Analysis of Zooarchaeological Remains from Cottonwood Spring Pueblo (LA 175): Subsistence Practices in an El Paso Phase Jornada Mogollon Pueblo

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ANALYSIS!OF!ZOOARCHAEOLOGICAL!REMAINS!FROM!COTTONWOOD!SPRING!

PUEBLO!(LA!175):!SUBSISTENCE!PRACTICES!IN!AN!EL!PASO!PHASE!!

JORNADA>MOGOLLON!PUEBLO!

!

!

!

Kristin!Lea!Corl!

!

A!thesis!submitted!to!the!Graduate!School!!

in!partial!fulfillment!of!the!requirements!!

for!the!degree!!

Master!of!Arts!

!

Major!Subject:!Anthropology!

!

New!Mexico!State!University!

Las!Cruces,!New!Mexico!!

August!2015!

! iii!

VITAE&

!Major!Field!of!Study!Anthropology!

!2015! ! ! Masters!of!Arts,!Department!of!Anthropology,!New!Mexico!!

State!University,!Las!Cruces,!New!Mexico.!!!2012! ! ! Bachelor!of!Arts,!Department!of!Anthropology,!New!Mexico!!

State!University,!Las!Cruces,!New!Mexico.!!

!Professional!Experience!

!2013>2014! ! Site!Director,!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!(LA!175)!!

Archaeological!Field!School,!New!Mexico!State!University,!Las!!Cruces,!New!Mexico!

!2012>2014! Graduate!Assistant,!Department!of!Anthropology,!New!!

Mexico!State!University,!Las!Cruces,!New!Mexico.!!!

Professional!Publications!!

Corl,!Kristin!!!!!!!!!!!2015!&&&&&A!Case!Study!in!Burning!in!the!Jornada!Mogollon!at!Cottonwood!!! Spring.!!Proceedings+of+the+18th+Biennial+Mogollon+Conference+++ 18:181>190,!Las!Cruces.!!Walker,!William,!Kristin!Corl,!Dylan!Clark!and!Sunnie!Sartin!!!!!!!!!!!2014!!!!!!Cottonwood+Spring+Pueblo+Area+“A”:+Field+Excavation+Report+2014.!!

! Submitted!to!the!Jornada!Experimental!Range!and!White!Sands!!! Missile!Range!in!accordance!to!excavation!agreement!JER!Study!!! 416.!!New!Mexico!State!University,!Las!Cruces.!!

!Walker,!William,!Kristin!Corl,!and!Angel!Pena!!!!!!!!!!!2013!!!!!!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo:!Recent!Excavations.!Proceedings+of+the+++ 18th+Biennial+Jornada+Mogollon+Conference.!El!Paso!Museum!of!!+ Archaeology.!!

! iv!

!Walker,!William,!Kristin!Corl,!and!Angel!Pena!!!!!!!!!!!2013!!!!!!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!Area!“A”!Field!Excavation!Report!2013.!!! Submitted!to!the!Jornada!Experimental!Range!and!White!Sands!!! Missile!Range!in!accordance!to!excavation!agreement,!JER!Study!!! 416.!!New!Mexico!State!University.!!

!Professional!Presentations!and!Poster!Sessions!

!Corl,!Kristin!

2015!!!!!!!Faunal!Evidence!for!Subsistence!Strategies!at!Cottonwood!!Spring!Pueblo.!Paper!presented!at!the!79th!Annual!Meeting!of!the!!Society!for!American!Archaeology,!San!Francisco.!

!Kristin!Corl!and!Todd!Scarbrough!

2015!! !!!Structural!Burning!as!Ritual!in!the!Jornada!Mogollon.!!Poster!!presented!at!the!79th!Annual!Meeting!of!the!Society!for!American!!Archaeology,!San!Francisco.!

&Sartin,!Sunnie,!Winona!Patterson,!Kristin!Corl!and!Todd!Scarbrough!

2015!! !!!Twin!Pines,!Looking!Beyond!the!Mimbres!Valley.!!Poster!presented!!!!!at!the!79th!Annual!Meeting!of!the!Society!for!American!Archaeology,!!!!!San!Francisco.!!

!Corl,!Kristin!!!!!!!!!!!2014!!!!!!A!Case!Study!in!Burning!in!the!Jornada!Mogollon!at!!

Cottonwood!Spring.!!Paper!presented!at!the!18th!Biannual!Mogollon!Conference,!Las!Cruces.!

!Corl,!Kristin!!!!!!!!!!!2014!!!!!!Excavations!at!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo.!!Paper!presented!at!the!!! 2014!Pecos!Conference,!Blanding!Utah.!!!Corl,!Kristin,!and!Angel!Pena!!!!!!!!!!!2014!!!!!!Ritual!or!War:!Burning!in!the!Jornada>Mogollon!at!Cottonwood!!

! Poster!presented!at!the!78th!Annual!Meetings!of!the!Society!for!!! American!Archaeology,!Austin.!

! v!

! !Patterson,!Winona,!Todd!Scarbrough!and!Kristin!Corl!!!!!!!!!!!2014!!!!!!Tank!Mesa!Mapping!Project!in!Montezuma!Canyon,!UT.!!Poster!!

!!!!presented!at!the!78th!Annual!Meeting!of!the!Society!for!American!!!!!!Archaeology,!Austin.!

!!

Professional!and!Honor!Societies!!Sigma!Xi!National!Honors!Society:!The!Scientific!Research!Society!Society!for!American!Archaeology!American!Association!of!Physical!Anthropologists!Phi!Kappa!National!Collegiate!Honors!Society!!Lambda!Alpha!National!Collegiate!Honors!Society!for!Anthropology!!!

Awards!and!Scholarships!!!

2015! ! Sigma!Xi!Grants>in>Aid!of!Research! ! !2014! ! Outstanding!Service!Award!in!the!College!of!Arts!and!Sciences!!! ! New!Mexico!State!University!2014! ! Archaeology!Society!of!New!Mexico!Scholarship! ! !!2013! ! Mike!Watts!Leadership!Scholarship! ! !!2012>2014! ! New!Mexico!Higher!Education!Department!Graduate!!! ! Fellowship! !2012! ! Gunn!Scholarship! !2010>2012! ! Deans!Honors!List,!Arts!and!Sciences,!New!Mexico!State!!! ! University! !2011! ! Gilman!International!Scholarship! ! !

!!! !

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ABSTRACT&

ANALYSIS!OF!ZOOARCHAEOLOGICAL!REMAINS!FROM!COTTONWOOD!SPRING!

PUEBLO!(LA!175):!SUBSISTENCE!PRACTICES!IN!AN!EL!PASO!PHASE!!

JORNADA>MOGOLLON!PUEBLO!

!

By!

Kristin!Lea!Corl!

!

Master!of!Arts!

!

New!Mexico!State!University!

Las!Cruces,!New!Mexico!

August!2015!

Dr.!William!H.!Walker,!Chair!

!

What!animal!communities!and!hunting!strategies!did!people!in!an!arid!

horticultural!village!rely!on!to!support!a!large!population!in!the!marginal!

environment!of!the!Northern!Chihuahuan!Desert?!!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!(LA!

175),!an!El!Paso!Phase!(A.D.!1275>1450)!horticultural!village!in!southern!New!Mexico!

is!one!of!the!largest!pueblos!in!the!region.!It!is!useful!in!investigating!the!question!of!

whether!prey!animals!(such!as!desert!cottontails,!black>tailed!jackrabbits,!whitetail!

! vii!

deer,!mule!deer,!smaller!rodents,!or!birds)!were!hunted!in!microenvironments!

created!through!intense!human!modifications!to!the!natural!ecosystem!(i.e.!garden!

hunting).!!

Through!zooarchaeological!data,!a!relative!taxonomic!abundance!revealed!

three!targeted!taxonomic!groups;!rabbits,!deer,!and!rodents.!Ethnographic!evidence!

shows!that!populations!of!these!taxonomic!groups!increase!with!the!expansion!of!

cultivated!fields,!and!that!this!increased!resource!was!targeted.!A!measure!for!this!

type!of!subsistence!strategy!and!general!environmental!reconstruction!in!the!

American!Southwest!has!been!the!lagomorph!index!(ratio!of!cottontails!to!

jackrabbits).!!The!additional!use!of!stable!carbon!isotopes!found!in!lagomorph!bones!

provides!a!more!robust!measure!of!the!environment!jackrabbits!and!cottontails!are!

living!in!by!measuring!what!plants!were!incorporated!into!their!diet.!!Results!show!

that!the!increased!frequency!of!cottontails!in!the!zooarchaeological!assemblage!is!

evidence!that!the!environment!surrounding!the!pueblo!had!denser!brush!cover!than!

a!grass/scrubland!and!with!the!addition!of!the!heavy!C4!diet!shown!by!stable!carbon!

isotope!values!suggests!a!strategy!such!as!garden!hunting.!!The!use!of!the!garden!

hunting!strategy!would!explain!the!findings!that!cottontails!were!more!frequently!

exploited!than!expected!because!they!were!attracted!to!fields!by!increased!cover!

and!food!sources,!and!the!high!C4!signature!by!the!increased!availability!of!corn!that!

dominated!the!microenvironment!of!the!farm!fields!and!village.!Understanding!what!

vegetative!communities!the!lagomorphs!were!living!in!at!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo,!

