutions hall which dates to the 14th centuryCE, and was constructed underground. Other monuments at the site are the25m long sarcophagus of the giant Shamun Nabi which is still considered asacred place. The holy place of Djumarat Khasab, ("Djumarat the butcher") isa high place on the eastern hill, which may have once been used as dakhma.

Ancient Khorezm 28

There is also the crumblingtomb of the Caliph Yerejeb(or Erezhep), dating to the11th century CE. The tombdisplays fine architecturalconstruction with its use of

mud brick and fired brick. A

layer of reeds was placed inthe base of the walls to add

to their seismic stability.

Tash-k'irman-tepe *

Tash-k'irman-tepe is a re¬ligious complex lying a fewkilometres east of Kazald'i-

yatkan. The site is locatedon an ancient canal systemand covers an area of about

10 hectares. The parts visibleon the surface today includea monumental mud brick

platform with a centrally lo¬cated temple and some out-

Plan ofTash-k'irman-tepe .

lying features. The platform is made with alternating layers of sterile sand andmud bricks. An earlier building has been found under the existing templeplatformwhich maydate back to the 6th centuryBCE,while the mainbuildingsvisible date to the end of the Early Antique Period. The temple lies at the

centre of the platform and consists of a complex of corridors surrounding acentral chamber which probably housed the main fire altar. In the later stagesof use, the corridors were used to store the sacred ash from the main altar.

Toprak-kala

Toprak-kala lies a few kilometres south of the Sultan-uiz-dagh range ofhills just beside the main road from Nukus to Turtk'ul. It is a vast ruin, stillstanding over twenty metres above the surrounding farmland. Ancient canalsystems led water to the site from a now dry branch of the Oxus. The site isdated in the Kushan period, around the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE and wasthe royal residence of the kings of Khorezm. The site consists of five parts: adomestic sector laid out in regular streets within the fortifications; a témenos;a large monumental building identified as a palace or temple area; an externalpalace complex; and a large enclosure, possibly meant to be a palace garden.The principal fortified enclosure is rectangular in shape with the walls stillpreserved to 8 or nine metres in height. The fortifications consist of straight

Ancient Khorezm 29

Plan ofToprak-kala .

walls with archer's galleries,regularly spaced rectangulartowers along the flanks and alarger tower at the north-eastcorner. A central street some

9 metres wide ran up the longaxis of the city with smallerside streets delineating blocksof domestic quarters on eitherside. These have been dated

in the period from the 2nd tothe 6th centuries CE. Part of

these was used for workshopsand manufacturing areas. Onequarter was given over to a

temple complex which, by thevolume of ash in and around

the buildings,was identified asa Fire Temple. In an adjacentbuilding a great number ofprecious objects were foundincluding bracelets with rams

horn fmials, glass vessels, beads and rings. There were also fragments ofplaster statuesand slivers of gold leaf. Both buildings were dated to the period from the 4th to 6thcenturies CE.

The palace at the north-west corner of the settlement is one of the largest andbest preserved monumental buildings of the Kushan era in Central Asia. Theentire complex is built on a man-made platform 14 metres high on whichrested a central square building with a series of formal chambers protected bytowers. The walls are now quite heavily eroded but they may have originallystood some 9 metres high. Many of the chambers in the central structurecontained niches with the remains ofalmost life-sized sculptures in claywhichare thought to represent kings. Others were painted with ornate frescoes ofvarious subjects including humans, mythological themes and animals. Thelargest chamber had a roof supported by wooden columns on ornate stonepedestals. An inner courtyard was decorated with rounded niches and wassurrounded by four two-roomed sanctuaries with altars and niches, indicatinga cultic area. One aspect of the cultic practice within the palace may have beena royal cult. One room, the so-called "Hall of Kings" had a fire altar in thecentre while the walls were lined with statues which have been interpretedas the "Rulers of Khorezm". Another, the "Hall of Victories" had images inlow relief of seated rulers with goddesses above. The themes of the decorationin the palace rooms reflected military prowess and royal power. The "Hallof Stags" was decorated with images of deer above which was a panel of

Ancient Khorezm 30

Reconstruction ofToprak-kala .

griffins. Other wall decorations depicted plenty in the form of grape vinesand pomegranates. There was the "Hall of Dancing" with images on the wallsof men and women dancing. The main niche held an image of the mothergoddess with a wild animal. It seems likely that these rooms were used forRoyal fertility cult practices. This sanctuary complex was associated with athrone room set in a courtyard with a triple-arched doorway. To the north¬west was a corridor with paintings on the walls of water and fish, suggestingits connection to a water cult. The most important find from the palace wasa set of written documents, the largest collection of only a handful knownin the Khorezmian language. Texts were written on parchment and wood,while their content was mostly economic, including receipts and lists ofslavesand workers. The palace, having first served as a Royal sanctuary, was brieflyabandoned in the early 4th century CE and then after some restoration, wasused as the administrative citadel for the city.

Ancient Khorezm 31

Wallpaintingfrom Toprak-kala.

Ancient Khorezm 32

UNESCO

Published by UNESCO 2006 within the framework of the UNESCO Cross-Cutting project, Innovative and Intersectoral Approaches to the Aral Sea Basin.