Ancient Histroy

Ancient India

MAURYAN DYNASTY

From 321 to 185 B.C. 

The period of the Mauryan Empire, scripts a whole new epoch in the history of India. A little is known about the age old history of the Mauryan Empire while a lot is still shrouded in mystery. The Sources for the history of the Mauryan period are as follows:

Megasthenese: Megasthenese was the ambassador of Greek ruler Selucus. Megasthenese was in the court of Chandra Gupta and remained in India for fourteen years. In his book `Indica`, he has described the different aspects of Indian life including the administration of the state, local administration, life of the king etc. It is one of the most important sources for knowing the details about the Mauryan dynasty.

Kautilya`s Arthasastra: Kautilya`s `Arthasastra` is also a very important source for the knowledge of Mauryan dynasty. Chanakya or Kautilya, the minister of Chandra Gupta throws a flood of light upon the contemporary social, political and economic conditions of the country at that time. They also gave a wealth of information regarding duties of the king, his foreign policy and organization of spies.

Inscriptions: Asoka's inscriptions form the most important source of the Mauryan period. They are important for providing the knowledge about the extension of his empire, his religious policy, administration and his character.

Other sources: `Mahavamsa`, `Diparamsa`,`Dibyavadan` Buddhist texts provide a lot of information regarding Mauryan period. `Mudrarakshasha` of Visakhadatta, Purans, Tibetan and Nepali text are also important in this respect. Last but not the least, Rudradman inscription of Junagadh also furnishes some information about certain incidents of Mauryan period.

SOURCES OF MAURYAN HISTORY

KINGS

CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA

ascended the throne 322BC : identified with Sandrocottus

overthrew last of the Nandas- Dhanananda his capital: Pataliputra conquered: Gujarat , Kathiawar, some parts of Deccan

300B.C. -abdicated his throne, starved himself in 298 BC at Sravanabelagola (Mysore); succeeded by his son.

Megasthenes: author of the work Indica. became an ambassador of Seleucia I of Syria to the Chandragupta Maurya.

BINDUSARA maintained friendly ties with Hellenic West He requested Antiochus I (Seleucid King Of Syria)

to send the figs, wine and sophist. Antiochus I sent figs, wine but not sophist and replied Greek sophist were not for export

Deimachos- Greek envoy at his court

succeeded in about 269 BC ; before he came to the throne, he was viceroy of Taxila & Ujjain ; known as Devanampiya & Piyadassi

fought only one war – Kalinga (261 BC) ; he embarked on conquest by Righteousness (Dhamma Vijaya )

won many victories by righteousness- 5 Hellenic Kings -

strongly supported d doctrine of ahimsa , not a complete pacifist

despite d remorse at conquest of Kalinga , he dint restore it to its original rulers;

he inaugurated new class of officers “ Officers of Righteousness” his personal region was Buddhism; was not metaphysician, never mentions nirvana but heaven .

Brihadratha: The Last Maura ;was assassinated by his senapati Pushyamitra ( Shunga )

ASOKA

Kings Kingdom

Antiochus II Theos Syria,

Ptolemy II Philadephus Egypt

Antigonus Gonatas Macedonia

Magas Cyrene

Alexander Epirus

Centralized Administration : the kings was highest authority , had unlimited power ;

Acc. to Kautilya : “ sovereignty is possible only with assistance”

Important functionaries called Tirthas – 27 adhyakshas( superintendents)

Provincial Administration Empire was divided into no. of provinces, there was governor for each provinces

Kumar-Mahamatras- prince of royal blood as viceroy

Mahamatras- rest of the Mahamatras

Asoka had four provinces

Kalinga with its capital Tosali 

Mahamatras were assisted by Yukta( tax collector), Rajuka ( revenue officer) Sthaniks( district officer)

Village- smallest unit and officer known as Gramika  

ADMINISTRATION

Provinces Capital

Magadha Pataliputra

North-western Provinces Taxila

Western Province Ujjain

Southern Province Swarnagiri

SOCIETY Caste system had become very rigid

In Asoka’s reign – caste system had become somewhat loose

Women position – they were respected but they had to face discrimination; Purdah system was not known but practiced

