Anatomy and physiology final(let)

Anatomy and Physiology: A reviewer for LET

examinees by: Prof. Liwayway Memije-Cruz

Of all the living things, the human body in particular has been a source of curiosity by most of us. No doubt, the field of biology, anatomy and physiology provide us a clear venue to explore and understand it. Questions like: Why we look the way we do? Why we do the things we do like walking, running, feeling, seeing, hearing and a lot more intrigue us.

The human body is a machine that does many things. To do these things, it needs many parts. All these parts together are what we are.

What is Anatomy and Physiology?

Anatomy Physiologythe study of the structure and relationship between body parts.

the study of the function of body parts and the body as a whole.

Organizations of living systems

Living systems can be defined from various perspectives, from the broad (looking at the entire earth) to the minute (individual atoms). Each perspective provides information about how or why a living system functions: At the chemical level, atoms, molecules (combinations of atoms), and the chemical bonds between atoms provide the framework upon which all living activity is based.

The cell is the smallest unit of life. Organelles within the cell are specialized bodies performing specific cellular functions. Cells themselves may be specialized. Thus, there are nerve cells, bone cells, and muscle cells.

A tissue is a group of similar cells performing a common function. Muscle tissue, for example, consists of muscle cells.

An organ is a group of different kinds of tissues working together to perform a particular activity. The heart is an organ composed of muscle, nervous, connective, and epithelial tissues.

An organ system is two or more organs working together to accomplish a particular task. The digestive system, for example, involves the coordinated activities of many organs, including the mouth, stomach, small and large intestines, pancreas, and liver.

An organism is a system possessing the characteristics of living things—the ability to obtain and process energy, the ability to respond to environmental changes, and the ability to reproduce.

Levels of Organization

Theories on the Origin of Life

Divine Creation Theory

based on the book of Genesis in the Bible; life is believed to have been created by the Almighty God.

Philosophical Theory of Eternity

life has a beginning and no end; life has been here right from the very beginning of time

Theory of Panspermia or Cosmozoic Theory or Spore broth Theory

proposed by Richter (1865). According to this theory, ‘protoplasm’ reached the earth in the form of spores or germs or other simple particles from some unknown part of the universe with the cosmic dust, and subsequently evolved into various forms of life. Helmholz (1884) speculated that ‘protoplasm’ in some form reached the earth with falling meteorites.

Big Bang Theoryheavenly bodies,

including the earth, originated from the explosion of a hot rotating ball of gas and eventually life was formed from the chemical evolution of different compounds present in the primitive earth.

Abiogenesisor Spontaneous Generation Theory: life originated spontaneously from non-living things

Characteristics of Living Things Living things carry on metabolic functions. - Living things have the capacity

to perform a series of highly organized activities that take place within a definite structural framework. These are nutrition, transport, respiration, excretion synthesis, regulation, growth and motion.

Living things reproduce. - Reproduction is the process by which man, animals and plants create more of their own. It is vital for the survival and continuity of life.

 Living things respond to their environment. - All living things have the capacity to respond to certain changes in their environment and this is what we call irritability. However, what is environment in terms of the organisms? It is all the living and non-living things around it. These could be air, soil, water, heat, and light or any of the life forms that share with it. What about the changes or stimulus from the environment? A stimulus is a factor or environmental change capable of producing activity in an organism. This may be the light, temperature, water, sound, pressure, or the presence of chemical substance or food source. The way an organism reacts to a stimulus is what we call response. We have to take note and consider that different organisms respond in different ways.

 Living things need energy. - Chemical activities require the use of energy. In as much as life is a state of constant chemical activity, energy should also be constantly provided. Photosynthesis carried - on by the plants and the foods consumed by animals are vital sources of energy, so both could grow, sustain and reproduce.

Historical Background of the Cell Robert Hooke (1665) observed mass of tiny cavities from this slices

of cork with his self-made microscope. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1674) discoveries concerning protozoa,

red blood cells, capillary systems and the life cycle of insects. Robert Brown (1831) observed plant cells with a distinct central

part (nucleus); described the streaming movement of the Cytoplasm (Brownian movement).

Dujardin (1835) observed that cells were not empty but filled with thick, jelly-like fluids (protoplasm).

Matthias Schleiden (1838) concluded that plants are composed of cells and formulated the plant cell theory

Theodore Schwann (1839) concluded that animals are composed of cells and formulated the animal cell theory.