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or!any!arid!environment!settlement,!can!indicate!the!kinds!of!environments!that!are!

present!(intentionally!or!unintentionally!modified),!and!indicate!likely!hunting!

strategies!implemented!at!any!given!site!based!on!known!strategies!in!certain!

environments.!!

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS&!!

I!would!like!to!acknowledge!the!efforts!of!countless!individuals!who!in!some!

way!made!this!project!possible.!!Most!importantly,!I!would!like!to!thank!my!

committee!members!Dr.!William!Walker!and!Dr.!Rani!Alexander,!their!support!and!

encouragement!over!the!years!has!showed!me!the!difference!strong!mentorship!can!

make.!!They!have!both!contributed!in!very!significant!ways!to!my!education,!and!I!

am!very!lucky!these!two!people!took!an!interest!in!my!success;!it!has!made!all!the!

difference!in!my!life.!I!also!thank!the!entire!Anthropology!Department!Factuality!and!

Staff,!who!need!to!know!that!the!kind!of!support!they!give!their!students!is!not!

easily!found!in!other!departments.!!In!particular,!I!would!like!to!thank!Dr.!Miriam!

Chaiken!and!Dr.!Fumi!Arakawa,!who!went!out!of!their!way!to!include!me!in!projects,!

provide!opportunities!and!support!for!me!that!opened!doors!that!I!couldn’t!imagine.!!!!

I!thank!Dr.!Lori!Keleher!of!the!Philosophy!Department,!who!didn’t!think!twice!

about!serving!as!my!Dean’s!representative.!!!I!also!thank!Dr.!Scott!Carleton!from!the!

Departments!of!Fish,!Wildlife!and!Conservation!Ecology,!and!Dr.!Amanda!Ashley!!

from!the!Animal!and!Range!Sciences!Department!for!the!use!of!their!labs!and!

equipment.!!I!would!especially!like!to!acknowledge!Dr.!Raymond!Mauldin,!for!taking!

the!time!to!show!enthusiasm!and!provide!direction!and!support!during!this!project.!!

With!out!him!I!would!have!been!flying!blind!when!trying!to!incorporate!rabbit!stable!

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carbon!isotopes,!and!I!am!really!excited!to!have!the!opportunity!to!work!more!

closely!in!the!future.!!!

I!need!to!thank!the!Archaeological!Society!of!New!Mexico!Scholarship!

Committee!for!choosing!me!for!the!2014!scholarship!award.!!It!was!awarded!to!date!

different!occupation!areas!of!the!site!in!order!to!compare!hunting!patterns,!and!

although!it!was!not!able!to!this,!the!dates!were!valuable!for!determining!site!

occupation!and!provided!much!benefit!to!the!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!Project.!!I!

recognize!the!NMSU!Collage!of!Arts!and!Sciences,!the!NMSU!Graduate!School,!and!

the!Department!of!Anthropology!for!granting!me!travel!awards!that!allowed!me!to!

present!my!research!at!a!number!of!different!conferences.!!I!also!am!grateful!to!the!

Sigma!Xi!Grants>in>Aid!of!Research!for!awarding!me!a!grant!in!2015!to!help!with!the!

costs!of!stable!carbon!isotope!processing.!!!

Of!coarse,!I!thank!my!family!for!their!ongoing!support!and!encouraging!an!

inquisitive!nature!in!me!from!the!start.!My!father!especially!for!his!superhero!like!

ability!for!proofreading.!!Grandma!for!teaching!me!that!it!is!never!too!late,!and!

Grandpa!for!giving!me!a!set!of!calipers!before!I!even!knew!what!calipers!were.!!Last!

but!not!least,!I!thank!Cory!Vas.!!!

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TABLE!OF!CONTENTS!

Page!

LIST!OF!TABLES……………………………………………………………………………………….! xv!

LIST!OF!FIGURES……………………………………………………………………………………..! xvi!

Chapter!

1. Introduction….…………………………………………………………………………………..! 1!

Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo:!A!Case!Study!of!Subsistence!!Practices!in!an!Arid!Environment…………………………………………………! 1!

Organization!of!Thesis……………………………………...…………………………! 5!

2. Theoretical!Framework!and!Methods……………………………………………….! 10!

Predator>Prey!Modeling………………………………………………………………! 11!

Predator>Prey!Modeling!in!an!Arid!Environment……………..! 16!

Domestication!of!the!Environment…………………………………! 19!

The!Microenvironments!of!Villages!and!a!Mammalian!Tending!!Pattern………………………………………………………………………………………..! 22!

Interpretations!of!Small!Game…………………………………………………….! 31!

Critiques!of!the!Lagomorph!Index…………………………………………………!34!

Calculating!the!Lagomorph!Index………………………………………!35!

Confounding!Factors!of!the!Lagomorph!Index…………………..!36!

Using!Stable!Carbon!Isotopes!in!Zooarchaeological!Analysis!to!!Strengthen!the!Lagomorph!index………………………………………………….!40!

!

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Chapter! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Page!

3. Case!Study!of!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo:!Research!Setting……………..! 47!

Environmental!Setting!of!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo………………….! 48!

Archaeology!of!the!Jornada…………………………………………………………! 51!

Modeling!Subsistence!Practices!in!the!Jornada……………………………! 55!

! Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!(LA!175)…………………………………………….! 61!

! Collection!of!Zooarchaeological!Materials…………….…………………….! 66!

4. Research!Questions!and!Methods....………………………………………..…….…! 69!

Zooarchaeological!Identification!and!Primary!Data!!Recording!Methods…………………………………………………………..………..! 72!!! Number!of!Identified!Specimens!(NISP)…………………………..! 74!

! Taphonomic!Modification……………………………………………….! 76!

! ! Human!Modification……………………………………………! 77!

! ! Animal!Modification……………………………………………! 78!

! ! Environmental!Modification………………………………..! 78!

Secondary!Data!and!Quantification…………………………………………….! 78!

! MNI…………………………………………………………………………………! 79!

! Biomass!and!Estimates!of!Dietary!Contribution………….…..! 81!

! Rodent!Index…………………………………………………………………..! 83!

! Artiodactyl!Index……………………………………………………………..! 84!!

! Lagomorph!Index…………………………………………………………….! 85!

! xiii!

Chapter! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Page!

Shannon>Weaver!Heterogeneity!and!Evenness!Indices+….! 86!

Stable!Carbon!Isotope!Samples…………………………………………………..! 88!

Collagen!Extraction!Methods…………………………………………..! 88!

! Expectations……………………………………………………………………………….! 93!

5. Zooarchaeological!Analysis!Results…………………………………………..………! 98!

Biographical!Sketches………………………………………………………………….! 100!

! Class!Reptilia……………………………………………………………………! 101!

! Class!Aves……………………………………………………………………….! 102!

! Class!Mammalia………………………………………………………………! 106!

Taxonomic!Abundance!and!NISP…………………………………………………! 115!

Taphonomy………………………………………………………………………………..! 117!

Bone!Artifacts………………………..……………………………………………………! 120!

Shell!Artifact……………………………..………………………………………………..! 126!

Eggshell……………………………………………………..……………………………….! 132!

Fossils…………………………………………………………………………………………! 135!

Secondary!Data…………………………………………………………………………! 136!

MNI……………………………………………………………………………….! 136!

! Sample!Biomass!and!Dietary!Contribution……………………! 139!

! Rodent!Index…………………………………………………………………! 141!

Artiodactyl!Index…………………………………………………………..! 143!

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Chapter! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Page!

Lagomorph!Index…………………………………………………………….! 143!

Shannon>Weaver!Heterogeneity!and!Evenness!Indices.....! 145!

6. Results!of!Stable!Carbon!Isotope!Analysis………………………….……………..! 147!!

Stable!Carbon!Isotope!Values……………………………………………………..! 147!!Interpretations……………………………………………………………………………! 151!

!7. Discussion……………………………..………………………………………………………….! 157!

8. Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………..! 165!

References!Cited…………………………………………………………………………………….! 169!

Appendices!

A. Fauna!List:!Vertebrate!Fauna!in!Southern!New!Mexico……! 186!

B. Element!Value!List…………………………………………………………….! 205!

C. Variable/Value!List…………………………………………………………….!213!

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! xv!

List&of&Tables&&

Table! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Page!!3.1! Summary!of!Calendar!Dates!of!the!Jornada!and!Mimbres!! Branches!of!the!Mogollon!Culture!Area……………………………………..! 53!!4.1! Stable!Carbon!Isotope!Sample!Selection!by!Area……………………….! 89!!5.1! Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!Zooarchaeological!Assemblage!!! Summary…………………………………………………………………………………….! 99!!5.2! Shell!Summary!by!Locus……………………………………………………………..! 127!!5.3! Recovered!Eggshell!by!Location…………………………………………………..! 134!!5.4! NISP!and!MNI!of!Taxa!by!Taxonomic!Abundance!from!!! Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo…………………………………………………………! 137!!5.5! NISP!and!MNI!of!Estimated!Taxonomic!Abundance!from!!! Madera!Quemada………………………………………………………………………! 138!!5.6! Comparisons!of!Indices!for!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!! and!Madera!Quemada………………………………………………………………..! 142!!7.1! Relative!Taxonomic!Abundance!Compared!Between!!! Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!and!Madera!Quemada…………………….! 158!!7.2! Relative!Taxonomic!Abundance!of!Garden!Hunted!Animals……….! 160!!!