Polygamy – was prevalent in royal family

Slaves were employed in agriculture

Land revenues from rural areas – Bhaga: was levied at the rate of one- fourth to one –sixth Pindikara- assessed on groups of villages and paid by husbandmenHirayna – paid in cash Bali- known from the Vedic times , Pranaya- was levy imposed by the state during emergency periods. Justice And Punishment – the Arthashtra mentions two types of courts Dharmasthiya- analogues with modern civil courtsKantakasodhan- analogous with modern criminal courts Seven Penalties Were Imposed On Law-Breakers; Capital punishment was know and practiced ;penalties were based on Varna hierarchy

Espionage: worked under Mahamatyapasurpa2 types of spies- santha & sanchara Male spies known as santi, tishna, sarad while female spies were called vrishali, bhikshuki, parivarjaki

ECONOMICS CONDITION Economy was agrarian ; Indian silk & cotton were in much demand in western countries .Existence of srenis( guilds) .Coins of different metalsNishka- gold   Purana - silver Karshapana- copper  Heavy taxation The royal highway between Taxila & Pataliputra was the ancestor of the grand trunk road of today.

RELIGION•Hinduism , Jainism & Buddhism were popular religion , rivalry existed between them

•Yajnas were performed but animal sacrifices had lost much of importance , image

worship still not in vogue Asoka’s Dhamma

•Personal religion was Buddhism , it is Dhamma that had made Asoka of the greatest

ruler of Indian history

LITERATURE

Chandragupta & Bindusara favored Sanskrit & & BRAHMANICAL learning

Asokan Inscription – composed mainly in Prakrit language & in Brahmi script also

used Kharoshthi and Greek scripts

Kautilya’s Arthasastra

Bhadrabahu’s Kalpasutra

Buddhist scripture – Katha Vathu

ART & ARCHITECTURE*Chandragupta Maurya built his capital & palace apparently of wood. Introduced stone masonry Palace @ Kumahar near Patna – 80 pillared hall *Asoka’s reign the art of sculpture & rock cutting attained great heights. Four rock-cut sanctuaries on the Barabar hills and three on Nagarjuni hills near Gaya (Bihar) Pillar at Sarnath. *It was in the Mauryan times that burnt bricks first used in north- eastern India.

The Shunga185 BC–73 BC

Pushyamitra: founder , referred as senapati Agnimitra: son of Pushyamitra & viceroy of Vidisa ; was instrumental in

suppressing the revolt of Vidarbha under Yajnasena Vasumitra: grandson of Pushyamitra, repulsed a major attack of Demetrius

ADMINISTRATION Not a closely-knit centralized rule; was more of federal one

RELIGION Brahmanical influence revived , the practice of Vedic sacrifice was popularized Pushyamitra is said to have performed two Ashvamedha Yajnas

•

KING

Bharhut Stupa: Bharhut stupa being built , besides the fine railings of the Sanchi

Stupa (despite Buddhist Persecution)

LITERATURE Mahabhashya- Patanjali ( was born at Gonanda in this period)

Malavikagnimitra- Kalidas ( based on life of Agnimitra)

ART & ARCHITECTURE

Kanva dynasty73 BC to 26 BC

The Kanva dynasty replaced the Sunga dynasty in Magadha, and ruled in the eastern part of India from 75 BCE to 26 BCE. The last ruler of the Sunga dynasty was overthrown by Vasudeva of the Kanva dynasty in 75 BC. The Kanva ruler allowed the kings of the Sunga dynasty to continue to rule in obscurity in a corner of their former dominions. Magadha was ruled by four Kanva rulers. Little is known about the Kanvas; however, their dynasty was brought to an end by the Satavahanas of the south.

Founder of dynasty- Vasudeva Kanva

Comprised four kings & ruled for 45 years. Its decline was due to the expansion of Satavahanas

Power in the Deccan and the foreign invasions in the north.