Rudolf Virchow (1858) concluded that all cells must come only from pre-existing cells.

Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska (1932) built the first transmission electron Microscope

James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the structure of DNA

CellCells are the basic units of life. All living things are made up of cells. Some animals and plants consist of only one cell. Other plants and animals are made up of many cells. The body of a man has more than a million of cells (100 trillion cells). A cell is composed primarily of four elements – carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen and trace elements. Living things are composed of over 60% water. The major building substances of cells are proteins. They are organized into groups and layers called tissues. Cells vary in size from microscopic to over a meter in length. The cells of different tissues vary in size, shape, arrangement, and function. Intercellular materials whose composition varies from solid to liquid separate cells

Morphology and Physiology of the Cell

Parts of a Typical CellNucleus : Nucleus : governs the activities of the cell and is

necessary for reproduction. The nucleus contains genetic material called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which carries hereditary instructions and directs the production of proteins. It is the structure, usually found near the center of the cell that contains the cell’s hereditary material.

A nucleus has the following characteristic structures:Nuclear envelope, which is a two – membrane boundary between the inside of the nucleus and that of the cytoplasm.Nucleoplasm, which is the fluid portion of the nucleus.Chromosomes, which are substances containing DNA, the cell’s hereditary materials and package DNA and control gene expression.Nucleolus, which is a dense cluster of DNA and materials used to assemble the sub units of ribosome.

Plasma Membrane

The plasma membrane limits and encloses the cytoplasm and acts as a selective barrier to the movement of substances into and out of the cell. It is composed of a bilipid layer containing proteins. The water - impermeable lipid portion forms the basic fibers of the membranes. Proteins act as enzymes or carriers in membrane transport, form pores, provide reception sites for hormones and other chemicals or play a role in cellular replication and interactions during development and immune reactions.

Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm is the part of the cell where most cellular activities occur. Its fluid substance called cytosol contains inclusions, stoned or inactive such as fat globules, water vacuoles, crystals in the cytoplasm and specialized bodies known as organelles. The cytoplasm is a site of metabolic reactions, in which the cytoplasmic organelles play specific roles.

The specialized organelles are: MITOCHONDRIA, WHICH ARE THE CELL’S POWER PLANTS, WHICH MITOCHONDRIA, WHICH ARE THE CELL’S POWER PLANTS, WHICH

PRODUCE MOST OF THE ENERGY.PRODUCE MOST OF THE ENERGY. GOLGI BODIES, WHICH TRANSPORT PROTEINS AND OTHER GOLGI BODIES, WHICH TRANSPORT PROTEINS AND OTHER

MATERIALS.MATERIALS. LYSOSOMES, WHICH ARE FOR DEGRADATION AND RECYCLING OF LYSOSOMES, WHICH ARE FOR DEGRADATION AND RECYCLING OF

MATERIALS.MATERIALS. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM, WHICH IS A SYSTEM OF DEEP ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM, WHICH IS A SYSTEM OF DEEP

CHANNELS THAT WINDS THROUGHOUT THE CYTOPLASM. CHANNELS THAT WINDS THROUGHOUT THE CYTOPLASM. MANUFACTURES PROTEINS, LIPID COMPONENTS OF MEMBRANE MANUFACTURES PROTEINS, LIPID COMPONENTS OF MEMBRANE AND MODIFIES PROTEINS FOR SECRETIONAND MODIFIES PROTEINS FOR SECRETION

PEROXISOMES, WHICH DISARM DANGEROUS CHEMICAL IN THE PEROXISOMES, WHICH DISARM DANGEROUS CHEMICAL IN THE CELLS.CELLS.

RIBOSOMES, WHICH ARE TINY, ROUND BODIES THAT BORDER THE RIBOSOMES, WHICH ARE TINY, ROUND BODIES THAT BORDER THE ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM THAT ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR PROTEIN ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM THAT ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR PROTEIN SYNTHESIS.SYNTHESIS.

Cell Division/somatic cell division

Mitosis is the division of cell nucleus, which results in the formation of two daughter nuclei with exactly the same genes as the mother nucleus. When the nucleus divides, each daughter cell ends up with exactly the same genetic information as the original mother and the original fertilized egg from which it came. The life cycle of a cell extends from the time that the cell is formed until its division has been completed. Mitosis is only a small part of the cycle; it lasts only for a few minutes or an hour or more. Typically, it takes for 2 hours. Mitosis provides the new cells for body growth in youth and vital to repair body tissues all through life. Disorganized mitosis is the basis for tumors and cancers.