&& &

! xvi!

List&of&Figures&!Figure!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Page!!1.1! Pueblos!of!the!Jornada!Showing!location!of!Cottonwood!!

Spring!Pueblo………………………………………………………………………………! 2!!

2.1! Herbivore!Stable!Carbon!Isotope!Values!Overlaid!C3!and!C4!! Plant!Frequency!and!Values…………………………………………………………! 44!!3.1! Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!Location!in!Relation!to!Jornada!!

Type!Sites…………………………………………………………………………………….! 49!!

3.2!! Approximate!Geographical!Extent!of!the!Cultural!Areas!of!!the!Southwest………………………………………………………………………………!!52!

!3.3! Climate!Shifts!and!Jornada!Phases……………………………………………….! 55!!3.4! Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!(LA!175)!Areas!A>F…………………………….! 62!!3.5! Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!Area!A……………………………………………….! 63!!4.1! Histogram!Showing!Normal!Distribution!of!Bulk!C3!and!C4!!

Plant!Isotopic!Values,!Superimposed!Modern!Leporid!Values………! 96!!!5.1! Relative!Taxonomic!Abundance!by!Class!(NISP)……………………………! 116!

5.2! Taxonomic!Abundance!(NISP)………………………………………………………! 117!

5.3! Percent!of!Assemblage!by!Type!of!Burning!Found……………………….! 120!

5.4! Examples!of!Awl!Types!Found!at!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo………! 121!

5.5! Examples!of!Long!Bone!Splinter!Awl/Needles……………………………..! 122!

5.6! Grooved!and!Snapped!Distal!End!of!a!Deer!Femur………………………! 123!

5.7! Bone!Ring!Fragments………………………………………………………………….! 124!

5.8! Jackrabbit!Innominate!Bone!Scraping!Tool…………………………………! 125!

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Figure! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Page!

5.9! Head!of!Big>horned!Sheep!Carved!Figurine………………………………..! 126!

5.10! Olivella!Shells……………………………………………………………………………...! 128!

5.11! Indeterminate!Shell!Pendant!From!Surface!Collection!(PD!0)……..! 129!

5.12! Shell!Pendant!and!Glycymeris!Bracelet!Fragments……………………..! 130!

5.13! Disk!and!Whole!Shell!Beads………………………………………………………..! 132!

5.14! Possible!Evidence!of!Turkeys………………………………………………………! 133!

5.15! Fossils!Found!at!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo…………………………….…! 136!

5.16! Percentage!of!MNI!and!NISP!as!Relative!Taxonomic!! Abundance!at!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo……………………….…….…..! 139!

5.17! Calculated!Sample!Biomass!by!Major!Taxonomic!Groups……….….! 140!

5.18! Percent!Estimated!Relative!Taxonomic!Abundance!for!NISP,!! MNI!and!Sample!Biomass………………………………………………………….! 141!!6.1! Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!δ13C!Leporid!Collagen!Values………….! 148!

6.2! Comparative!Leporid!Stable!Carbon!Isotope!Values………………….! 149!

6.3! Cottontails!Preference!for!C3!Plants!Across!Environments………..! 151!

6.4! Stable!Carbon!Isotope!Values!for!Cottontails…………………………….! 154!

6.5! Estimated!C4!Plant!Contribution!to!Total!Diet……………………………! 156!

7.1! Major!Taxonomic!Categories!Common!to!the!Regional!! Environment!around!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo……………………….! 159!! !

!

! 1!

CHAPTER(1:(Introduction(!!!

Cottonwood(Spring(Pueblo:(A(Case(Study(of(Subsistence(Practices(in(an(Arid(

Environment(

!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!LA!175!(Figure!1.1),!an!El!Paso!Phase!(A.D.!1300C

1450)!village,!possesses!wellCpreserved!zooarchaeological!remains!that!are!useful!

for!studying!predatorCprey!relations!in!a!farming!village!community.!My!goal!is!to!

determine!what!hunting!strategies!people!in!an!arid!horticultural!village!used!to!

thrive!in!a!marginal!environment.!!!

I!pursue!the!hypothesis!that!prey!animals!(such!as!desert!cottontails,!blackC

tailed!jackrabbits,!whitetail!deer,!mule!deer,!smaller!rodents,!or!birds)!were!hunted!

in!microenvironments!created!through!intense!human!modifications!to!the!natural!

ecosystem.!!This!strategy!is!known!as!garden!hunting!(Linares!1976).!Intense!humanC

modified!environments!included!cleared!areas,!middens!surrounding!the!pueblo!and!

farm!fields!increased!prey!resources!near!the!village.!!I!believe!that!villagers!were!

taking!advantage!of!an!artificially!increased!local!faunal!resource!to!diversify!

subsistence!strategies.!!A!blend!of!strategies!and!combination!of!microenvironments!

would!have!acted!as!a!buffering!technique!to!lesson!the!impact!of!a!variable!

environment.!!

! 2!

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!

!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!(LA!175)

!!

!

Figure!1.1C!Pueblos!of!the!Jornada!showing!location!of!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo.!Other!JornadaCMogollon!pueblos!are!shown!in!relation!to!Cottonwood!Spring,!large!pueblos!(over!100!rooms)!are!designated!by!an!orange!box!(Adapted!from!Miller!and!Graves!2009!pg.!21).!

! 3!

Two!main!lines!of!evidence!are!used!to!test!the!alternative!hypothesis!that!

the!people!of!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!were!focused!on!a!single!hunting!strategy.!!

First,!zooarchaeological!analysis!identifies!primary!data!such!as!taxon,!element,!

portion!of!element,!side,!and!age,!that!will!be!collected.!The!zooarchaeological!

material!used!in!this!study!was!recovered!over!three!field!seasons!(2012C2014)!at!

Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!Area!A,!and!consists!of!3,551!bones.!!!Secondary!data!

such!as!Minimum!Number!of!Individuals!(MNI),!Biomass,!Lagomorph!Index!(LI),!

Rodent!Index!(RI),!Artiodactyl!Index!(AI),!and!the!ShannonCWeaver!Evenness!Index!

are!calculated!using!the!collected!primary!data.!!!Using!primary!and!secondary!data,!

I!expect!to!better!understand!the!range!of!taxa!exploited!by!the!inhabitants,!the!

regional!and!local!environment,!hunting!practices,!preferred!prey,!and!patterns!of!

resource!use.!A!focus!on!the!leporid!remains!and!the!Lagomorph!index!can!act!as!a!

strong!measure!of!the!level!of!vegetative!cover!found!in!the!environment,!and!can!

indicate!changes!in!this!aspect!of!environment.!!Lagomorphs!are!often!the!most!

frequently!hunted!animals!in!the!Southwest,!and!because!they!are!associated!with!

different!hunting!techniques!(group!verses!solitary!hunting)!they!can!act!as!a!

measure!of!subsistence’s!strategies!as!well!as!the!environmental!cover.!

Second,!I!examine!the!ratios!of!stable!carbon!isotopes!(δ13C)!in!the!

lagomorph’s!bone!collagen.!!!To!measure!those!isotopes!I!sampled!54!of!the!most!

intact!(>.5!g)!long!bones!of!lagomorphs!(18!cottontail!and!36!jackrabbit).!!Jackrabbit!

bones!make!up!the!majority!of!samples!because!they!are!larger!and!as!a!result!

! 4!

preserve!better!increasing!the!likelihood!of!finding!specimens!that!weigh!more!than!

.5!g.!!!

The!leporid’s!isotopic!signature!is!dependent!on!differences!in!C3!and!C4!

plant!carbon!fixation!methods,!and!their!signature!reflects!the!longCterm!balance!of!

C3!and!C4/CAM!plants!available!for!consumption!(Ambrose!1987;!Budzikiewicz!and!

Grigsby!2006;!DeNiro!and!Epstein!1978;!Tieszen!et!al.!1983).!Different!

concentrations!of!C3!(annuals,!shrubs,!and!trees),!C4!(grasses)!and!CAM!plants!

(succulents)!are!found!in!the!various!microenvironments!will!be!measurable!through!

their!stable!carbon!isotope!values!(DeNiro!and!Epstein!1978;!Emslie!1981;!Linares!

1976;!MacArthur!and!Pianka!1966;!O’Leary!1988;!Smith!et!al.!2014;!Tipple!and!

Pagani!2007;!Ugan!and!Coltrain!2012).!!Differences!in!stable!carbon!isotope!values!

will!indicate!whether!the!leporids!were!living!in!intensely!modified!environments!

such!as!farm!fields!close!to!the!pueblo,!or!in!less!intensively!modified!environments!

like!the!basin!grasslands.!!This!provides!an!indirect!measure!of!environments!in!the!

region!by!measuring!the!plants!foraged!in!the!leporid’s!environment!over!its!

lifetime.!