KINGS

THE SATAVAHANAS 230 BC–220 BC

SIMUKA : founder of dynasty HALA: famous king SRI SATAKARNI :ruled for 18 yrs, identified with the Satakarni the

Nanaghat inscription ( called as Lord of Deccan &^ husband of Naganika) ; performed two horse sacrifice ; capital was at Pratisthan( Paithan- Maharashtra)

GUATIMIPUTRA SATAKARNI: saved Deccan from Shaka onslaught s; managed to salvage whatever damage was done by Nahapana( Shaka King) , also overthrew Parthian & Greeks ; control over Malwa, Kathiawar, Gujarat , Berar

VASHISHTHIPUTRA PULAMAYI : son of GUATIMIPUTRA SATAKARNI, first Satavahanas ruler to establish his authority in Andhra country

VASHISHTHIPUTRA SATAKARNI: married to the daughter of Rudradaman i but this didn’t prevent him from twice defeating Satavahanas

YAJNASRI SATAKARNI: recovered north-Konkan and Malwa from the Shakas, lover of navigation & trade, his coins have been found in ANDHRA, Maharashtra. Gujarat & Madhya Pradesh , ship on his coins

KING

Monarchy was hereditary, content simple title of Rajan ,

Empire was divided into Janapadas & Aharas; Gama – division below Ahara ; taxes – neither burdensome nor many

Sources of income- royal domain, salt monopoly, taxes on land & income from court fees

Satavahanas acted as link between north and south India ( in trade & exchange of ideas )

ADMINISTRATION

Gautamiputra Satakarni : re-established the four –fold Varna system

Absorption Of Shakas in Hindu society as Kshatriyas In social hierarchy, there were at least four classes –

Mahabhojas. Maharathis and Mahasenapatis : cream of society

Matyas, Mahamatras, Bhandagarikas & non-officials – 2nd class

Vaidya, Lakhaka, Suvarnakara- 3rd classMalakara, Mardhaki, Masaka- 4th class Customary to their king to be named after his mother ,

the women enjoyed a good deal of importance, family was

SOCIETY

Worshipped a large number of Vaishnava gods such as Krishna, Vasudeva & others

Vedic sacrifice were performed & Brahmans were paid , King also promoted Buddhism Mahayana Buddhism

commanded considerable following , Buddhism flourished in Nasik & Junnar areas in the western Deccan

ECONOMICS CONDITIONIn Karimnagar district a blacksmith’s shop has been

discovered; gold may have been used as bullion. didn’t issue gold coins but coins of lead ,potin, copper and bronze money

kingdom was famous for production of rice and cotton 

RELIGION

Many Buddhist Chaitya and viharas were cut out of the solid rock in the north –western Deccan , most famous Chaitya – Karle( 1st cen. BC)

Rock –cut architecture found in Andhra Amravati stupa – began in about 200 BC but completed in 2nd

century AD Nagarjunakonda- prospered most in the 2nd-3rd centuries under

the patronage of the Ikshvakus

ART & ARCHITECTURE

LITERATURE

•Official language – Prakit •All inscription were written in Prakit & in Brahmi script •Prakit text called Gathasapati is attributed to a Satavahanas king Hala

Amravati Stupa Nagarjunakonda

Gupta Dynasty 320-600 CE

Sri Gupta & Ghatatkacha – first two rulers of dynasty

Chandra Gupta: son of Ghatatkacha , assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja strengthened his position by matrimonial alliance with Lichchavis (Kshatriyas) , the Lichchavis princess Kumaradevi must have brought to the Guptas

Samudra Gupta: has been called Indian Napoleon by V.A.Smith

Prayag Prasati- Eulogic Inscription composed by his minister and court poet Harisena ,

On old Asokan pillar( @ Allahabad ) ; Harisena described him as the hero of hundred battle ,

Some coins of Samdrugupta represent him as playing on the Vina,

Performed Ashvamedha sacrifice, follower of brahmanical learning..

