ANCIENT HISTORY INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION INTRODUCTION : Charles Masson > 1826-38 first described the ruins of harappa - significance was not realized 1857 - British authorities used harappan bricks in the construction of East Indian railway line connecting karachi and lahore 1912 - harappan seals with then unknown symbols were discovered by J Fleet >> triggered an excavation campaign under Sir John Marshall in 1921/22 > RESULT - discovery of a hitherto unknown civilization by Dayaram Sahani 1931 - much of the Mohenjodaro was excavated, but minor campaigns continued > Mortimer Wheeler in 1950 Partition of British India in 1947 > area of IVC was divided b/n Pakistan and India
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ANCIENT HISTORY
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION INTRODUCTION:
Charles Masson > 1826-38 first described the ruins of harappa - significance was not realized
1857 - British authorities used harappan bricks in the construction of East Indian railway line connecting karachi and lahore
1912 - harappan seals with then unknown symbols were discovered by J Fleet >> triggered an excavation campaign under Sir John Marshall in 1921/22 > RESULT - discovery of a hitherto unknown civilization by Dayaram Sahani
1931 - much of the Mohenjodaro was excavated, but minor campaigns continued > Mortimer Wheeler in 1950
Partition of British India in 1947 > area of IVC was divided b/n Pakistan and India
PRE-HARAPPAN AND HARAPPAN CULTURES - DATES AND FEATURES:
4 IMPORTANT PHASES OF EVOLUTION 4000 BC - 1800 BC >>
neolithic Baluchistan and Indus plains Mehrgarh and Killi Ghul Mohammad pastoralism with limited cultivation & seasonal occupation emergence of permanent villages - wheat, barley, dates, cotton,
sheep, goat - mud houses, pottery, crafts 2900 BC - 2500 BC >>
early harappan period more settlements in hills and plains Largest number of villages Use of copper, wheel and plough (PCW)
Neolithic Plains Mehrgarh Pastoralism Villages
Extraordinary pottery forms > beginning of many regional traditions
Rural to urban life Amri and Kot diji Granary, defensive walls & long distance trade (GDT) Uniformity in pottery tradition Origins of motifs - pipal, humped bulls, cobras, horned deity
2500 BC - 2000 BC >>
Mature harappan period Large cities Uniform types of bricks, weights, seals, beads and pottery Planned township Long distance trade Kalibangan
2000 BC onwards >>
Late harappan period Many harappan sites abandoned Continuation of harappan crafts and pottery tradition Village cultures of punjab, sutlej - jamuna divide Gujarat imbibes the harappan crafts and pottery tradition
Mature Cities Uniform Township Trade Kalibangan
Late Sites abandonedCrafts and Pottery Village culturesGujarat Lothal
lothal
Bronze Age people had built up great civilizations and made significant contributions
M - Mesopotamian > tigris and euphrates E - Eyptian > nile C - chinese > hwang ho H - harappan > indus Mesopotamian Civilization:
tigris and euphrates - modern Iraq Rivers flood > deposit silt > fertile Increased food production abundant agricultural produce > growth of a number of crafts
persons - smiths, potters masons, weavers and carpenters Barter system Carts, wagons, boats and ships - transport and communication script - collection of symbols and pictures > drew wedge-like lines
earliest cities - small states > own administration ruling class -priests, kings and aristocrats Others - merchants, ordinary people and the slaves worshipped many gods and goddesses like sky, sun, moon,
fertility Each city had its own patron god or goddess
Egyptian Civilization:
Nile > fertile land Egyptian kings were called Pharaohs ministers and officers - administered the land and collected taxes Priests- high and honorable position in society Temples were dedicated to a particular god in each town or city ancient Egyptian script - Hieroglyphics Traders and merchants - business both on land and water
skilled workers > stone-cutters and carpenters knowledge of weights and measures built the great monuments – Pyramids believed in afterlife, they preserved the dead bodies - mummies pyramids were built as tombs to keep the mummified bodies of th
dead kings. Chinese Civilization:
Hwang ho First rulers - Shangs > built first cities - contributed art and culture Craftspersons - bronze workers > great experts in their fields Shang dynasty was overthrown by the Zhous, who built strong
