Ancient CarthageAncient Carthage was the Phoeniciancity-state
ofCarthage. During the 7th to 3rd centuries BC, its sphereof
inuence, the so-calledCarthaginianEmpire, ex-tended over much of
the coast of North Africa as wellas substantial parts of coastal
Iberia and the islands of thewestern Mediterranean.[1]The city,
called Qart-adat (NewCity)[2]in thePhoenician language, was founded
in 814 BC.[3][4] A de-pendency of the Phoenician state of Tyre at
the time,Carthage gained independence around 650 BCand estab-lished
its political hegemony over other Phoenician settle-ments
throughout the western Mediterranean, this lastinguntil the end of
the 3rd century BC. At the height of thecitys prominence, it was a
major hub of trade with trad-ing stations extending throughout the
region.For much of its history, Carthage was on hostile termswith
the Greeks in Sicily and the Roman Republic, lead-ing to a series
of armed conicts known as the Greek-Punic Wars and Punic Wars. The
city also had to
dealwiththepotentiallyhostileBerbers,[5]theindigenousinhabitants of
the area where Carthage was built. In146 BC, after the third and
nal Punic War, Carthagewas destroyed and then occupied by Roman
forces.[6]Nearly all of the other Phoenician city-states and
formerCarthaginian dependencies subsequently fell into Romanhands.1
History1.1 Extent of Phoenician settlementThePhoenicians
establishednumerous colonial citiesalong the coasts of the
Mediterranean[7] in order to pro-vide safe harbors for their
merchant eets,[8] to maintain aPhoenician monopoly on an areas
natural resources, andto conduct trade free of outside
interference.[9] They werealso motivated to found these cities by a
desire to satisfythe demand for trade goods or to escape the
necessity ofpaying tribute[10] to the succession of empires that
ruledTyre, Sidon, and Byblos, and by fear of complete
Greekcolonization of that part of the Mediterranean suitable
forcommerce.[11] The Phoenicians lacked the population ornecessity
to establish large self-sustaining cities abroad,and most of their
colonial cities had fewer than 1,000 in-habitants, but Carthage and
a few others developed largerpopulations.[12]1.2 Carthaginian
controlAlthough Strabos claim that the Tyrians founded threehundred
colonies along the west African coast is clearlyexaggerated,
colonies were established in Tunisia, Mo-rocco, Algeria,
Iberia,[13] and to a much lesser extent,on the arid coast of Libya.
The Phoenicians were ac-tive in Cyprus, Sardinia, Corsica, the
Balearic Islands,Crete, and Sicily, as well as on the European
mainlandat present-day Genoa in Italy and Marseille in present-day
France.[14] The settlements at Crete and Sicily werein perpetual
conict with the Greeks,[15] but the Phoeni-cians managed to control
all of Sicily for a limited time.The entire area later came under
the leadership and pro-tection of Carthage,[16] which in turn
dispatched its owncolonists to found new cities[17] or to reinforce
those thatdeclined with the loss of primacy of Tyre and Sidon.The
rst colonies were settled on the two paths to Iberiasmineral wealth
along the North African coast and onSicily, Sardinia and the
Balearic Islands.[18] The centreof the Phoenician world was
Tyre,[19] which served asits economic and political hub. The power
of this citywaned following numerous sieges by
Babylonia,[20][21]and then its later voluntary submission to the
Per-sian king Cambyses and incorporation within the Per-sian
empire.[22]Supremacy passed to Sidon, and
thentoCarthage,[23]beforeTyreseventual destructionbyAlexander the
Great in 332 BC.[24] Each colony paid trib-ute to either Tyre or
Sidon, but neither city had actualcontrol of the colonies. This
changed with the rise ofCarthage, since the Carthaginians appointed
their ownmagistrates to rule the towns and Carthage retained
muchdirect control over the colonies.[25] This policy resulted ina
number of Iberian towns siding with the Romans duringthe Punic
Wars.1.3 Treaty with RomeIn 509 BC, a treaty was signed between
Carthage andRome[26] indicating a division of inuence and
commer-cial activities.[27] This is the rst known source
indicatingthat Carthage had gained control over Sicily and
Sardinia.1.4 5th centuryBy the beginning of the 5th century BC,
Carthage had be-come the commercial center of the West
Mediterraneanregion,[28] a position it retained until overthrown by