He granted permission to the Buddhist king of Ceylon-Meghaverman to build monastery @

Bodh Gaya ; Assumed the title of Vikramankaand Kaviraja

Chandra Gupta II: in the play Devichandrapuptam of Visakhadatta…

Rama Gupta is elder brother of Chandra Gupta II however Gupta records do not refer to Rama Gupta; married with the Naga princess Kubernaga and allowed his daughter Prabhavati to marry with Rudrasena II, Vakatakas King invaded the Shaka Kingdom of Gujarat &Kathiawar , killed the Shaka chief Rudrasimha III …Ujjain - @ and capital of Guptas …adopted the title of Vikaramaditya …adorned by many scholars ….Kalidas Amarsimha…Chinese Pilgrim -

Fa-Hsien(399-414) visited India …Mehrauli iron pillar inscription near Qutab Minar ,Delhi enumerates the exploits of Chandra Gupta II

Kumaragupta- Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta I. Known as the Mahendraditya, he ruled until 455. Towards the end of his reign a tribe in the Narmada valley, the Pushyamitra, rose in power to threaten the empire.

Skandagupta: is generally considered the last of the great rulers. He defeated the Pushyamitra threat, but then was faced with invading Hephthalites or "White Huns", known in India as the Huna, from the northwest. He repulsed a Huna attack c. 455, But the expense of the wars drained the empire's resources and contributed to its decline. Skandagupta died in 467 and was succeeded by his son Narasimhagupta Baladitya

KINGS

Golden age of ancient India... the country was divided into several Bhuktis(provinces) …further divided into Visyas(districts)

Adopted titles like Parambhattaraka, Paramdaivata, Chakravati, Parmeshwar etc.

Kumaraamtyas- most important officials

ADMINISTRATION

Issued the largest no. of gold coins called dinars. Items of import included Chinese silk in greater quantity &

ivory from Ethiopia Horses too imported from Arabia, Bactria & Iran...cities

like Banaras, Thaneswar & Mathura came into prominence

Economy

Acc. to Naradasmriti( 5th century ) – Brahmans became richer because of land grants

Position of Shudras- improved slightly , permitted to listen to the epics & Puranas , to worship new god called Krishna , now considered as agriculturists rather than slaves but untouchables increased in numbers (chandalas)

Women position declined...disallowed formal education & inheritance of property, widow marriage was disallowed …the first reference to sati appears in Gupta Times in AD 510 at Eran…

Buddhism- no longer received Royal patronage …Bhagavatism or Vaishnavism overshadowed Mahayana Buddhism

Vishnu became a member of trinity of Goods Shakti cult gave rise to consorts to gods, and goddess like

Laxmi, Paravati, Durga...by the fourth century AD Bhagavad-Gita was finally complied

Society and Religion

Brick temples – Bhitargaon(Kanpur), Bhatari(Ghazipur), Deogarh(Jhansi)

Nalanda( Buddhist university ) – was set up in 5th century Two important styles – Nagara & Dravida Stupas : Mirpur Khas (Sind), Dhamekh at Sarnath Rock-cut architecture- Chaitya and viharas...mostly found

in Ajanta, Ellora & Bagh Sculpture - 2 meter high bronze image of the

Buddha(Sultanganj, near Bhagalpur) Hindu sculpture- Deogarh temple( mythological themes of

Rama, Vishnu and Narayana) Art of painting- high degree of proficiency…narrative

scenes mostly portray Jataka stories

Art & Crafts

Indian notational system –called Arabic by the English , called Hindsa by the Arabs themselves

Aryabhatta- calculated vale 22/7& length of solar year , theorized upon the Earth’s rotation on its axis

Varahamitra- astronomer: moon rotated the earth which rotates around the sun

Vagabhatta – renowned physician

LiteratureSanskrit- official language of Gupta empire …Ramayana

and

Mahabharata were complied in this period.