Using!the!lagomorph!index!and!stable!carbon!isotope!values!will!strengthen!

environmental!and!behavioral!inferences!made!using!animal!type!and!frequency!by!

ascertaining!what!environments!the!most!common!animals!!(leporids)!were!hunted!

in.!!Additionally!it!has!broader!applications!for!sites!in!the!region,!as!well!as!those!

located!in!other!arid!environments!as!a!way!to!distinguish!between!the!various!

! 5!

degrees!of!human!modified!microenvironments!that!were!used!when!hunting.!!My!

study!is!synchronic,!but!if!this!effort!proves!successful!and!evidence!of!temporal!

differences!in!occupations!emerges!from!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!then!it!will!be!

possible!for!scholars!to!study!predation!patterns!at!this!site!over!time!in!the!future.!!

(

Organization(of(Thesis(

(

(

In!the!following!chapter,!I!will!present!a!theoretical!discussion!of!predatorC

prey!theory,!how!it!is!relevant!for!studying!horticultural!communities!(i.e.!pueblos!of!

the!El!Paso!phase)!and!is!useful!in!explaining!patterns!in!hunting!activities!such!as!

garden!hunting!(Badenhorst!and!Driver!2009;!Charles!1997;!Dean!2001;!Driver!and!

Woiderski!2008;!Emslie!1981;!Hockett!and!Bicho!2000;!Linares!1976;!Lupo!and!

Schmitt!2002;!MacArthur!and!Pianka!1966;!Minnis!1985;!Powell!1977;!Stiner!et!al.!

1999;!Szuter!1991).!!I!argue!that!the!intensity!with!which!humans!modified!the!

environment,!either!deliberate!high!intensity!modification!like!farm!fields!or!

inadvertent!modification!through!hunting!and!gathering!particular!species,!need!to!

be!considered!in!modeling!subsistence!strategies!(Dean!2007b;!Driver!and!Woiderski!

2008;!Emslie!1981;!Linares!1976;!Pelikan!and!Nesvadbova!1979;!Powell!1977;!Smith!

2011;!Szuter!1991).!!!

The!lagomorph!index!is!introduced!following!discussion!on!mammalian!

tending!patterns!noting!that!Southwestern!archaeologists!have!uncritically!

employed!the!lagomorph!index!in!discussion!of!prehistoric!environments,!hunting!

! 6!

strategies,!resource!depression,!and!commitment!to!farming!activities!(Badenhorst!

and!Driver!2009;!Bayham!and!Hatch!1985;!Dean!2001;!Higgins!and!Railey!2002;!

Lowry!2005;!Minnis!1985;!Olsen!1964;!Powell!1977;!Whalen!1994).!Analysts!have!

tried!to!link!this!simplistic!ratio!(cottontails!to!jackrabbits)!to!more!complicated!

interpretations!such!as!adoption!of!new!hunting!methods,!prey!preference,!or!

dietary!stress,!but!it!is!difficult!to!determine!the!effect!each!factor!has!on!an!

assemblage!(Badenhorst!and!Driver!2009;!Bayham!and!Hatch!1985;!Dean!2001;!

Driver!and!Woiderski!2008;!Minnis!1985;!Olsen!1964;!Powell!1977;!Shaffer!and!

Gardner!1995;!Szuter!1991).!!This!is!where!the!additional!measure!of!diet!through!

stable!carbon!isotopes!allows!a!way!to!examine!the!environment!the!leporids!were!

living!and!hunted!in!(Ambrose!1987;!DeNiro!and!Epstein!1978;!Kemp!et!al.!2013;!

Smith!et!al.!2014).!Stable!carbon!isotopes!have!been!used!as!a!proxy!measure!for!

microchanges!in!the!environment!through!time!(Kemp!2008;!Kemp!et!al.!2013;!

Munoz!et!al.!2014;!Smith!et!al.!2014;!Ugan!and!Coltrain!2011).!Understanding!the!

vegetative!communities!in!which!the!leporids!are!living!and!hunted!will!allow!me!to!

identify!different!microenvironments!across!the!landscape,!and!permit!a!more!

reliable!interpretation!of!the!lagomorph!index.!!

! ! In!Chapter!3!I!introduce!the!research!setting!of!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo,!

this!includes!the!surrounding!environment,!and!the!archaeological!history.!!To!

illustrate!the!theoretical!and!methodological!contributions!to!zooarchaeological!

analysis,!I!analyze!the!zooarchaeological!assemblage!from!Cottonwood!Spring!

! 7!

Pueblo!(LA!175).!!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!is!one!of!several!large!Jornada!

Mogollon!villages!on!the!western!flanks!of!the!San!Andres!Mountains!(see!Figure!

1.1).!I!will!review!the!regional!environment!of!the!Jornada!and!Tularosa!Basins!as!

well!as!subsistence!trends!seen!throughout!the!Jornada.!The!Cottonwood!Draw!

arroyo!discharges!into!an!arable!plain!where!presumably!large!fields!were!planted!

(Kemrer!2011).!This!pueblo!(Area!A)!and!several!others!within!1.5!km2!radius!formed!

a!community!that!would!have!intensively!modified!the!landscape!and!created!a!

microhabitat!for!prey!animals!(Kemrer!2011;!Lekson!and!Rorex!1987).!!New!Mexico!

State!University!has!excavated!at!Cottonwood!Spring!for!three!seasons!(2012C2014).!!

Excavations!were!carried!out!in!two!room!blocks,!a!potential!plaza!and!a!rich!

midden,!producing!a!zooarchaeological!assemblage!that!is!excellent!for!a!case!study.!!

Chapter!4!details!the!expectations!based!on!my!hypothesis!that!the!people!of!

Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!were!taking!advantage!of!both!natural!and!man!made!

resources!available.!!I!then!describe!my!methods!by!which!zooarchaeologists!analyze!

and!work!with!zooarchaeological!remains.!Zooarchaeological!identification!and!data!

recording,!including!taphonomic!measures!such!as!burning,!cut!marks,!

environmental!and!animal!caused!changes!in!the!bone!will!be!recorded.!Appendices!

include!a!list!of!coded!regional!taxa,!a!list!of!faunal!element!codes!and!other!

variables!that!were!used!during!this!research.!Quantification!of!the!assemblage!

includes!calculations!such!as!Number!of!Identified!Specimens!(NISP),!Minimum!

Number!of!Individuals,!ShannonCWeaver!Index,!Rodent!Index,!Artiodactyl!Index,!

! 8!

Lagomorph!Index,!and!biomass.!!Additionally!the!collagen!extraction!methods!in!

order!to!obtain!the!δ13C!ratios!are!detailed!in!this!chapter.!!!

! ! Chapter!5!summarizes!my!results!of!the!zooarchaeological!analysis,!as!well!as!

the!secondary!quantification!data.!!Additional!animal!remains!such!as!marine!and!

freshwater!shell,!fossils!and!eggshell!will!also!be!briefly!discussed!in!this!chapter.!!

The!relative!taxonomic!abundance!is!discussed!and!the!taphonomic!agents!that!

effect!the!bone!will!be!incorporated.!!!Modifications!include!cutCmarks,!burning,!

tools,!and!jewelry.!My!results!of!the!quantification!methods!such!as!taxonomic!

abundance,!biomass,!the!lagomorph!index,!artiodactyl!index!and!rodent!index!are!

presented!along!with!a!discussion!about!how!they!support!the!gardenChunting!

hypothesis.!!

In!Chapter!6!the!δ13C!stable!carbon!isotope!results!are!presented!and!

compared!with!the!modern!day!leporid!values!as!well!as!the!prehistoric!comparative!

site!of!Madera!Quemada,!a!small!El!Paso!Phase!Pueblo.!!The!overall!interpretation!of!

the!leporid!stable!carbon!isotope!values!are!related!to!whether!they!were!garden!

hunted.!!!!!

Chapter!7!discusses!the!findings!of!the!zooarchaeological!assessment!and!the!

stable!carbon!isotopes!in!relation!to!how!it!supports!or!fails!to!support!the!

hypothesis!that!prey!was!being!hunted!in!intensely!manipulated!environments.!!The!

relative!taxonomic!abundances!are!compared!to!the!expected!frequencies!of!

taxonomic!categories!that!are!attracted!to!human!modified!environments.!!The!

! 9!

three!taxonomic!categories!(lagomorphs,!artiodactyl!and!deer)!that!are!most!

common!are!also!known!to!have!higher!frequencies!in!disturbed!or!intensely!

modified!environments.!!I!review!the!results!of!the!stable!carbon!isotope!analysis!

linked!with!the!lagomorph!index!and!how!together!they!support!the!garden!hunting!

hypothesis.!!

Chapter!8!summarizes!this!research!project,!the!significance!of!the!results,!

and!directions!for!future!research.!!Following!this!is!a!list!of!references!cited!and!

appendices.!

( (

! 10!

CHAPTER(2:(Theoretical(Framework(and(Methods!!