the12 1 HISTORYRoman Republic. The city had conquered most of
theold Phoenician colonies (including Hadrumetum, Utica,Hippo
Diarrhytus and Kerkouane), subjugated the Libyantribes (with the
Numidian and Mauretanian kingdoms re-maining more or less
independent), and taken control ofthe entire North African coast
from modern Morocco tothe borders of Egypt (not including the
Cyrenaica, whichwas eventually incorporated into Hellenistic
Egypt).[29]Its inuence had also extended into the
Mediterranean,takingcontrol over Sardinia, Malta,
theBalearicIs-lands, and the western half of Sicily,[30] where
coastalfortresses such as Motya or Lilybaeum secured its
pos-sessions. Important colonies had also been establishedon the
Iberian Peninsula.[31] Their cultural inuence inthe Iberian
Peninsula is documented,[32] but the degree oftheir political
inuence before the conquest by HamilcarBarca is disputed.[33]1.5
Sicilian WarsMain article: Sicilian Wars1.5.1 First Sicilian
WarCarthages economic successes, and its dependence onshipping to
conduct most of its trade, led to the cre-ation of a powerful
Carthaginian navy.[34] This, coupledwith its success and growing
hegemony, brought Carthageinto increasing conict with the Greeks of
Syracuse, theother major power contending for control of the
centralMediterranean.[35]The island of Sicily, lying at Carthages
doorstep, becamethe arena on which this conict played out. From
theirearliest days, both the Greeks and Phoenicians had
beenattracted to the large island, establishing a large numberof
colonies and trading posts along its coast;[36] battleshad been
fought between these settlements for centuries.By 480 BC, Gelo, the
tyrant leader of Greek Syracuse,backed in part by support from
other Greek
city-states,wasattemptingtounitetheislandunderhisrule.[37]This
imminent threat could not be ignored, and Carthage possibly as part
of an alliance with Persia, then en-gaged military force under the
leadership of the gen-eral Hamilcar. Traditional accounts,
including those ofHerodotus and Diodorus, give Hamilcars army a
strengthof three hundred thousand men;though these are
cer-tainlyexaggerated, it must nonethelesshavebeenofformidable
strength.[38]En route to Sicily, however, Hamilcar suered
losses(possibly severe) due to poor weather. Landing at Panor-mus
(modern-day Palermo),[39] Hamilcar spent 3 days re-organizing his
forces and repairing his battered eet. TheCarthaginians marched
along the coast to Himera, andmade camp before engaging in the
Battle of Himera.[40]Hamilcar was either killed during the battle
or commit-ted suicide in shame.[41] As a result the nobility
negotiatedpeace and replaced the old monarchy with a
republic.[42]1.5.2 Second Sicilian WarBy 410 BC, Carthage had
recovered after serious defeats.It had conquered much of modern day
Tunisia, strength-ened and founded new colonies in North Africa;
Hannothe Navigator had made his journey down the
Africancoast,[43][44] and Himilco the Navigator had explored
theEuropean Atlantic coast.[45]Expeditions were also ledinto
Morocco and Senegal, as well as into the Atlantic.[46]In the same
year, the Iberian colonies seceded, cuttingo Carthages major supply
of silver and copper, whileHannibal Mago, the grandson of Hamilcar,
began prepa-rations to reclaim Sicily.In 409 BC,[47] Hannibal Mago
set out for Sicily with hisforce. He captured the smaller cities of
Selinus (modernSelinunte) and Himera before returning triumphantly
toCarthage with the spoils of war. But the primary enemy,Syracuse,
remained untouched and, in 405 BC, HannibalMago led a second
Carthaginian expedition to claim theentire island. This time,
however, he met with erce re-sistance and ill-fortune. During the
siege of Agrigentum,the Carthaginian forces were ravaged by plague,
Hanni-bal Mago himself succumbing to it.[48] Although his
suc-cessor, Himilco, successfully extended the campaign bybreaking
a Greek siege - capturing the city of Gela and re-peatedly
defeating the army of Dionysius, the new tyrantof Syracuse - he,
too, was weakened by the plague andforced to sue for peace before
returning to Carthage.In 398 BC, Dionysius had regained his
strength and brokethe peace treaty, striking at the Carthaginian
strongholdof Motya. Himilco responded decisively, leading an
ex-pedition which not only reclaimed Motya, but also cap-tured
Messina.[49] Finally, he laid siege to Syracuse it-self. The siege