forts and walled towns to defend themselves from invaders later phase of the Zhou rule iron was introduced ending the
Bronze Age in China In 221 BC, the Chin rulers came to power - use of common
language, common laws and common weights and measures throughout their empire > built the famous Great Wall of China
After Chins, Han dynasty came to power, who ruled till AD 220 > Chinese traders had contact with the West through the famous Silk Route, crossing Central Asia and Persia
Worship of ancestors, nature and spirits very common Confucius > system of right behavior- greatly influenced Chinese
society and Government
emphasis on good moral character, respect to elders and loyalty to the family and obedience to the laws of the State Harappan civilization:
Nomenclature of IVC:
Indus valley civilization - flourished along the indus and ghaggar - hakra
Harappan civilization - john marshall after the first discovered site harappa
Saraswati civilization - john marshall after the first discovered site harappa
70000 - 50000 BCE - FIRST HUMANS migrated to India IVC - first known civilization in india Period: 2500 -1750 BC Area - 1.3 million sq.km Population - around 5 million Most concentration of settlements - ghaggar-hakra river system Harappa > largest no. of sites Mixed race - A2M2 - austroloid, alpinoid, mediterranean,
mongoloid Most from mediterranean race 6 out of 250 sites are cities
Mohenjodaro - r.d.banarjee – 1922 (MB) UNESCO world heritage sites Chanhudaro - 1931 – majumdar (CM) Kalibangan - 1961-69 - B.B.lal and B.K.Thaper
Town planning
Grid system Western side >> fortified citadel - public buildings Eastern side >> lower town - house of commoners
Burnt brick Drainage system Streets - 30 ft Buildings - 1) residential houses 2) larger buildings 3) public
buildings Economy:
Agriculture Wheat and barley Rice - lothal and rangpur Indigo - rojdi in gujarat Well irrigation - aladinho in sindh Animal rearing First to use silver and cotton Ignorant of use of iron Internal trade - south india, UP, maharashtra , bihar Foreign trade - mesopotomia and egypt Transportation - bullock carts, boats Barter system - exchange of goods without use of money
Seals:
AgricultureWheat Rice Indigo Well irrigation Animal rearingFirst to use Ignorant Trade - IF Transportation Barter system
Made of steatite Square - animal and inscription Rectangular - inscription only Used to stamp bags containing goods that were sent from one
place to another After bag was closed layer of wet clay was applied - sealing > if it
is intact - goods reached safely Ownership Animal most encountered - humpless bull Script and language:
Pictographic Birds, fishes, varieties of human form Fish - most represented in pictographs Signboard inscription bearing 10 pictographs - dholavira
Made of baked clay Male and female figurines Pride of place - great humpless bulls New techniques in handicraft - camelian products, seal carving Metallurgy - copper, bronze, lead, tin
Images:
Metal and stone Metal - bronze image of nude dancing girl with right hand at hip Stone - steatite image of bearded man at mohenjodaro Pottery:
Baked clay Male and femaleHumpless bullsNew techniquesMetallurgy
Metal and stoneDancing girlBearded man
Use of potters wheel Glazed pottery - first of its kind in world Plain (red) and painted (red and black)
Weights and measures:
First doubling from 1,2,4,8 to 64 and then in decimal multiples of
16 Foot - 37.6 cm Cubit - 51.8 to 53.6
Burial practices:
3 forms (CPF)
Complete burials
Fractional burials
Post-cremation burials
Surkotada - pot burial
Potter’s wheel Glazed pottery Plain Painted
CPF
Surkotada
Harappa
Harappa - graves east-west axis Food:
Wheat, barley, dates, pork, beef, mutton, poultry Milk and vegetables
Dress and ornaments:
Cotton and wool Two types - one to cover upper and one to cover lower portions Ornaments - gold, silver, ivory and copper
Public buildings:
Fortified citadels Large pillared hall Great granary (3G) Great bath Public granary
Cotton Wool 2 types Ornaments
Citadels Pillared hall 3G
Household articles:
Vessels of copper, bronze, silver and painted pottery Glazed indus pottery Game of dice
Weapons:
Maces, axes, spears, bows, arrows Defensive weapons - unknown Preparation of weapons - copper, bronze and stone
Special features of some harappan sites: Harappa:
Vessels Pottery Dice
Defensive Preparation
First indus site to be discovered - dayaram sahani (HD) 2 rows of 6 granaries Largest no. of wheat grains Red sandstone tarso of nude male Burial practices - R 37, cemetry H type
Mohenjodaro:
Second site to be discovered - R.D.Banarjee (MB) Great granary (3G) Great bath Multi pillared assembly hall First street
Pasupati seal Bronze image of dancing girl with right hand on hip Steatite image of bearded man 3 cylindrical seals of mesopotamia Outbreak of malaria
Lothal:
s.r.rao Artificial dockyard World's first tidal port
Mini harappa Double burial Cultivation of rice Manchester of harappan civilization for its cotton (3C’s) Copper furnaces Chess game Fire altar
Chanhudaro:
Majumdar (CM) Indus city without citadel (CCC) Lancashire of india
Flooded more than once Largest number of copper settlements Lipstick Cat's fooprint
Kalibangan:
B.B.lal and k.ghosh Word - black bangles Earliest ploughed field Mixed cropping Cylindrical seal 7 fire altars Bones of animals
Surkotada
Joshi Bones of horse Pot burial
Dholavira:
r.s bhist Largest of all indus settlements Middle town – dam, reservoir, stadium 10 alphabet signboard Traces of dam Destroyed by earthquake Biggest state found in india Water reservoir Stadium
Banwali:
Barley grains
Oval shaped settlements Daimabad :
�మబ� ల� ��వ �� బ�� ంజ� �చ�ను
Dhavalikar Largest no. of bronze items Bronze chariot, rhino, elephant, bull
Kot diji:
��� ��� ల� గ�ర�� ���� మ�� �ధ��� య
Ghurey Largest no. of stone implements Destroyed by fire
Geographical extent :
Impact of IVC on present India: Indus valley civilization:
Drew much of its wealth from horticulture Main crop was cotton Believed to have followed an authoritarian or theocratic system of
govt Adopted hinduism after the arrival of nomads from central
europe Present India:
Main exports are precious stones, petroleum and petroleum based products, software, engg equipment, textiles
Shifted from social leanings to liberal policies and free market economy in 1991
Follows a democratic system of govt
Recent study on IVC: Confirmed that IVC declined due to climate change Scientists found evidence from meghalaya, oman and arabian sea
> abrupt weakening of summer monsoon affected NW India 4100 yrs ago
Resulting drought coincided with the beginning of decline of metropolis-building > climate change could be why many of its major cities were abandonedConclusion:
Indus valley people gave to this world its earliest cities, its town planning. Its architecture in stone and clay and showed their concern for health and sanitation
There is enough evidence to show that some of the early conceptions of hinduism are derived from this culture
On the whole, present civilization is a composite product resulting from a fusion of several cultures where the contribution is of utmost importance
THE VEDIC CIVILIZATION EARLY OR RIG VEDIC CIVILIZATION: INTRODUCTION:
The world of vedic india is largely through its religious texts, the vedas, which gave the period its name
The vedas recorded not only the religion of the vedic people, but also details of their lives that give us a look at their political, social and economic pattern.
Composed and transmitted orally, these texts consists of hymns; spells; myths and rituals.
Town planning Architecture Health and sanitation Hinduism Composite product
Original home and identity:
Word "Aryan" > high birth Theory of southern russia or eurasia > seems more plausible From this region they moved to diff parts of asia and europe Migrated to india through khyber pass Rapidly spread to the area known as the Sapta Sindhu Some part of Afghanistan > araiya or haraiya Main tribes > hitties, indo-aryans, iranians, kassites, mitannis
and greeks Boghaz koi inscriptions > peace treaty between hitties and
marayanni rulers of mittani >> names of vedic gods are mentioned - indra, mitra, nasatya , varuna Proves that central asia as their homeland Mingles with local people
Adopted agrarian way of life after settling down in small, organized communities
Reason behind rapid expansion of the aryans:
Chariot driven by horses Weapons made of good quality bronze Use of armour (varman) Use of destructive machine called "Purcharishnu"
Chariot
Weaponsarmour
Purcharishnu
Geographical extent:
Knowledge of indus valley according to rig veda Indus is the most mentioned river in rig veda Saraswati (Naditarna) considered as the holiest river Identified with ghaggar-hakra channel, but in rigvedic