This!chapter!will!describe!predatorCprey!theory!and!how!it!has!been!used!to!

understand!the!choices!humans!have!made!when!implementing!various!subsistence!

strategies.!This!theory,!as!it!has!been!applied!in!archaeology,!focuses!on!how!

humans!interact!with!their!environment!and!deal!with!the!risk!and!uncertainty!of!

obtaining!enough!prey!resources!(Broughton!1997;!Broughton!et!al.!2010;!Byers!and!

Ugan!2005;!Charles!1997;!Grayson!2001;!Kent!1989;!Linares!1976;!Szuter!1989).!!The!

cultural!response!to!the!risk!and!uncertainty!of!obtaining!enough!food!are!different!

in!individual!communities,!but!often!engage!in!spatial!mobility,!diversification,!

resource!control,!or!storage!(Halstead!and!O’Shea!2004).!!!I!am!interested!in!the!

predatory!strategies!the!people!of!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!implemented!to!

support!a!large!aggregated!population!in!an!arid!environment,!and!at!what!intensity!

various!strategies!were!used.!!

Humans!are!extremely!adaptive!and!have!learned!to!control!the!resources!

around!them!both!plant!and!animal.!!Control!over!these!resources!can!be!seen!on!a!

continuum!of!intensities,!from!simply!gathering!what!is!available!on!the!landscape!

to!encouraging!wild!eatable!plants!by!weeding!unwanted!ones!to!large!scale!farming!

of!domesticated!plants!(Yen!1989).!!The!predatorCprey!relationship!is!also!seen!at!

different!levels!of!intensity,!from!hunting!wildly!available!populations!to!modifying!

! 11!

the!environment!to!encourage!prey,!to!domestication!of!certain!species!in!order!to!

guarantee!a!renewable!source!of!food!(O’Connor!2013).!!!

!PredatorCprey!models!and!other!data!(including!zooarchaeological,!

environmental!and!ethnographic),!have!allowed!archaeologists!have!inferred!a!

number!of!behaviors,!environmental!changes,!and!other!causes!that!have!an!affect!

on!the!archaeological!record!(Byers!et!al.!2005;!Earle!and!Christenson!1980;!Grayson!

2001;!Minnis!1985;!Powell!1977;!Szuter!1984).!!These!include!climate!change,!

human!modification!to!the!landscape,!preferred!prey,!patterns!of!resource!use,!

hunting!methods,!resource!depression,!and!cultural!adaptations!such!as!new!

technologies!or!beliefs.!!Exactly!how!these!inferences!are!made!will!be!explored!in!

the!following!chapter,!as!well!as!how!to!strengthen!the!Lagomorph!Index,!a!popular!

method!in!the!American!Southwest!used!as!a!measure!of!the!environment!and!

linked!to!hunting!strategies!and!other!behaviors.!!!!

(

PredatorHPrey(Modeling(

!

The!role!humans!occupy!as!a!predator!has!significantly!affected!the!choices!

that!have!been!made!by!modern!humans!in!various!environments!when!faced!with!

changes!in!resource!availability.!!This!is!especially!relevant!when!looking!at!

populations!living!in!the!marginal!environment!of!a!desert,!or!any!other!arid!

environment!because!resources!are!characteristically!difficult!to!find.!!PredatorCprey!

theory!is!commonly!applied!to!ecological,!paleoanthropological!and!modern!

! 12!

archaeology!studies!and!plays!a!major!role!in!understanding!human!actions!and!

their!effects!on!ecosystems!throughout!human!history!(Boone!2002;!Grayson!2001;!

Stiner!et!al.!1999).!!!

The!predatorCprey!theory!and!the!optimal!foraging!theory!share!one!of!the!

most!fundamental!assumptions!of!animal!behaviors!(Malthus!1959).!!The!

assumption!is!that!organisms!forage!(hunt)!in!a!way!so!as!to!account!for!their!net!

energy!intake!and!time!spent!(cost)!of!obtaining!the!prey!so!they!gain!more!than!

they!loose!(MacArthur!and!Pianka!1966;!Malthus!1959;!Nicholson!et!al.!1933;!

Rosenzweig!and!MacArthur!1963;!Solomon!1949;!Volterra!1926).!The!predatorCprey!

theory!states!that!the!predator!balances!the!cost!of!finding!and!processing!the!prey!

against!the!amount!of!energy!it!can!provide!and!in!the!case!of!humans!it!includes!

other!uses!for!tool!production!or!clothing!(Boone!2002;!Charles!1997;!Grayson!2001;!

MacArthur!and!Pianka!1966).!!!

The!goal!of!the!predatorCprey!theory!is!to!understand!the!predatorCprey!

relationship!and!what!factors!define!it!as!well!as!to!try!and!predict!fluctuations!of!

the!population!(MacArthur!and!Pianka!1966;!Rosenzweig!and!MacArthur!1963;!

Solomon!1949).!!Using!the!predatorCprey!theory,!successful!predatory!actions!are!

expected!to!cause!prey!resource!depression,!which!then!increases!the!amount!of!

energy!required!to!capture!the!prey!(Berryman!1992;!MacArthur!and!Pianka!1966).!!

The!assumptions!that!the!predatorCprey!model!uses!to!help!define!how!each!

predatorCprey!relationship!is!formed!and!explain!why!successful!predator!actions!

! 13!

reduce!capture!rates!are:!(i)!activities!of!a!predator!will!alter!the!prey’s!behavior,!i.e.!

increasing!alertness!or!altering!periods!of!activity!(ii)!actions!of!the!predator!will!

change!the!microhabitat!population!i.e.!prey!moves!out!of!geographic!reach,!and!(iii)!

the!predator!over!exploits!the!population!and!the!rate!of!kill!exceeds!the!

reproductive!birth!rates!(Berryman!1992;!Flannery!1968;!Grayson!2001;!Nicholson!

1933;!Rosenzweig!and!MacArthur!1963;!Volterra!1926).!!Humans!have!shaped!the!

natural!community!of!both!plants!and!animals!through!actions!that!ensure!survival,!

and!the!predatorCprey!model!is!one!way!to!understand!what!changed!the!behavior!

and!the!choices!they!made!throughout!history!(Boone!2002;!Grayson!2001).!!!

The!zooarchaeological!remains!found!at!archaeological!sites!are!often!the!

product!of!predation,!and!are!useful!for!reconstructing!past!behaviors!related!to!

predatorCprey!relations!(Bayham!and!Hatch!1985;!Broughton!1997;!Charles!1997;!

Dean!2001;!Powell!1977;!Szuter!1989).!!They!can!be!used!to!illuminate!a!variety!of!

issues!in!the!study!of!past!societies!like!hunting!practices,!seasonality,!subsistence,!

and!resource!availability!(Lyman!2008;!Peres!2010;!Reitz!and!Wing!2008).!For!

instance,!a!shift!from!hunting!large!game!to!smaller!game!is!often!noted!in!

zooarchaeological!assemblages.!!This!is!because!a!prey!is!assigned!a!high!or!low!rank!

based!on!the!amount!of!nutrition,!the!difficulty!of!finding!and!catching!it!and!the!

danger!it!poses!to!the!hunter!(MacArthur!and!Pianka!1966).!!Small!mammals!such!as!

rabbits!would!be!considered!low!rank!because!they!are!small!packages!of!nutrition!

whereas!deer!would!be!considered!high!rank!because!they!are!large!packages!of!

! 14!

nutrition.!While!both!take!similar!amounts!of!energy!to!track!and!kill,!the!deer!has!a!

much!greater!payoff!because!of!the!large!quantity!of!meat!it!provides.!!!

This!shift!from!large!game!to!small!game!is!a!reoccurring!theme!at!the!end!of!

the!last!ice!age!(Boone!2002;!Cutler!1954;!Flannery!1968;!Grayson!2001;!Stiner!et!al.!

1999).!!Increases!in!small!and!mediumCsized!animals!have!been!linked!by!some!to!

climatic!shifts!or!population!increases!that!cause!dietary!stress!or!resource!

depression!(Cutler,!1954;!Earle!&!Christenson,!1980;!Grayson,!2001;!Stiner,!Munro,!

&!Surovell,!2000;!Ugan,!2005).!!!!

For!example,!during!the!Archaic!period!(6000!B.C.C!A.D.!200),!in!the!North!

American!Southwest,!the!zooarchaeological!assemblages!show!that!the!numbers!of!

slow!reproducing!large!game!(bison,!deer,!and!antelope)!continually!decrease,!and!

by!the!late!Archaic!hunters!were!almost!exclusively!hunting!small!and!medium!sized!

animals!(Higgins!and!Railey!2002;!Grayson!2001;!Whalen!1994).!!Grayson!(2001),!

using!assumptions!of!the!predatorCprey!theory,!argues!that!the!extinction!of!large!

game!in!the!Americas!was!a!direct!result!of!humans!over!exploiting!this!resource.!!

However!Byers!et!al.!(2005),!also!uses!the!predatorCprey!theory!to!show!that!PaleoC

Indians!would!have!pursued!a!wide!array!of!prey,!not!just!the!mega!fauna.!!This!is!

because!even!with!a!healthy!population!of!large!mammals,!the!rates!of!encounter!

would!never!exceed!the!rate!needed!to!exclude!lagomorphs!or!other!small!fauna!