Stages of Mitosis

Interphase: Interphase: The chromosomes are in an extended form and seen as chromatin in the electron microscope and the nucleus is visible.

Prophase:The chromosomes are seen to consist of two chromatids joined by a centromere. The centrioles move apart toward opposite poles of the cell. Spindle fibers are produced and extend from each centrosome. The nuclear membrane starts to disappear and the nucleolus is no longer visible.

Metaphase: The chromosomes are lined up at the equator of the cell. The spindle fibers from each centriole are attached to the centromeres of the chromosomes and the nuclear membrane has disappeared.

 Anaphase: During anaphase, sister chromatids of each chromosomes are separated. Microtubule-based mechanisms move the two chromatids of each pair to opposite poles.

Telophase: Telophase is essentially prophase in reverse. Microfilaments begin to constrict at equatorial plane. New nuclear membranes start forming. The nucleus reappears. Cell division is nearly complete.

MeiosisSex cell divisionA process the produces four daughter cell with haploid

number of chromosomes as the parent cellAlso called reduction division Involves two successive divisions-meiosis I and II

Integumentary System (Skin)

Human Skin is the largest organ of the integumentary system made up of multiple layers of epithelial tissues that guard underlying muscles and organs. As the skin interfaces with the surroundings, it plays the most important role in protecting (the body) against pathogens . Its other main functions are insulation and temperature regulation, sensation and vitamin D and B synthesis. Skin is considered one of the most important parts of the body.

Layers of the SkinEpidermismade up of stratified squamous layer of

epithelial tissue10 to 30 cells thick, about as thick as this

page.

Dermismade up of fibrous connective tissue

containing collagen and elastic fibers.also contains muscle fibers, glands, pigment

cells, blood vessels and sensory nerves.15 to 40 times thicker than the epidermis.provides structural support for all the

epidermis and as matrix for any nerve endings, muscles and specialized cells in the skin.

Skeletal SystemFunctions:

1. Support the body.2. Attachment of muscles.3. Protection of internal organs. 4. Act as levers for movement.5. Production of blood cells.6. Gives stability and shape to the body.

Types of SkeletonRefering to the framework

of the animal body is composed of cartilage, bone or a combination of both.

As to kinds of Bone TissueSpongy bone tissue

* located at the ends and interiors of long bones.* Also called bone marrow.* Composed of an open lattice of bone.* within this lattice framework, RBC are reproduce.

Compact bone tissue* Surrounds the spongy bone tissue* Also found at the core of bones* Gives strength to withstand mechanical stress.

Distribution of Bones in Human Adultthere are total of 206 bones in an adult

human.distributed as follows:

skull ( cranium + face ) = 22 ( 8 + 14 )

Ears = 6hyoid = 1vertebral column =

26sternum = 1ribs = 24pectoral girdle and forelimbs = 64pelvic girdle and hindlimbs = 62

Common disorders associated with the skeletal systemOsteoporosis, bone

condition characterized by a decrease in mass, resulting in bones that are more porous and more easily fractured than normal bones.

Scoliosis, also known as curvature of the spine, a progressive lateral curvature of backbone.

Digestive SystemFunctions:

1. Ingestion of food2. Breaking down of complex substance ( food ) into simple forms ( nutrients )3. Absorption of digested food4. Egestion of excretion of undigested food

Types of Digestion as to action:* Mechanical digestion – food is converted into small pieces by physical means such as mastication by the teeth.* Chemical digestion – food is converted into simpler forms by the action of enzyme

Common Digestive diseases and disordersPeptic ulcers are ulcers of the stomach ( gastric ) or small intestine ( duodenal )

Appendicitis, an acute inflammation of the vermiform appendix.

Diarrhea, a frequent passage of abnormally loose, water stool.

Constipation, difficulty in eliminating bowel movements from the body.