Science and Technology

SMALL KINGDOMS in NORTH

Maitrakas of Valabhi Family belonged to the Maitrakas clan in Saurashtra

Founder:Bhatarka; Capital: Valabhi

Dhruvasena II married to the Daughter of Harsh of Kanauji

During the time of Dhruvasena IV that the celebrated Sanskrit Epic Bhattikavyam or Ravanavadham was composed by Bhatti

Overthrown by the Arabs of Sind 

Maukharis of Gayas source of information: Barabar & Nagarjuni  inscription first ruler of branch – Yajnavarnma

Maukharis of Kanauj Probably were Kshatriyas Isanavarman- claimed victory over Andhras, Sulikas of Orissa & the Gaudas

Long dual between Maukharies & the later Guptas 

The Later Guptas Kumara Gupta: 1st independent ruler of Dynasty

Adityasena- took title of Parama-Bhagavata, got a temple of Vishnu constructed

Aspad inscription from Gaya- gives name of eight late-Gupta kings

Gaudas of Bengal Greatest ruler of dynasty- Sasanka…fought against the rulers of Thaneshwar and Kanauj …entered into

alliance of Maukhari ruler

SMALL KINGDOMS of DECCAN

THE VAKATAKAS belonged to Bundelkhand ; founder: Vindyasakti Pravarasena ( son of  Vindyasakti)  ruled over territories extending

from Bundelkhand to Andhara Pradesh Prithvisena: contemporary of the Great Gupta Emperor Samdrugupta Rudrasena II: married to Prabhavati (daughter of Chandragupta  II) Harisena – belonged to minor branch of Vakatakas Vakatakas power was destroyed by the kalachuries & the Kadambas Ajanta cave fresco paintings were excavated during their rule

IKSHVAKUS After fall of Satavahanas, there arose the kingdom, they built monument at

Nagarjunakonda & Dharanikonda. Rule ended with their conquest by the Pallavas

descent from the main line of  Chalukyas  of Vatapi re-established by Taila in 973, when he defeated the last

Rashtrakuta ruler  Amoghvarsha IV Somesvara I(1043-1068) : involved in a protracted war with

Cholas & was finally defeated by Chola ruler, Virarajendra in the battle of Kudal 

Somesvara II(1068-1076): a tyrannical ruler –was overthrown by his brother Vikaramaditya II

Tribhuvanamalla(1076-1126): the hero of Bilhana’s Vikaramaditya Charita…he introduced Chalukya-Vikrama Era (1076 AD)

Jagadekamalla II- with the death of him Challukyan power was eclipsed…And the throne was usurped by the Kalachuri minister – Vijjala/Vijjana….

WESTERN CHALUKYAS OF KALYANI (973–1189)

much of the paintings & sculptures of Ajanta & Ellora caves were completed during this region

style of temple –Vesara( admixture of the Dravida & Nagara) famous temple- Virupaksha temple (Pattadakal, near Badami) , the

Vishnu temple of Badami, the Siva temple of Maguti, the Kashi Visveswara temple of Lakhundi

Sanskrit writer : Bilhana- Vikaramaditya Charita and Chaurapanchasika(poet)

Vijnanesvara- Mitaksara

ACHIEVEMENTS OF CHALUKYAS

Dantidurga: founder

succeeded by his uncle Krishna(758-722)

succeeded by his son Govinda(773-780)…was deposed by his younger brother Dhruva Nirupama

Dhruva Nirupama - regarded as peak of Rashtrakutas…territories ultimately came to his son, Govinda III Jagattunga(793-814)

succeeded by son Sarva, known as Amoghvarsha I(814-878)…said to have built the city of Manyakheta as his capital

last great ruler of the dynasty was Krishna  III(939-967)- who occupied Kanchi and Tanjore & defeated a chola army at the battle of Takkolam(949)

Achievements of Rashtrakutas

Krishna I –built the rock-cut Kailasa temple @Ellora (latter half of the 8 century AD), constructed in Dravidian style of the Chalukyas

Amoghvarsha said to have written the earliest book of poems in Kannada

ACHIEVEMENTS OF RASHTRAKUTAS Krishna I –built the rock-cut Kailasa temple @Ellora (latter half of the 8

century AD), constructed in Dravidian style of the Chalukyas

Amoghavarsha said to have written the earliest book of poems in Kannada

Rashtrakutas (753–982)

Either belonged to the line of Ikshvakus or associated with the river Ganga…Kingdom included the greater part of Mysore or with Kanvas…founded by Didiga (konganivarman) & Madhava (in 4th century AD)