(Byers!and!Ugan!2005).!!

! 15!

In!addition!to!climatic!changes,!an!increase!of!small!fauna!in!the!diet!has!

been!linked!to!social!stress,!population!change!or!new!knowledge!that!results!in!an!

increased!diet!breadth.!!!The!argument!(using!the!predatorCprey!assumptions)!is!that!

by!increasing!the!diet!breadth!prey!that!was!more!reliable,!lower!risk,!and!was!more!

resilient!to!predation!would!be!included!to!provide!a!more!stable!food!source!and!

stable!predatorCprey!relationship!(Byers!and!Ugan!2005;!Earle!and!Christenson!1980;!

Flannery!1968;!Hockett!and!Bicho!2000;!Lupo!and!Schmitt!2002;!Minnis!1985;!

Oswalt!1976;!Stiner!et!al.!1999).!!The!predatorCprey!theory!has!been!used!to!explain!

changes!in!hunting!patterns!seen!in!Paleolithic!populations!in!Europe!(Stiner!et!al.!

1999).!!!They!saw!an!increase!in!small!quickly!reproducing!fauna!(rabbits!and!birds)!

and!a!decrease!in!slowly!reproducing!prey!in!both!the!large!(elk!and!deer)!and!

smaller!but!easy!to!catch!(mollusks!and!tortoises)!(Stiner!et!al.!1999).!In!this!

instance,!the!shift!to!small!game!was!linked!to!increased!local!populations,!which!

according!to!the!predatorCprey!theory!put!a!strain!on!resources!because!they!were!

over!exploited!(Stiner!et!al.!1999).!

In!some!cases!a!resource!depression!or!a!negative!pressure!can!be!directly!

linked!to!expanding!dietary!breadth.!!Looking!at!the!shell!mounds!from!the!late!

Holocene!in!San!Francisco!Bay!it!was!clear!to!Broughton!(1997)!that!the!humans,!

through!predatory!actions,!caused!a!resource!depression!of!preferred!nonC

vertebrates.!!A!decrease!in!the!size!of!the!nonCvertebrates!was!seen!through!time,!

! 16!

as!well!as!a!widening!of!the!diet!breadth!to!include!less!desirable!shellfish!and!other!

invertebrates!(Broughton!1997).!!

Using!the!predatorCprey!assumptions!discussed!above,!if!Cottonwood!Spring!

Pueblo!was!experiencing!dietary!stress!due!to!over!exploitation!of!the!preferred!

prey,!then!I!would!expect!to!have!low!frequencies!of!preferred!prey.!!I!would!also!

expect!the!preferred!prey!to!be!small!for!their!size!and!have!low!numbers!of!the!

mature!adults.!!The!diversity!of!the!diet!would!be!predicted!to!be!high,!as!was!seen!

in!the!San!Francisco!shell!mounds,!and!the!taxon!hunted!would!be!evenly!

represented!because!food!scarcity!does!not!allow!for!focus!on!one!species.!Using!

the!predatorCprey!theory,!the!pressures!that!affect!the!human’s!choice!of!small!prey!

through!the!archaeological!record!are!often!linked!to!dietary!stress!and!

environmental!deficiencies,!but!is!this!always!the!case?!!!

(

Predator(Prey*Modeling*in*an*Arid*Environment*!!

The!assumption!that!successful!predation!of!high!value!prey!(i.e.!large!prey)!

leads!to!resource!depression!and!the!hunting!of!small!mammals!many!researcher!

subscribe!to!is!challenged!with!examples!from!an!arid!environment.!!An!arid!

environment!might!seem!to!have!few!exploitable!resources!because!of!low!plant!

densities!and!limited!water,!but!it!often!supports!a!surprising!number!of!wellC

adapted!plant!and!animal!species!(Brown!1982;!Havstad!et!al.!2006).!In!an!arid!

! 17!

environment!the!high!ranking/large!packages!of!nutrition!are!difficult!to!find!

(HunterCAnderson!1986;!Steward!1938;!Ugan!2005).!!

This!is!not!because!the!environment!has!an!especially!low!exploitable!

biomass,!but!rather!the!available!animal!biomass!occurs!in!multiple!but!smaller!

packages!that!are!better!suited!to!the!environment!than!are!large!animals!(Brown!

1982;!Havstad!et!al.!2006;!HunterCAnderson!1986).!!Small!mammals!often!occur!in!

great!numbers!spread!across!an!arid!landscape!and!account!for!a!significant!portion!

of!the!animal!biomass!in!that!environment!(Havstad!et!al.!2006;!HunterCAnderson!

1986).!!The!ease!of!regularly!locating!these!animals!across!the!landscape!helps!to!

elevate!its!value!(HunterCAnderson!1986;!Ugan!2005;!Whalen!1994).!!The!American!

Southwest!is!one!of!the!arid!environments!where!ethnographic!evidence!from!a!

number!of!puebloan!groups!as!well!as!archaeological!evidence!shows!that!small!

mammal!hunting!was!an!important!part!of!the!subsistence!strategy!(Beaglehole!

1936;!Cushing!1920;!Forde!1931;!Stevenson!1904;!Szuter!1989;!Ugan!2005).!!!

Examples!can!also!be!found!in!arid!environments!around!the!world!such!as!Australia!

(Bliege!Bird!et!al.!2008),!Africa!(Sheuyange!et!al.!2005;!Tanaka!1982),!and!the!Great!

Basin!(Steward!1938).!!Hunting!techniques!for!small/medium!animals!such!as!rabbits!

or!other!rodent!communities!used!by!the!people!of!the!American!Southwest!as!

other!arid!environment!cultures!have!the!potential!to!yield!large!numbers!in!a!single!

hunting!event,!and!thus!the!ranking!or!value!of!small!animals!increases!(HunterC

Anderson!1986;!MacArthur!and!Pianka!1966;!Oswalt!1976;!Shaffer!and!Gardner!

! 18!

1995;!Steward!1938;!Ugan!2005).!!Additionally,!animals!such!as!rabbits!were!not!

only!valued!for!their!meat!but!for!their!skins!(Anderson!2005;!Steward!1938).!!They!

were!used!to!make!rabbit!skin!blankets!and!other!clothes!(Anderson!2005;!Steward!

1938),!therefore!increasing!the!total!prey!value!beyond!food!value.!!

The!assumptions!of!predatorCprey!theory!suggest!that!large!animals!will!

always!have!more!value!than!smaller!animals.!!In!arid!environments!where!they!are!

rarely!encountered!they!still!have!a!high!value,!but!the!value!of!small!animals!is!

raised.!!Advantages!of!hunting!small!mammals!such!as!rabbits!and!increase!their!

value!as!a!targeted!prey!using!the!predatorCprey!theory!include:!(i)!they!are!more!

frequently!encountered!across!the!landscape!so!there!is!low!cost!associated!with!

finding!them,!(ii)!they!are!easy!to!kill!and!do!not!pose!any!danger!to!the!hunter,!(iii)!

hunting!strategies!for!these!types!of!animals!often!are!capable!of!killing!large!

numbers!at!one!time,!(iv)!they!have!relatively!small!home!ranges!so!are!unlikely!to!

migrate!out!of!the!microenvironment,!and!(v)!they!reproduce!very!quickly!and!so!

even!with!heavy!predation,!overexploitation!is!unlikely.!!!

Hunting/predation!strategies!like!rabbit!drives!that!focused!on!capturing!

large!numbers!of!small!mammals!such!as!jackrabbits,!prairie!dogs,!or!any!other!small!

animal!that!got!caught!up!in!the!drive!may!have!represented!higher!returns!in!arid!

environments!than!large!game!(Dean!2007a;!Earle!and!Christenson!1980;!HunterC

Anderson!1986;!Lyon!1904;!Oswalt!1976;!Szuter!1989;!Ugan!2005).!!This!strategy!

would!have!been!especially!cost!effective!when!trying!to!feed!large!sedentary!

! 19!

populations!because!such!large!numbers!of!prey!could!be!killed!at!one!time,!and!

small!animals!require!little!processing!to!get!the!meat!back!to!the!village!(Dean!

2007a;!Shaffer!and!Gardner!1995;!Szuter!1984).!!This!is!another!reason!why!we!

might!see!large!game!decrease!and!small!game!increase!in!many!arid!environments.!!

The!increase!of!small!game!is!not!necessarily!tied!to!a!lack!of!resources!or!dietary!

stress,!rather!the!assumptions!of!predatorCprey!theory!and!the!dynamics!of!

predatorCprey!relationships!are!heavily!dependent!on!the!type!of!ecosystem!humans!

inhabit.!!The!zooarchaeological!assemblage!found!at!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!is!

expected!to!have!high!numbers!of!small!mammals,!additionally!rabbits!are!predicted!

to!make!up!the!majority!of!small!mammals!because!of!the!frequency!they!occur!in!

the!surrounding!environment!as!well!as!the!added!values!discussed!earlier.!!!

*Domestication*of*the*Environment*

!