was close to a success throughout 397BC, but in 396 BC plague again
ravaged the Carthaginianforces,[50] and they collapsed.The ghting
in Sicily swung in favor of Carthage in 387BC. After winning a
naval battle o the coast of Catania,Himilco laid siege to Syracuse
with 50,000 Carthagini-ans, but yet another epidemic struck down
thousandsof them. Dionysius then launched a counterattack byland
and sea, and the Syracusans surprised the enemyeet while most of
the crews were ashore, destroying allthe Carthaginian ships. At the
same time, Dionysiussground forces stormed the besiegerslines and
routedthe Carthaginians. Himilco and his chief ocers aban-doned
their army and ed Sicily.[51]Himilco returnedto Carthage in
disgrace and was very badly received; heeventually committed
suicide[52] by starving himself.Sicily by this time had become an
obsession for Carthage.Over the next fty years, Carthaginian and
Greek forcesengaged in a constant series of skirmishes. By 340
BC,1.7 The Punic Wars 3Carthage had been pushed entirely into the
southwest cor-ner of the island, and an uneasy peace reigned over
theisland.1.5.3 Third Sicilian WarMediterranean sea nations in 323
BC.In 315 BC, Agathocles, the tyrant (administrating gover-nor) of
Syracuse, seized the city of Messene (present-dayMessina). In 311
BC he invaded the last Carthaginianholdings on Sicily, breaking the
terms of the currentpeace treaty,[11] and laid siege to
Akragas.Hamilcar, grandsonofHannotheNavigator, ledtheCarthaginian
response and met with tremendous success.By 310 BC, he controlled
almost all of Sicily and hadlaid siege to Syracuse itself. In
desperation, Agatho-cles secretly led an expedition of 14,000 men
to themainland,[53] hoping to save his rule by leading a
counter-strike against Carthage itself.In this, he was
successful:Carthage was forced to recall Hamilcar and most of
hisarmy from Sicily to face the new and unexpected threat.Although
Agathocless army was eventually defeated in307 BC, Agathocles
himself escaped back to Sicily andwas able to negotiate a peace
which maintained Syracuseas a stronghold of Greek power in
Sicily.1.6 Pyrrhic WarMain article: Pyrrhic WarBetween 280 and 275
BC, Pyrrhus of Epirus wagedtwo major campaigns in the western
Mediterranean: oneagainst the emerging power of the Roman Republic
insouthern Italy, the other against Carthage in Sicily.[54]Pyrrhus
sent an advance guard to Tarentum under thecommandof Cineaus
with3,000infantry. Pyrrhusmarched the main army across the Greek
peninsula andengaged in battles with the Thessalians and the
Athenianarmy. After his early success on the march Pyrrhus en-tered
Tarentum to rejoin with his advance guard.In the midst of Pyrrhuss
Italian campaigns, he receivedenvoys from the Sicilian cities of
Agrigentum, Syracuse,Trireme mosaic from Carthage, Bardo Museum,
Tunis.andLeontini, askingfor militaryaidtoremovetheCarthaginian
dominance over that island.[55][56] Pyrrhusagreed,
andfortiedtheSiciliancitieswithanarmyof20,000infantryand3,000cavalry[57]and20warelephants,[58]supported
by some 200 ships. Initially,Pyrrhuss Sicilian campaign against
Carthage was a suc-cess, pushing back the Carthaginian forces, and
capturingthe city-fortress of Eryx, even though he was not able
tocapture Lilybaeum.[59]Followingtheselosses, Carthagesuedforpeace,
butPyrrhus refused unless Carthage was willing to
renounceitsclaimsonSicilyentirely. AccordingtoPlutarch,Pyrrhus set
his sights on conquering Carthage itself, andto this end, began
outtting an expedition. However, hisruthless treatment of the
Sicilian cities in his prepara-tions for this expedition, and his
execution of two Sicilianrulers whom he claimed were plotting
against him led tosuch a rise in animosity towards the Greeks, that
Pyrrhuswithdrew from Sicily and returned to deal with events
oc-curring in southern Italy.[60][61]Pyrrhuss campaigns inItaly
were inconclusive, andPyrrhus eventually withdrew to Epirus. For
Carthage,this meant a return to the status quo. For Rome,
however,the failure of Pyrrhus to defend the colonies of
MagnaGraecia meant that Rome absorbed them into its "sphereof
inuence", bringing it closer to complete dominationof the Italian
peninsula. Romes domination of Italy, andproof that Rome could pit
its military strength success-fully against major international
powers, would pave theway to the future Rome-Carthage conicts of