Early capital was Kuluvala but was transferred to Talkad by Harivarma

Durvinita-had to conflict with the Chalukyas of Vengi and Dhruva Nirupama

devotees  of Jainism- it was during reign of Rajamala IV(977-985) that his minister & general , Chamundaraya, erected the celebrated image of Gomateshvara at Sravanabelagola(983)

GANGAS

descendents of the Yadu race to which belonged  Mahabharata hero Krishna

Bhillama V- made Devagiri his capital, but was defeated by Vira Ballala I (Hoysalas )@ battle of Lakhundi

Jaitrapala I(1191-1210) – killed the Rudradeva ( Kakatiya ruler )

Singhana(`1210-1247)- most energetic rulerduring the reign of Mahadeva & Ramachandra- greater

Brahman minister, Hemadri- renowned for his Hindu Dharmashtra  flourished , his most important work – Chaturvarga-Chinatamani

during the reign of Ramachandra- army led by Ala-ud-din Khalaji then Governor of Kara…invaded Devagiri (1294)

Harapala was  killed  at the  behest of Sultan Mubarak

YADAVAS

First feudatories of the Later Chalukyas They rose to power in Telegana… seat of power shifted

from Anmakonda to Telengana Prolaraja- warfare against the western Chalukyas Ganapati – successfully overcame the Cholas,

Kalingas, Yadavas …succeeded by his daughter, Rudramba in 1261

Rudramba -assumed the male title of Rudradeva Maharaja…succeeded by  her grandson, Prataparudradeva

Prataparudradeva- immortalized by Vaidyanatha’s Prata- Parudriya (poetics work)….had to submit before the Muslim invader, Malik Kafur

KAKATIYA

notable monarch Bhoja(1175-1210): after whom the kingdom was conquered by Singhana

( Yadavas Ruler)

KADAMBAS (345–525) Founder- Mayurasarman…. Kakusthavarman- under who influence grew considerably…. Ravivarman…his capital at Halsi

HOYSALAS (1026–1343) Founder- a Kshatriyas named Sala… Bittiga Vishnuvardhana (1110-1140)….transferred his capital from Velapura

to Dwarasamdudra (Halebid) & made himself independent of Chalukyan Suzerain Vikaramaditya VI…

Vira-Ballala I (1172-1215): first to assume the title of Maharajadhiraja …..  Vira-Ballala III- last ruler …kingdom was ravaged by Malik Kafur Hoysalas were great  temple builders….Kesava temple @ Belur( Hasan

district), dedicated to Vishnu Hoysaleswara temple @ Helabid ,  dedicated to Siva

SILAHARAS

THE THREE EARLY Kingdoms in South India

THE PANDYAS 1250 C.E First mentioned by Megasthense…  Kingdom was celebrated for pearls & was ruled by woman …. Capital was Madurai… The kingdom profited with the trade with the Roman empire & sent embassies

to the Roman emperor, Augustus Brahmans enjoyed considerable influence  and Pandyan king performed Vedic

sacrifices

THE CHOLAS  300S BC–1279 Chief centre of power lay at Uraiyur (famous for cotton trade) Chola king Elara conquered Sri Lanka (middle of 2nd Century) and ruled over it

for about 50yrs…were expelled by the Sinhalese national hero, king Dutugamunu (161-137 BC)

Karikala , chola king- who founded Puhar( Kaveripattanam)- chola capital Last remnants of Chola power were wiped out by the attacks of the Pallavas

THE CHERA   Flourishing trade with Romans… Romans had set up 2 regiments at Muziris

(modern Cranganore) in the country …they have built a temple of Augustus …. The greatest Chera king: Senguttuvan, the Red / Good Chera, he is credited with

having invaded the North and crossed the Ganga… 

Mostly self-sufficing….single source of revenue -land tax called Karai…

war booty was known as Irai … They had voluminous trade with the Greek /Hellenistic kingdom,

Egypt & Arabia, the Malay Archipelago & China…

POLITY Hereditary monarchy…entire kingdom was called Mandalam, below

it was Nadu.. The Ur was town…. Puhar was harbor area… Pattanam…coastal town. Village was fundamental unit of administration & looked after by 7

manrums (Panchayats)…

ECONOMIC CONDITION

Brahmans first appear in the South in the Sangam age

captains of the army were  invested with the title of enadi

Ruling class was called Arasar Members of lowest class: Kadaisiyar Agriculturist laborers: Pariyars reference of sati 