Humans!exist!within!a!world!composed!of!ecological!systems!and,!depending!

on!the!system,!they!have!the!option!of!adopting!cultural!innovations!such!as!new!

hunting!methods!or!subsistence!practices!in!order!to!adapt!to!the!system!and!insure!

against!an!unpredictable!environment!or!a!bad!food!year!(Halstead!and!O’Shea!

2004).!!These!adaptions!and!innovations!tend!to!be!cumulative!and!build!on!one!

another.!!Humans!inhabit!the!ecosystem!but!in!a!way!humans!can!‘domesticate’!

parts!of!the!ecosystem!by!encouraging!and!harvesting!some!plant!and!animal!

species!and!discouraging!others!(Yen,!1989).!!!Yen!(1989)!refers!to!this!practice!as!

! 20!

domestication!of!the!environment.!!This!subsistence!strategy!is!somewhere!in!

between!the!unintentional!environmental!manipulation!by!primitive!hunterC

gatherer!groups!and!the!deliberate!modification!of!the!environment!by!

horticulturalists!to!fit!the!physiological!needs!of!the!cultigens.!!By!understanding!the!

lifecycles,!reproduction,!behavior!and!feeding!habits!of!the!fauna,!and!then!

manipulated!the!environment!to!exploit!them,!hunterCgatherer!groups!

domesticated!the!environment!(Yen!1989).!!!

Ethnographic!accounts!of!smallCscale!preindustrial!societies!suggest!that!this!

general!effort!to!modify!vegetation!communities!is!the!primary!way!in!which!

humans!increase!biomass!levels!of!animal!species!(Smith!2011).!!This!effort!

intensifies!and!solidifies!whatever!relationship!the!human!(predator)!and!the!

targeted!animal!or!animals!(prey)!had!in!an!unmodified!or!less!intensively!modified!

environment.!!The!modification!of!vegetative!communities!(or!domestication!of!the!

environment)!was!the!common!beginning!hunterCgatherer!groups!had!before!taking!

different!pathways!to!different!foodCsystems!and!resulted!in!various!levels!of!

intensely!modifying!environments!(Yen!1989:66)!

Ethnographic!evidence!from!arid!culture!groups!such!as!the!Australian!

aborigines!describe!a!pattern!of!burning!patches!of!the!landscape!to!encourage!

biotic!renewal!and!attract!prey!(Bliege!Bird!et!al.!2008).!!In!Namibia,!pastoralists!set!

fires!on!the!savanna!to!encourage!new!grass!and!other!edible!plants!to!grow!and!to!

prevent!the!spread!of!shrubs!(Sheuyange!et!al.!2005).!Californian!Indians!do!not!

! 21!

distinguish!between!managed!and!wild!land,!and!have!a!long!tradition!‘tending!the!

land’!by!introducing!plants!like!tobacco,!palms,!and!the!walnut!to!new!areas!

(Anderson!2005).!They!also!deliberately!burned!patches!of!land!that!increased!

edible!plants,!and!feed!for!wildlife.!!These!areas!were!known!for!attracting!deer!and!

other!prey,!and!were!planned!hunting!grounds!(Anderson!2005).!!This!burning!of!the!

land!is!not!that!different!from!the!burning!that!many!agriculturalists!before!planting!

a!crop!in!that!it!serves!a!similar!purpose!(Yen!1989)!

There!are!a!variety!of!methods!humans!can!use!to!‘domesticate!the!

environment’,!but!in!general!they!involve!creating!mosaics!and!edge!areas,!resetting!

successional!(plant!growth)!sequences,!and!physical!changes!such!as!building!dams!

(Smith!2011;!Yen!1989).!!!!These!efforts!are!explained!by!the!predatorCprey!theory!

using!the!assumption!that!predators!will!affect!the!behavior!of!the!prey.!!Often!this!

assumption!is!taken!to!mean!the!prey!will!change!their!activity!patterns!or!other!

behaviors!to!avoid!predation.!!However,!humans!have!learned!to!manipulate!the!

behavior!of!prey!so!they!are!easier!to!find!and!in!some!cases!seek!out!humans!

(Smith!2011).!!!The!activities!done!to!domesticate!the!environment!such!as!creating!

mosaics!and!edge!areas!increase!prey!populations,!especially!the!smallish!animals!

like!rabbits!that!burrow!and!hide,!and!the!larger!species!that!are!known!to!prefer!

edges!like!deer!(Anderson!2005;!Linares!1976;!Smith!2011;!Yahner!1988;!Yen!1989).!!

These!types!of!modifications!on!the!landscape!often!mimic!natural!processes,!and!so!

archaeological!evidence!of!this!type!of!manipulation!is!difficult!to!find!(Smith!2011).!!

! 22!

!The(Microenvironment(of(Villages(and(a(Mammalian(Tending(Pattern(

!

Using!a!general!strategy!of!altering!the!vegetative!community!to!increase!the!

available!animal!biomass!is!not!that!different!from!what!early!horticulturalists!were!

doing.!!The!adoption!of!agriculture!is!generally!regarded!as!a!way!to!support!larger!

populations!in!smaller!spaces!by!artificially!increasing!the!biomass!and!control!the!

uncertainties!associated!with!foraging!for!wild!plants.!!It!is!often!associated!with!a!

depression!of!these!resources!similar!to!the!explanation!of!diet!breadth!in!the!

predatorCprey!theory!(Boone!2002;!Earle!and!Christenson!1980;!HunterCAnderson!

1986;!Minnis!1985;!Smith!1989;!Whalen!1994).!!Lewis!Binford!(1968)!and!Kent!

Flannery!(1968)!argued!that!agriculture!was!a!cultural!means!of!coping!with!an!

inadequate!ecological!system.!They!viewed!adoption!of!agriculture!as!a!necessary!

cultural!innovation!in!response!to!a!deficiency.!!!!

Jack!Harlan!(1995),!building!on!David!Rindos!(1984)!work!on!the!evolution!of!

agriculture,!hypothesized!that!agriculture!was!not!an!innovation!but!rather!a!longC

term!coCevolutionary!process!that!produced!food!systems!(plants!and!animals).!!This!

idea!of!food!systems!fits!well!with!the!idea!of!environmental!domestication!Yen!

(1989)!described,!only!on!a!different!level!of!intensity.!!Horticultural!adoption!and!

population!aggregation!into!villages!can!be!seen!as!a!positive!choice!to!increase!local!

productivity!even!in!a!stable!ecosystem.!!Increasing!the!biomass!in!an!area!allowed!

! 23!

larger!communities!of!people!to!occupy!the!same!size!area!as!a!hunter!and!gatherer!

group!and!provided!additional!social!benefits.!!

This!progression!helps!to!define!three!different!levels!or!types!of!human!

modified!microenvironments!that!would!be!found!associated!with!a!horticultural!

village!such!as!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo.!!The!surrounding!region!is!the!least!

intensely!human!modified!environment;!this!type!of!environment!will!be!

categorized!as!‘regional!environment’.!!It!is!not!considered!natural!or!wild!because!

humans!are!unintentionally!modifying!it!through!hunting!particular!animals!and!

harvesting!particular!plants.!These!areas!represent!the!broad!regional!environment!

surrounding!the!settlement.!!The!next!category!of!environment!is!categorized!as!

‘domesticated!environment’,!this!environment!(when!looking!at!sedentary!groups)!is!

usually!closer!to!the!settlements!and!sometimes!considered!part!of!them.!!It!is!made!

up!of!more!intensely!modified!areas!that!include!cleared!land!for!building!materials!

or!hunting,!fallow!fields,!and!areas!where!wild!plants!that!are!considered!edible!or!

wild!feed!are!encouraged!in!order!to!provide!food!and!attract!animals.!The!third!

class!of!human!modified!environment!will!be!labeled!the!‘microenvironment!of!the!

village’!or!village!area.!!This!is!the!most!intensely!human!modified!microenvironment!

made!up!of!farm!fields!and!the!occupation!areas!directly!surrounding!the!pueblo.!

These!three!human!modified!environments!will!have!different!communities!of!

animals!associated!with!each!one,!and!so!human!predatorCprey!relationships!will!

vary!between!them.!!!

! 24!

!The!maintence!of!the!human!modified!microenvironments!(especially!the!

domesticated!environment!and!village!area)!could!be!classified!as!a!‘mammalian!

tending!pattern’!and!seen!as!a!predatory!strategy!(Linares!1976;!Yen!1989).!!

Ethnographic!evidence!supports!the!idea!that!humans!were!aware!of!the!resource!

they!were!attracting!and!willing!to!sacrifice!some!of!their!crop!so!they!could!

maintain!a!heathy!prey!population!within!easy!reach!(Anderson!2005;!Balee!1984;!

Linares!1976;!Nations!and!Nigh!2009;!Yen!1989).!!Both!the!Ka’apore!(of!the!Amazon)!

and!the!Lacandon!Maya!(of!Chipas!Mexico)!understood!that!allowing!game!animals!

to!enter!the!garden!will!decrease!the!harvest,!but!they!still!left!some!gardens!

unfenced!to!attract!prey!and!even!let!some!crops!grow!without!harvesting!in!order!

to!create!an!attractive!environment!(Balee!1984;!Nations!and!Nigh!2009).!!Given!the!

size!of!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!and!the!evidence!of!large!farming!areas,!I!expect!

that!the!humans!were!using!this!strategy.!!