the PunicWars.1.7 The Punic WarsFurther information: PunicWars,
First PunicWar,Mercenary War, Second Punic War, and Third
PunicWarWhen Agathocles died in 288 BC, a large company ofItalian
mercenaries who had previously been held in hisservice found
themselves suddenly without employment.4 1 HISTORYCarthage electrum
coin, c. 250 BC. British Museum.Carthaginian dependencies and
protectorates through the PunicWars.Rather than leave Sicily, they
seized the city of Messana.Naming themselves Mamertines (or sons of
Mars), theybecame a law unto themselves, terrorizing the
surround-ing countryside.[62]The Mamertines became a growing threat
to Carthageand Syracuse alike. In 265 BC, Hiero II, former gen-eral
of Pyrrhus and the new tyrant of Syracuse, took ac-tion against
them.[63] Faced with a vastly superior force,the Mamertines divided
into two factions, one advocat-ing surrender to Carthage, the other
preferring to seekaid from Rome. While the Roman Senate debated
thebest course of action, the Carthaginians eagerly agreed tosend a
garrison to Messana. A Carthaginian garrison wasadmitted to the
city, and a Carthaginian eet sailed intothe Messanan harbor.
However, soon afterwards they be-gan negotiating with Hiero.
Alarmed, the Mamertinessent another embassy to Rome asking them to
expel theCarthaginians.Hieros intervention had placed Carthages
military forcesdirectly across the narrow channel of water that
sepa-rated Sicily from Italy. Moreover, the presence of
theCarthaginian eet gave them eective control over thischannel, the
Strait of Messina, and demonstrated a clearand present danger to
nearby Rome and her interests.As a result, the Roman Assembly,
although reluctant toally with a band of mercenaries, sent an
expeditionaryforce to return control of Messana to the
Mamertines.The Roman attack on the Carthaginian forces at
Messanatriggered the rst of the Punic Wars.[64] Over the courseof
the next century, these three major conicts betweenRome and
Carthage would determine the course of West-ern civilization.The
wars included a Carthaginian inva-sion led by Hannibal Barca, which
nearly prevented therise of the Roman Empire.In256-255BCtheRomans,
underthecommandofMarcus Atilius Regulus, landed in Africa and after
suer-ing some initial defeats the Carthaginian forces
eventuallyrepelled the Roman invasion.[63]Shortly after the First
Punic War, Carthage faced a ma-jor mercenary revolt which changed
the internal polit-ical landscape of Carthage (bringing the Barcid
familyto prominence),[65] and aected Carthages
internationalstanding, as Rome used the events of the war to base
aclaim by which it seized Sardinia and Corsica.TheSecondPunicWar
lastedfrom218to202BCandinvolvedcombatants
inthewesternandeasternMediterranean, with the participation of the
Berbers onCarthages side.[66] The war is marked by Hannibal's
sur-prising overland journey[67] and his costly crossing of
theAlps, followed by his reinforcement by Gaulish allies
andcrushing victories over Roman armies in the battle of theTrebia
and the giant ambush at Trasimene. Against hisskill on the
battleeld the Romans deployed the Fabianstrategy. But because of
the increasing unpopularity ofthis approach, the Romans resorted to
a further majoreld battle.[66] The result was the crushing Roman
defeatat Cannae.[68]In consequence many Roman allies went over
toCarthage, prolonging the war in Italy for over a decade,during
which more Roman armies were destroyed on thebattleeld. Despite
these setbacks, the Roman forceswere more capable in siegecraft[49]
than the Carthagini-ans and recaptured all the major cities that
had joinedthe enemy, as well as defeating a Carthaginian
attempttoreinforceHannibal at thebattleof theMetaurus.In the
meantime in Iberia, which served as the mainsource of manpower for
the Carthaginian army, a sec-ond Roman expedition under Publius
Cornelius ScipioAfricanus Major took New Carthage by assault[69]
andendedCarthaginianruleover IberiainthebattleofIlipa.[70]The
nalshowdown was the battle of Zama2.2 Economy 5in Africa between
Scipio Africanus and Hannibal,re-sulting in the latters defeat and
the imposition of harshpeace conditions on Carthage, which ceased
to be a ma-jor power and became a Roman client-state.[71]The Third
Punic War (149 BC to 146 BC) was the thirdand last of the Punic
Wars. The war was a much smallerengagement than the two previous