description it seems to be avetan river "Haraxvati" Yamuna > thrice & ganga > once Samudra > collection of water and not sea Knowledge of himvat or snow mountains, dhawa (desert land)
and majuvant, from which aryans got soma Knowldege of eastern afghanistan, NWFP, east and west punjab
and haryana
indus valley Indus SaraswatiHaraxvatiYamuna ganga Samudra soma Knowldege
Sources:
Chief source - vedic literature in sanskrit Composed > 1500 - 500 BC Vedic literature - 4 vedas, vedangas, upavedas, darsanas and
sutra literature
The 4 vedas:
Veda - "vid" > to know or knowledge 4 vedas - rig, yajur, sama, adharva (RAYS) Belief of hindus - vedic literature composed by Apaursheyas Rishis heard them from the mouth of god - sruthi > handed over
from generation to generation Rigveda - oldest and most important each veda - 4 parts - samhita, brahmana, aranyaka, upanishads
Samhithas:
Texts for recitation Hymns, prayers, sacrificial formulas 1017 hymns in rik samhitha One mandala > purushasukta - sacrificial rituals Yajus samhitha - partly hymns and partly of prose passages -
performance of sacrifices Samaveda samhitha - 1063 verses > rik samhitha - sung at the
time of sacrifice Atharva samhitha - 731 hymns divided into 20 books Atharva veda > late recognition - excluded from the group -
deals with evil spirits , ghosts and formulas to control demons and spirits
Brahmanas: Explain the meaning of sacrifices and methods of performing
them Each of the 4 vedas had brahmanas attached to it
Aitreya and Kausitaki Brahmanas >> rig veda (RAK)
Tandya Maha Brahmana and Jaiminiya Brahmanas >> Samaveda: Thanda, Janimiya
Taittireya and Sathpatha Brahmanas >> Yajurveda: Sat on a Tie Gopatha Brahmanas >> Adharvaveda: Gopi
Aranyakas:
Forest texts for old people who resorted to forests and unable to perform sacrifices
Philosophical ideas discussion Simple ceremonies in place of complicated rituals Most imp Aranyakas - Aitreya and Taitreya
Upanishads:
Indian philosophy rooted Upanishad - secret instructions imparted as private settings by
the preceptor to the pupil Simply sitting near a guru to get confidential knowledge Deals with truth , self realization, self and absolute self
emancipation of man
Indian philosophy UpanishadguruDealTotalImp
Total - 108 Imp - isa, kena, katha, prasna, mundaka ("Satyameva jayathe"),
mandukya, chanyoga, brihadaranyaka, svetasvatara (Bhakti concept) and Maitrayani
Vedangas:
Total – 6 (SVNJKC) Closely connected with vedas known as vedangas or limbs of
- etymology, chandas - metric, jyothisha - astronomy Help in reading and understanding the vedas
Upavedas:
Total – 4 (GADS) Ayurveda - medicine, Dhanurveda - warfare, Gandharva veda -
music, Shilpa veda - architecture
Total ConnectedReading &
understanding
Darsanas:
Total – 6 (msnV2y)
Nyaya – gautama న �����త�దు ��తం ���యం � ప���� ర�
Vaiseshika – kanada కన�ద �����ఖ���న ��ష
Yoga – patanjali
Sankhya – kapila
Purva mimansa – jaimini
Uttar mimansa - badarayana Darsanas - imp part of indian philosophy
Sutra literature:
Developed in the form of concise formulas Srauta > public rituals - big sacrifices grihya >domestic rules dharma > law and social practice Sulva > rules for measurements and building of altars and places
Political conditions:
Not homogeneous Divided into several tribes - anus, druhyus, yadus, purus,
bharatas, krivis, srinjayas Fought among themselves for supremacy The aryans came into conflict with DASAS (branch of early
aryans) and DASYUS (original inhabitants of India) The dasyus probably worshipped the phallus and did not
husband cattle for dairy products Rigveda mentions the defeat of Sambara (Dasyus) by a chief
called Divodasa of Bharata clan (Dasas) : Sambara vs Divodasa
Concise formulasSrautaGrihyaDharmaSulva
The term Dasyuhatya refers to the slaughter of the dasyus by the dasas
Aryan chief of the dasas - Trasadasyu Tribal chief - Rajan > centre of administrative machinery. The kings (Gopajanasya) position was hereditary He was the protector of tribe and cattle and not the ruler of
specific territory Popular mode of govt - monarchy King employed spies. Army included foot soldiers (Patti) and
warriors (Rathins). The army divided into Sardha, Vrata and Gana Several tribal assemblies called Vidhatha, Sabha, Samithi and
Gana are mentioned in the Rig veda >> exercised military and religious functions.