Circulatory System1.Transport the oxygen and carbon

dioxide, soluble food materials, organic wastes, and hormones

2. Regulation of the pH of tissue

3. Protection of the body against invading microbes

4. Regulation of body temperature in warm-blooded animals

The Blood A specialized connective tissue The main transporting medium of

the body 8% of total body weight (4 to 6

liters in average adult) Considered to be the ‘essence of

life’

Composition of BloodPlasma - fluid portion of the bloodFormed Elements : include the cells

(erythrocytes and leukocytes) and cell fragments (thrombocytes)

Erythrocytes or red blood corpuscles (RBC) Small, biconcave disks with polysaccharides on the outer membrane

Leukocytes or white blood cells (WBC) less than 1% of the cells in human blood

Thrombocytes or blood platelets in humans Involved in blood clotting or coagulation

Blood Groups

ABO Blood ClassificationThe most common blood grouping is the

ABO classificationBased on the types of protein present in the

blood cells (antigen A and antigen B) and in the plasma (anti-a and anti-b)

Agglutination clumping of blood cells. Each blood types contains the following:

Blood type A contains antigen A and anti-bBlood type B contains antigen B and anti-aBlood type AB contains antigen A and B

and no antibodiesBlood type O contains anti-a anti-b and no

antigen

The Heart main pumping

organ of the body

highly muscular organ located in the mid-ventral region of the thoracic cavity

enclosed by a tough connective tissue, the pericardium

Chambers of the Heart1. Atria or Auricles –

have thin walls, receive blood from the veins and pump it into the ventricle

2. Ventricles – with much thicker walls, pump the blood out of the heart to all parts of the body

Common Blood-related Disorders

Hypertension or High Blood Pressure, medical condition in which constricted arterial blood vessels increase the resistance to blood flow.

Thrombosis, formulation of blood clot, or thrombus, inside a blood vessel.

Leukemia, any of several types of cancers that affects blood cells.Arteriosclerosis, a group of disorders of the arteries.

Lymphatic and Immune System

The lymphatic system consists of transport tubes and lymphoid organs. The tubes constitute the lymph vascular system, which supplements pulmonary and the systematic circulation. When the tissue fluid has moved into these tubes, it is called the lymph. The lymphoid organs, which take part in defense responses, are structurally and functionally connected with both the blood and lymph vascular system.

Lymphatic Vascular SystemThe lymph vascular system includes lymph

capillaries, lymph vessels, and ducts that drain the processed fluid back into the circulation system, it serves these functions:

Return the excess filtered fluid to the blood.Return of small amounts of proteins that

leave the capillaries.Transport fats absorbed from the digestive

tract. Transport of foreign particles and cellular

debris to disposal centers (Lymph nodes)

Diseases of the Lymphatic System and Lymphoid TissueLymphangitis is an inflammation of lymphatic vesselsElephantiasis is the blockage of lymphatic vessels by

parasitic wormsLymphandenitis is an inflammation of lymph nodes

that occurs during infectionLymphadenopathy is a disease of lymph nodesSplenomegaly is the enlargement of the spleenHodgkin’s disease is a malignant disease with

enlargement of lymph nodesLymphosarcoma is a malignant tumor of lymphoid

tissue

Respiratory OrgansDirect Surfaces ( skin

and pharyngeal regions ) some amphibians and fishes like mudhoppers and eels use their skin, salamanders use their pharyngeal regions.

Gills – most aquatic animals use external and internal gill filament.

Lungs – terrestrial animals.

Common Diseases Associated with Respiratory SystemCommon Colds, acute infectious disease of the

upper respiratory tract, caused by more than 100 kinds of viruses.

Asthma, disorder of the respiratory system in which the passages that enable air to pass in and out of the lungs periodically narrow, causing coughing.

Bronchitis, acute or chronic inflammation of any part of the bronchi and bronchial tubes.

Pneumonia, term applied to any of about 50 distinct inflammatory to diseases of the lungs characterized by the build up of fluid in the lungs.

Tuberculosis , chronic or acute bacterial infection that primarily attacks the lungs but which may also affects the kidneys, bones, lymph nodes and brain.

ExcretionExcretion is the process of throwing

waste and harmful substances from the body. The skin, lungs, kidneys and lower intestinal tract carry out this function. The kidneys eliminate most of the excess water and salt. Perspiration withdraws from the body about one-fourth (1/4) of all the heat produced. When a person breathes, he eliminates carbon dioxide and some water. An adult eliminates a volume of about 6 4/5 ounces (200ml) of carbon dioxide per minute. Many different substances pass out of the body through the kidneys. They eliminate daily about 9 liters of urine, made up of water and certain solids. Urine contains the solid urea, a waste product of the used protein by the body.