Punic Wars and pri-marily consisted of a single main action, the
Battle ofCarthage, but resulted in the complete destruction ofthe
city of Carthage,[72] the annexation of all remain-ing Carthaginian
territory by Rome,[73]and the deathor enslavement of thousands of
Carthaginians.[74][75]TheThirdPunicWar endedCarthages
independentexistence.[76]2 Culture2.1 LanguageCarthaginians spoke
Punic, a variety of Phoenician,[77]which was a Semitic language
originating in theCarthaginians original homeland of Phoenicia
(present-day Lebanon).[78]2.2 EconomyCarthaginian portCarthaginian
commerce extended by sea throughout theMediterranean and perhaps
into the Atlantic as far as theCanary Islands, and by land across
the Sahara desert.AccordingtoAristotle, theCarthaginians
andothershad treaties of commerce to regulate their exports
andimports.[79][80]The empire of Carthage depended heavily on its
tradewith Tartessos[81]and with other cities of the
Iberianpeninsula,[33] from which it obtained vast quantities
ofsilver, lead, copper and even more importantly tinore,[82] which
was essential for the manufacture of bronzeobjects by the
civilizations of antiquity. Carthaginiantrade-relations with the
Iberians, and the naval might thatenforced Carthages monopoly on
this trade and and theAtlantic tin trade,[83] made it the sole
signicant brokerof tin and maker of bronze in its day. Maintaining
thismonopoly was one of the major sources of power andprosperity
for Carthage; Carthaginian merchants stroveto keep the location of
the tin mines secret.[84] In addi-tion to its role as the sole
signicant distributor of tin,Carthages central location in the
Mediterranean and con-trol of the waters between Sicily and Tunisia
allowed itto control the eastern peoples supply of tin. Carthagewas
also the Mediterraneans largest producer of silver,mined in
Iberia[85] and on the North African coast; af-ter the tin monopoly,
this was one of its most protabletrades. One mine in Iberia
provided Hannibal with 300Roman pounds (3.75 talents) of silver a
day.[86][87]Carthages economy began as an extension of that of
itsparent city, Tyre.[88] Its massive merchant eet traversedthe
trade routes mapped out by Tyre, and Carthage in-herited from Tyre
the trade in the extremely valuable dyeTyrian purple.[89] No
evidence of purple dye manufac-ture has been found at Carthage, but
mounds of shells ofthe murex marine snails from which it derived
have beenfound in excavations of the Punic town which
archaeolo-gists call Kerkouane, at Dar Essa on Cap Bon.[90]
Sim-ilar mounds of murex have also been found at Djerba[91]on the
Gulf of Gabes[72] in Tunisia. Strabo mentions thepurple dye-works
of Djerba[92] as well as those of the an-cient city of
Zouchis.[93][94][95] The purple dye becameone of the most highly
valued commodities in the ancientMediterranean,[96] being worth
fteen to twenty times itsweight in gold. In Roman society, where
adult males worethe toga as a national garment, the use of the toga
prae-texta, decorated with a stripe of Tyrian purple about twoto
three inches in width along its border, was reserved formagistrates
and high priests.Broad purple stripes (latusclavus) were reserved
for the togas of the senatorial class,while the equestrian class
had the right to wear narrowstripes (angustus
clavus).[97][98]Carthageproducednelyembroideredsilks,[99]dyedtextiles
of cotton, linen,[100] and wool, artistic and func-tionalpottery,
faience, incense, and perfumes.[101]Itsartisans worked expertly
with ivory,[102] glassware, andwood,[103] as well as with
alabaster, bronze, brass, lead,gold, silver, and precious stones to
create a wide arrayof goods, including mirrors, furniture[104] and
cabinetry,beds, bedding, and pillows,[105]jewelry, arms,
imple-ments, and household items.[106] It traded in salted
At-lantic sh and sh sauce (garum),[71] and brokered
themanufactured, agricultural, and natural products[107] ofalmost
every Mediterranean people.[108]In addition to manufacturing,
Carthage practised highlyadvanced and productive
agriculture,[109]using ironploughs, irrigation,[110] and crop
rotation. After the Sec-ond Punic War, Hannibal promoted
agriculture[111]tohelp restore Carthages economy and pay the war
indem-nity to Rome (10,000 talents or 800,000 Roman pounds6 2
CULTUREPunic pendant in the form of a bearded head, 4th3rd
centuryBC.of silver),[112][113] and he was largely successful.