Women attended Vidatha and Sabha Doctrine of divinity was not associated with kingship Only one king, Purusukta has been described as Ardhaveda
(semi - divine) in Rigveda Important officers - purohita, senani, kulpati (head of the
family), vishpati, brajpati, gramini, sparsa (spy), dutta (messenger) In the Ratnahavimsi ceremony the king had to approach
dignitaries who lived in permanent dwellings The Dasraja War or Battle of ten kings:
In this battle, Sudas, the son of Divodas and the Bharata king of Tritsu family won over an alliance of 10 tribes (5 Aryans and 5 Non-Aryans) and killed their leader Purusukta
The battle was fought on the bank of Parushni (Ravi) river The battle broke out (VV PLAZA)due to a dispute between
Vasistha (priest of Bharathas) and Visvamitra (priest of the alliance) Economic life:
Predominantly pastoral Cow (Gau) was the most important animal >> mentioned 176
times in Rig veda Gomath referred to men prosperous with many cattles The terms of war were gavisthi or the search for cows Main occupation - cattle breeding Domesticated horse, sheep, goat, dog and ass Wild animals known - lion, elephant and bear Agriculture - secondary occupation Yava (barley) - chief food grain Cotton , rice and wheat > not mentioned in Rig Veda Practice of Shifting agriculture References regarding use of bulls to draw the plough (Sira),
sowing of seeds in the furrows (Sita), cutting of the corn withb the sickle (Datra) and the use of Sieve (Titau) as well as winnowing fan (Supra).
Cultivated fields (kshetra), fertile land (urvara), manure (karishu), wells (Aval / prupa), canal (kulya) were also known
Panis formed the great trading class >> condemned in several texts for their greed and hard heartedness
Ayas (copper and bronze) was the common metal in use and metal smelters were called "Karmar"
There were carpentars (Takshan) who made chariots (rathas) and boats (nau)
There were also goldsmiths (Hiranyakara), potters (kulala), barbers (vaptri), tanners (charmamna), physician (bhishaka) and chariot maker (rathakara)
Nishkas, hiranyapindas and manas >> recognized pieces of weights and value
Pottery - ochre coloured pottery (OCP) though black and red ware type was known
Taxation system >> not developed and Bali was a form of voluntary contribution to the king
Vedic Society:
Tribal society with kingship as the basis of social structure Man was identified with his tribe called Jana Jana was divided into Vis (group of villages) under Vispati, Vis
into grama (village) under Gramnani and Grama into kulas (family) into kulapa Jana > Vis > Grama > Kulas
Tribal society was broadly divided priests, warriors and people "Shudra" is first mentioned in 10th book (latest addition) of Rig
veda Non aryans consisted of Dasyus and Panis
NON ARYANS WERE GENERALLY REFERRED AS
Avrata
Not obeying the ordinances of the gods
Akratu or Ayajvan
Who performs no sacrifices
Mridhravachah Whose speech is indistinct
Anas Flat nosed
Sisnadevah Worsjipper of phallus emblems
Devapiyu Anti-vedic gods
Adevayu Indifferent to vedic gods
Slavery was existent as slave women were gifted to priests. Untouchability and concept of gotra was unknown
Position of women:
Rig vedic society was patriarchial > birth of daughters was not desired
Once born they were treated with kindness, education was not neglected
Child marriage was not practiced. Women can choose their husband.
Monogamy and Niyoga (variant of widow remarriage) was practiced
Women participated in religious ceremonies and tribal assemblies Religious pattern:
Personification of the forces of nature Vedic religion was Henotheism or Kathenotheism Predominance of male god Very few goddesses find mention Aim of worship was material gains Cult of domestic hearth prevalent Sacrifice was the pivot of vedic religion
Important references from vedic texts: Reference from Rig Veda:
Gayatri mantra Mention of the word varna Mention of the word sudras Four fold division of society (10th mandala) Purusha - sukta hymn (10th mandala) Origin of the universe (10th mandala) Battle of 10 kings (7th mandala) Ganga (10th mandala) Rajanya (10th mandala) Jain trithankara "Rishabhdeo and Neminath" Saraswathi as Saubhagyadayini
References from Atharva veda:
Mention of the word gotra Sabha and samithi as the twin daughter of prajapati Sabha as narishta Women's participation in samithi Reference of pashupati
References from Aitareya Brahmana:
Origin of kingship Sudras as the servant To be expelled at will and to be stain at will Ten forms of govt Kings as protector of brahmins
References from Satpatha Brahmana:
Elaborate description of "upanayana" Wife is half her husband and complete him Mention of eastern and western seas First reference to money lending