RELIGION Kings were performed Vedic sacrifices MURUGAN- god worshipped by the people

SOCIETY

KINGS Founder: Vijayalaya( first feudatory of the Pallavas)…captured Tanjore(in

850) Aditya I Chola: wiped out the Pallavas of Kanchi… Parantaka(907-955)….captured Madurai  but was defeated by the

Rashtrakuta ruler, Krishna III( battle of Takkolam) lost Tondaimandalam Sundara-Chola: overcame Rashtrakuta & wrested Tondaimandalam from him Rajaraja (985- 1014): destroyed the Chera navy @ Thiruvandapuram and

attacted Quilon...Captured the Pandyan Capital Madurai…also annexed the northern part of Sri Lanka…conquest of Maldives Islands

Rajendra I (1014-1044): annexed the rest of Sri Lanka which remained under Chola rule for next 50 yrs...sent an expedition against  Bengal…defeated the Pala Kin g , Mahipala of Bengal …he assumed the title Gangaikonda ( in --commemoration of his victories in the Gangetic delta)  & founded the capital –Gangaikonda Cholapuram…naval expedition against revived Sri Vijaya( Sumatra empire) ..Conquest of Kadaram/ Kedah 

Kulottunga I: remained undiminished under his rule except loss of Ceylon Kulottunga III (1178-1210): was last great Chola Monarch….involved in the

Pandyan wars of succession...sacked Madurai( Pandyan capital)

THE IMPERIAL CHOLAS (850–1200)

Hereditary monarchy Rajaraja I ; initiated the system of Prefacing the stone inscription of the reign Velams: the palace servants of the Chola were organized into Velams and settled in separate

quarters in the capitals Udankutaam: the chola monarch had immediate attendants, a group of ministers Olai: there were corresponding officers in the Chalukyan court

The officials tended to form a separate class in society, organized in two ranks, an upper Perundanam and a lower Sirudanam…

Jivitas: the officials were often remunerated by assignments of land suited to their stationthe empire was divided into convenient areas …the division in ascending order being Vlanadu/mandalam, nadu and Kurram

Local self –government ur: assembly of common village , all members of the village could become the member of

ur Sabha: exclusively Brahman assembly of the brahmadeya villages  ; criteria to secure the

membership of Sabha: ownership of more than Fourth veli( about an acre and half) , residence in house built on one’s own land , age between 35 and 70, knowledge of Vedic literature

variyam system : local administration were entrusted to committees of 6 to 12 members ….members called Variyapperumakka

Economy: Self – sufficing…overseas trade was the strength of the merchants Persia & Arabia- destinations of those trading with the west… 

Administration

The centre of social and economic life at the time…particularly in the rural areas was the temple….

Devadasis were commonly found; Brahmans maintained distinctness….

Slavery was common society was divided into Brahmans & non- Brahmans … temple

continued to be the centre of formal education in Sanskrit … Oral instruction, much simpler than the Sanskrit learning of

colleges, was imparted through the medium of the Saivite and Vaishnavite hymns composed by the Tamils saints….

Literature Kamban’s version of Ramayana (in Tami)… Kuttan,

Jayangondur, Kalladanar…

Art and Architecture The masterpiece of chola sculpture is the famous Nataraja (the dancing Siva) bronze image of Chidambaram

Society

Sanskrit remained the language of Hindu theology and of the Brahmans…

Buddhism practically disappeared by the end of the period …Buddha being commonly accepted as an incarnation of Vishnu

Jainism: survived with a following in Mysore. variety of extreme sects: such as the tantric and Shakti

cult  Kalamukha sect: ate food out of human skull, were

generally seen carrying a pot of wine A club Saivism- produced other sects at this time….Lingayat/ Virasaiva sect: founded by Basavaraja in 12th

century, questioned the authority of the Vedas, worshipped Siva in form of Lingam (phallic emblem)..And encouraged late post-puberty marriage and widow-remarriage…

RELIGION