WhenRome conquered and destroyed Carthage in 146 BC, theRoman
Senate decreed that Mago's famous treatise onagriculture be
translated into Latin.[114]Circumstantial evidencesuggeststhat
Carthagedevel-opedviticultureandwineproductionbeforethe4thcenturyBC,[115]andevenexporteditswineswidely,as
indicatedbydistinctive cigar-shapedCarthaginianamphorae found at
archaeological sites around
thewesternMediterranean,[116]althoughthe contents ofthese vessels
have not been conclusively analysed.Carthagealsoshippedquantities
of raisinwine, thepassum of antiquity.[117] Fruits including gs,
pears, andpomegranates, as well as nuts, grain, grapes, dates,
andolives were grown in the extensive hinterland,[118] whileolive
oil was processed and exported all over the Mediter-ranean.
Carthage also raised ne horses,[119] the ancestorof todays Barb
horses.Carthages merchant ships, which surpassed in numbereven
those of the cities of the Levant, visited every majorport of the
Mediterranean, as well as Britain and the At-lantic coast of
Africa.[120] These ships were able to carryover 100 tons of
goods.[121]Carthage also sent caravans into the interior of
Africaand Persia. It traded its manufactured and agriculturalgoods
to the coastal and interior peoples of Africa forsalt, gold,
timber, ivory, ebony, apes, peacocks, skins,and hides.[122] Its
merchants invented the practice of saleby auction and used it to
trade with the African tribes.In other ports, they tried to
establish permanent ware-houses or sell their goods in open-air
markets. They ob-tained amber from Scandinavia, and from the
Celtiberi-ans, Gauls, and Celts they got amber, tin, silver,
andfurs. Sardinia and Corsica produced gold and silver forCarthage,
and Phoenician settlements on islands such asMalta and the Balearic
Islands produced commoditiesthat would be sent back to Carthage for
large-scale distri-bution. The city supplied poorer civilizations
with sim-ple products such as pottery, metallic objects, and
or-namentations, often displacing the local manufacturing,but
brought its best works to wealthier ones such as theGreeks and
Etruscans. Carthage traded in almost ev-ery commodity wanted by the
ancient world, includingspices from Arabia, Africa and India, and
slaves (the em-pire of Carthage temporarily held a portion of
Europeand sent conquered white warriors into Northern
Africanslavery).[123]Herodotus wrote an account about 430 BC
ofCarthaginian trade on the Atlantic coast of Morocco.[124]The
Punic explorer and suete of Carthage called Hannothe Navigator led
an expedition to recolonise the Atlanticcoast ofMorocco[125]that
mayhaveventuredasfardown the coast of Africa as Senegal and perhaps
evenbeyond. The Greek version of the Periplus of Hannodescribes his
voyage. Although it is not known just howfar his eet sailed on the
African coastline,this shortreport, dating probably from the 5th or
6th century BC,identiesdistinguishinggeographic featuressuch
asacoastal volcano and an encounter with hairy
hominids.Archaeological nds show evidence of all kinds of
ex-changes, from the vast quantities of tin needed for
abronze-based metals civilization to all manner of
textiles,ceramics and ne metalwork. Before and in between thewars,
Carthaginian merchants were in every port in theMediterranean,[126]
trading in harbours with warehousesor from ships beached on the
coast.The Etruscan language is imperfectly deciphered, butbilingual
inscriptions found in archaeological excavationsat the sites of
Etruscan cities indicate the Phoenicians hadtrading relations with
the Etruscans for centuries.[127] Thediscovery in 1964 at Pyrgi in
Italy of a shrine to Astarte,a popular Phoenician deity, containing
three gold tabletswith inscriptions in Etruscan and Phoenician,
gives tangi-ble proof of the Phoenician presence in the Italian
penin-sula at the end of the 6th century BC,[128] long beforethe
rise of Rome. These inscriptions imply a politicaland commercial
alliance between Carthage[129] and theEtruscan ruler of Caere that
would corroborate Aristo-tles statement that the Etruscans and
Carthaginians wereso close as to form almost one people.[130] The
Etruscancity-states were, at times, both commercial partners
ofCarthage and military allies.[131]7Punic district of Carthage2.3
GovernmentThe government of Carthage changed dramatically afterthe
total rout of the Carthaginian forces at the battle ofHimera on
Sicily in 483 BC.[132] The Magonid clan wascompelled to compromise
and allow representative andeven some democratic institutions.