Metabolic WastesFunctions

1. Collection and elimination of metabolic waste products.2. Maintain homeostasis.

Metabolic Wastes* heat* carbon dioxide from respiration* water derived from the oxidation of carbohydrates and fats.* bile salts and pigments from the destruction of RBC * mineral salt from the breakdown of water worn out tissue from excess dietary intake.* urea from protein metabolism

Common Kidney DisordersAcute renal failure, which occurs suddenly, may be caused by bacterial infection, injury, shock, congestive heart failure, drug poisoning or severe bleeding following surgery.

Chronic renal failure is a progressive deterioration of kidney function over a long period of time.

Urinal calculi, commonly known as kidney stone, result from the gradual buildup of crystallized salts minerals in the urine.

Nervous System: Control Center

FunctionsCoordination and integration of many activities of the body through the conduction of impulses from the receptors to the effectors.

The nervous system has three overlapping functions: to monitor changes (stimuli) occurring inside and outside the body and to gather information (sensory input); to process and interpret the sensory input in order to make decisions (integration); and to activate the muscles or glands (motor input).

Organization of the Nervous SystemOrigin

- develops from an embryonic dorsal hollow nerve cord.

Composition- brain, spinal cord, nerve cells, neuroglial

cells- consists of vast increase in the number

of neurons compared to invertebratesDivision

- Central Nervous System – includes the brain and spinal cord.

- Peripheral Nervous System – includes all the nerve cells outside the CNS, both the cranial nerves and the nerves.

NeuronsNerve Cells.For reception of stimuli and transmission

of reactions.Responsible for the integration of

impulsesComposition of the brain.

Common Diseases Associated with Nervous System

Multiple Sclerosis ( MS )MeningitisMental illnessEpilepsyStroke

Endocrine System/Ductless Glands

Functions Coordinates, together with

the nervous system, the activities of the body.

Involved in the synthesis and secretion of hormones.

Hormonal function includes: Control of energy

production and utilization

Control of the composition of extracellular water and electrolytes

Maintains normal growth and development

Reproductive SystemLife begins as a single cell and grows to be an individual composed of trillions of cells. In that first cell, every subsequent one is the DNA, the material that lays down the blueprint of what an individual will be like from the color of his eyes to the size of his feet. The reproductive system functions to ensure the continuity of the species by producing offspring.

Common Sexual Diseases and Dysfunction

Erectile dysfunction ( impotence ) refers to the ability of a man to have or maintain an erection.

Female orgasmic dysfunction ( anorgasmia or inhibited female ) refers to the inability of a woman to have an orgasm.

Vaginismus refers to a spastic contraction of the outer third of the vagina, a condition that can close the entrance of the vagina, preventing intercourse.

Breast cancer, malignant tumor in the glandular tissue of the breast. Such tumors called carcinoma.

Infertility, permanent inability to conceived or carry a child to term.

Sterility, permanent inability to produce offspring.

Gonorrhea, caused by the bacteria Neisseria gonorrhea, infects the membranes lining certain genital organs.

Syphilis, a potential life threatening STD, is caused by the bacteria Treponema pallidum.

Genital Herpes is caused by infection with the herpes simplex virus (HSV )

AIDS, the result of infection with the human immunodeficiency.

Trichomoniasis, caused by infection with the protozoan, trichomonas vaginalis causes vaginitis, inflammation of the vagina causing burning, itching and discomfort.

Proper Hygiene

Proper HygieneHygiene refers to the practice of cleanliness, but also

refers to the preservation of health. Proper hygiene requires a range of behaviors that promote cleanliness, health, disease prevention and the social etiquette of personal hygiene

Proper hygiene requires age- and gender-appropriate tools, including soap, water and deodorant and oral hygiene items, hair care tools and cleaners, nail care implements and detergents for laundering clothes and housecleaning. You might also need razors, shaving gels or creams and antibacterial liquids for cleaning hands when on the move. Depending on your individual needs, proper hygiene might require additional tools, such as lotions to prevent dry skin or special facial cleansers.

Regular Exercise and balanced diet

Regular exercise will keep the performance of the heart and lungs to effectively melt away excess calories and keep your weight in check. Exercise will even enhance strength of muscle, boost joint flexibility and boost endurance, while eating healthily provides you with the various tools to attain your primary goal. The primary purpose of getting both together would be to enhance your lifestyle or your quality of life.

WellnessCharles B. Corbin of Arizona State University,

defines wellness: “as a multidimensional state of being describing the existence of positive health in an individual as exemplified by quality of life and a sense of well-being.”

Wellness is an active process of becoming aware of and making choices toward a more successful existence.