Carthage remainedto a great extent an oligarchal republic, which
relied on asystemof checks and balances and ensured a formof
pub-lic accountability.At the head of the Carthaginian statewere
now two annually elected, not hereditary, Suets[133](thus rendered
in Latin by Livy 30.7.5, attested inPunic inscriptions as SPM
/uftim/, meaning judgesand obviously related to the Biblical Hebrew
ruler titleShophet "Judge"),[134] similar to modern day
executivepresidents. Greek and Roman authors more commonlyreferred
to them as kings. SP /ut/ might origi-nally have been the title of
the citys governor, installedby the mother city of Tyre. A list of
the hereditary suf-fetes/"kings can be found here.In the
historically attested period, the two Suets wereelected annually
from among the most wealthy and inu-ential families and ruled
collegially, similarly to Romanconsuls (and equated with these by
Livy). This practicemight have descended from the plutocratic
oligarchiesthat limited the Suets power in the rst
Phoeniciancities.[135] A range of more junior ocials and
specialcommissioners oversaw dierent aspects of governmen-tal
business such as public works, tax-collecting, and
theadministration of the state treasury.[133][136]The aristocratic
families were represented in a supremecouncil (Roman sources speak
of a Carthaginian"Senate", and Greek ones of a council of Elders"
or agerousia), which had a wide range of powers; however,it is not
known whether the Suets were elected by thiscouncil or by an
assembly of the people. Suets appearto have exercised judicial and
executive power, but notmilitary, as generals were chosen by the
administration.The nal supervision of the Treasury and Foreign
Aairsseems to have come under the Council of Elders.[133]There was
a body known as the Tribunal of the HundredandFour,
whichAristotlecomparedtotheSpartanephors.
Thesewerejudgeswhoactedasakindofhigher constitutional court and
oversaw the actions ofgenerals,[135]who could sometimes be
sentenced tocrucixion, as well as other ocials. Panels of
specialcommissioners, called pentarchies, were appointed fromthe
Tribunal of One Hundred and Four: they appear tohave dealt with a
variety of aairs of state.[133]Although the citys administration
was rmly controlledby oligarchs,[137] democratic elements were to
be foundas well: Carthage had elected legislators, trade unionsand
town meetings in the form of a Popular Assem-bly. Aristotle
reported in his Politics that unless the Suf-fets and the Council
reached a unanimous decision, theCarthaginian popular assembly had
the decisive vote unlike the situation in Greek states with similar
constitu-tions such as Sparta and Crete. Polybius, in his
Historybook 6, also stated that at the time of the Punic Wars,
theCarthaginian public held more sway over the governmentthan the
people of Rome held over theirs (a developmenthe regarded as
evidence of decline).[138] This may havebeen due to the inuence of
the Barcid faction.[139]Eratosthenes, head of the Library of
Alexandria, notedthat the Greeks had been wrong to describe
allnon-Greeks as barbarians, since the Carthaginians as wellas the
Romans had a constitution. Aristotle also knewand discussed the
Carthaginian constitution in his Politics(Book II, Chapter
11).[140] During the period between theend of the First Punic War
and the end of the SecondPunic War, members of the Barcid family
dominated inCarthaginian politics.[141] They were given control of
theCarthaginian military and all the Carthaginian
territoriesoutside of Africa.3 ReligionMain article: Religion in
CarthageCarthaginian religion was based on Phoenician
religion(derivedfromthe faiths of the Levant), a formofpolytheism.
Many of the gods the Carthaginians wor-shiped were localized and
are nowknown only under theirlocal names. Carthage also had Jewish
communities [142](which still exist; see Tunisian Jews and Algerian
Jews).3.1 PantheonThe supreme divine couple was that of Tanit and
Ba'alHammon.[143]The goddess Astarte[144]seems to havebeen popular
in early times.[145] At the height of its cos-mopolitan era,
Carthage seems to have hosted a large ar-ray of divinities from the
neighbouring civilizations ofGreece, Egypt and the Etruscan
city-states.A pantheon8 3 RELIGIONCarthaginian coins from c. 310290
BC showing the wreathedhead of Tanitwas presided over by the father
of the gods, but a goddesswas the principal gure in the Phoenician
pantheon.3.2 Caste of priests and acolytesSurviving Punic texts are
detailed enough to give a por-trait of a very well organized caste
of temple priests andacolytes performing dierent types of
functions, for a va-riety of prices. Priests were clean shaven,
unlike most ofthe population.[146] In the rst centuries of the city
rit-ual celebrations included rhythmic dancing, derived
fromPhoenician traditions.3.3 Punic stelaeStelae on the TophetCippi
and stelae of limestone are characteristic monu-ments of Punic art
and religion,[147] found throughout thewestern Phoenician world in
unbroken continuity, bothhistorically and geographically. Most of
them were setup over urns containing cremated human remains,
placedwithin open-air sanctuaries. Such sanctuaries
constitutestriking relics of Punic civilization.3.4 Child sacrice
questionCarthage under the Phoenicians was accused by its
ad-versariesofchildsacrice. Plutarch(20:14,46)al-leges
thepractice,[148]as doTertullian(Apolog.9:23),[149] Orosius, Philo
and Diodorus Siculus.[150] How-ever, Herodotos and Polybius do not.
Skeptics contendthat if Carthages critics were aware of such a
practice,however limited, they would have been horried by it
andexaggerated its extent due to their polemical treatment ofthe
Carthaginians.[151] The Hebrew Bible also mentionschild sacrice
practiced by the Canaanites, ancestors ofthe Carthaginians. The
Greek and Roman critics, accord-ing to Charles Picard, objected not
to the killing of chil-dren but to the religious nature of it. As
in both ancientGreece and Rome, inconvenient children were
commonlykilled by exposure to the elements.[152]Modern archaeology
in formerly Punic areas has discov-ered a number of large
cemeteries for children and in-fants, representing a civic and
religious institution forworship and sacrice called the Tophet by
archaeolo-gists. These cemeteries may have been used as gravesfor
stillborn infants or children who died very early.[153]Modern
archeological excavations have been interpretedby some
archeologists[154] as conrming Plutarchs re-ports of Carthaginian
child sacrice.[155] An estimated20,000 urns were deposited between
400 BC and 200BC,[156] in the tophet discovered in the Salammb
neigh-bourhood of present-day Carthage with the practice
con-tinuing until the early years of the Christian period. Theurns
contained the charred bones of newborns and insome cases the bones
of fetuses and two-year-olds. Thereis a clear correlation between
the frequency of cremationand the well-being of the city. In bad
times (war, poorharvests) cremations became more frequent, but it
is notknown why. One explanation for this correlation is theclaim
that the Carthaginians prayed for divine interven-tion (via child
sacrice); however, bad times would natu-rally lead to increased
child mortality, and consequently,more child burials (via
cremation).Accounts of child sacrice in Carthage report that
begin-ning at the founding of Carthage in about 814 BC, moth-ers
and fathers buried their children who had been sacri-ced to Ba`al
Hammon and Tanit in the tophet.[157] Thepractice was apparently
distasteful even to Carthaginians,and they began to buy children
for the purpose of sacri-ce or even to raise servant children
instead of oeringup their own. However, Carthages priests demanded
theyouth in times of crisis or calamity like war, drought orfamine.
Special ceremonies during extreme crisis saw upto 200 children of
the most auent and powerful familiesslain and tossed into the
burning pyre.[158]Skeptics maintain that the bodies of children
found inCarthaginian and Phoenician cemeteries were merely
thecremated remains of children who died naturally. SergioRibichini
has argued that the tophet was a child necrop-olis designed to
receive the remains of infants who had9died prematurely of sickness
or other natural causes, andwho for this reason were oered to
specic deities andburied in a place dierent from the one reserved
for theordinary dead.[159]The few Carthaginian texts whichhave
survived make absolutely no mention of child sacri-ce, though most
of them pertain to matters entirely un-related to religion, such as
the practice of agriculture.4 See alsoCarthaginian IberiaHistory of
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Carthage?oldid=675225194Contributors:
Paul Barlow, Nurg, AlanLiefting, Mike Rosoft, Discospinster, Rich
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