Archaeological!evidence!for!a!mammalian!tending!pattern!is!seen!in!a!

zooarchaeological!assemblage!through!the!presence!of!‘garden!hunted’!animals.!!

The!term!garden!hunting!was!developed!by!Olga!Linares!(1976)!to!explain!different!

mammalian!harvesting!patterns!between!a!settlement!associated!with!a!heavy!

dependence!on!horticulture!and!one!that!wasn’t.!!!This!theory!was!based!on!

ecological!studies!that!have!shown!that!some!animal!populations!such!as!deer,!

rabbits,!and!rodents!increase!in!areas!with!signifigant!human!modification!to!the!

environment!(Emslie!1981;!Pelikan!and!Nesvadbova!1979;!Powell!1977).!!Disturbed!

! 25!

areas!such!as!fields!and!cleared!land!are!also!known!to!support!higher!densities!of!

small!mammals!than!are!found!in!undisturbed!areas!(Balee!1984;!Dean!2001;!Emslie!

1981;!Linares!1976;!Oswalt!1976;!Pelikan!and!Nesvadbova!1979;!Powell!1977;!Ugan!

2005;!Yahner!1988;!Yen!1989).!!These!animals!are!attracted!by!the!food,!moisture,!

hiding!places,!nesting!places,!fewer!competitors!or!more!open!areas!the!more!

intensely!modified!environments!(domesticated!environment!and!the!

microenvironment!of!the!village)!can!provide,!and!fall!into!the!category!of!

commensal!animals!(O’Connor!2013).!!The!term!commensal,!as!defined!by!Reitz!et!

al.!(2010:229),!refers!to!all!animals!associated!with!human!built!environments!as!

well!as!pets!and!work!animals.!!!

Modern!day!garden!hunting!of!animals!that!have!been!either!intentionally!or!

unintentionally!attracted!to!the!settlement!is!seen!Peru!(NaughtonCTreves!et!al.!

2003),!the!Philippians!(Kent!1989),!Paraguay!(Redford!and!Robinson!1987),!the!

American!Southwest!(Cushing!1920),!and!in!many!other!parts!of!the!world!

(Anderson!2005;!Balee!1984;!Boone!2002;!Nations!and!Night!2009;!Pelikan!and!

Nesvadbova!1979;!Yahner!1988;!Yen!1989).!!The!agricultural!fields!produced!a!bait!

for!animals,!and!like!a!worm!on!a!hook,!it!drew!them!into!close!range.!!By!

maintianing!a!garden!or!field,!and!hunting!the!animals!found!in!and!around!the!

fields!provides!a!balanced!diet!(Linares!1976).!!This!is!a!strategy!that!provides!both!

the!plant!and!animal!portions!of!a!diet,!and!is!what!Harlan!(1995)!refered!to!as!a!

foodCsystem.!!Among!the!animals!attracted!to!these!type!of!environments!are!

! 26!

rabbits,!sometimes!deer,!small!rodents,!some!birds,!lizards!and!other!reptiles,!

insects,!and!land!snails!(Reitz!and!Wing!2008).!!However!figuring!out!which!animals!

would!be!considered!garden!hunted!from!a!given!archaeological!site!is!tricky!

because!most!organisms!that!are!considered!commensal!would!also!be!present!in!

the!regional!environment!(Reitz!and!Wing!2008).!!

Linares!(1976)!used!the!environmental!and!ethnographic!evidence!to!

interpret!the!zooarchaeological!assemblage!from!two!sites!in!Panama!dating!to!the!

same!time!period!and!in!the!same!region.!!She!assumed!that!they!had!similar!animal!

populations!available!in!the!regional!environment,!however!they!differed!in!that!one!

group!had!a!larger!settlement!size!and!had!cleared!the!land!to!farm!(Linares!1976).!

She!describes!the!animals!represented!in!the!zooarchaeological!assemblages!in!

terms!of!common!preferred!habitat!or!observed!behaviors!and!shows!that!when!

garden!hunted!the!majority!of!animals!fall!into!one!of!two!categories.!!They!are!

either!smallish!animals!that!tend!to!live!in!underbrush!or!burrows!and!are!frequently!

found!in!and!around!disturbed!areas!likes!encampments!or!fields,!or!they!are!larger!

animals!that!are!not!too!shy!and!that!live!or!can!live!in!margins!around!disturbed!

areas!(Linares!1976).!!!!

The!zooarchaeological!assemblages!differed!in!that!the!site!with!farm!fields!

had!almost!none!of!the!shy!forest!creatures!that!inhabit!the!inner!forest!or!upper!

stories!of!the!canopies.!Animals!such!as!the!tapir,!whiteClipped!peccary,!and!brocket!

deer!were!missing!from!the!assemblage.!!Instead!small!animals!that!lived!in!the!

! 27!

underbrush!surrounding!the!settlement!like!armadillo,!rabbits,!rodents!and!the!

larger!animals!known!to!inhabit!disturbed!edge!areas!like!deer!and!the!collared!

peccary!dominated!the!assemblage!(Linares!1976).!!

Using!another!zooarchaeological!assemblage!Kitty!Emery!et!al.!(2008)!used!

this!idea!of!a!mammalian!tending!pattern!(environmental!domestication!and!garden!

hunting)!to!show!that!in!the!people!in!the!Maya!region!engaged!in!this!complex!

subsistence!strategy.!!She!uses!the!type!and!frequency!of!species!represented!to!

show!that!they!took!advantage!of!animals!attracted!to!the!agricultural!fields!(intense!

human!modified!environment),!shy!animals!that!lived!in!the!minimally!

modified/undisturbed!forest,!and!animals!who!were!attracted!to!disturbed!areas!but!

lived!in!the!edge!or!boundary!zone!between!the!two!environments!(Emery!and!

Thornton!2008).!!They!hypothesized!that!based!on!the!zooarchaeological!

assemblage!from!the!Maya!occupation!period!that!they!were!actively!maintaining!

the!disturbed!environment!outside!the!agricultural!fields!(domesticated!

environment)!as!a!‘forest!garden’!(Emery!and!Thornton!2008)!which!fits!with!a!

mammalian!tending!pattern.!!

In!an!earlier!study!by!Emery!et!al.!(2000),!use!the!theory!that!the!people!at!

this!site!were!practicing!the!predatory!strategy!of!mammalian!tending!and!look!at!

the!C4!isotopic!signatures!of!the!deer.!!The!C4!isotope!signature!of!the!deer!was!

higher!than!expected!for!a!forest!diet!showing!they!were!regularly!feeding!on!a!diet!

of!C4!plants.!They!hypothesize!that!throughout!the!Collapse!Period!deer!were!a!crop!

! 28!

pest!feeding!off!of!the!corn!(C4!plant),!and!that!the!people!in!the!Maya!region!were!

hunting!these!animals!(Emery!et!al.!2000).!!This!is!an!especially!interesting!case!

because!the!deer!throughout!the!Collapse!period!remain!stable!in!numbers!(in!the!

assemblage)!and!in!their!carbon!isotope!signatures.!!!The!theory!that!the!predatorC

prey!relationship!seen!at!this!site!was!expressed!through!a!mammalian!tending!

pattern!is!supported!by!the!data.!Emery!et!al.!(2000)!concluded!that!the!people!in!

the!Maya!region!were!aware!of!the!prey!resource!attracted!to!fields!and!that!this!

created!a!sustainable!population!of!healthy!prey!in!the!immediate!vicinity.!!

Christine!Szuter!(1991)!and!Rebecca!Dean!(2001)!both!apply!this!idea!that!

predatorCprey!relationships!can!be!changed!through!the!manipulation!of!the!

environment!to!an!arid!environment.!Szuter!(1991)!notes!that!the!zooarchaeological!

assemblages!from!Hohokam!sites!represent!the!expected!assemblages!from!a!site!

with!agricultural!fields!and!a!domesticated!environment.!Szuter!(1991)!states!that!

the!Hohokam!likely!created!a!culturally!modified!environment!by!removing!dense!

brush!cover!from!the!desert!floor!for!building!matierals!and!clearing!land!for!

agriculture!fields!and!irrigation.!!Doing!this!created!a!unique!habitat!in!which!

animals!could!live!and!be!within!easy!reach,!and!zooarchaeological!indices!show!that!

animals!associated!with!irrigation!canals!are!frequently!recovered!at!these!sites!

along!with!large!numbers!of!garden!pests!such!as!rabbits!and!other!rodents!(Szuter!

1991).!!Christine!Szuter!(1984)!applied!the!predatorCprey!thory!and!the!idea!that!

agricultural!fields!were!used!for!mammalian!tending!when!interperting!the!

! 29!

zooarchaeological!assemblage!from!the!GilaCSalt!River.!!Increased!species!of!rodents!

that!had!been!associated!with!the!disturbed!environments!of!the!agricultural!fields!

were!took!to!mean!that!the!people!realized!the!attraction!that!their!fields!held!for!

rodents,!and!set!small!traps!(Szuter!1984).!!!

Rebecca!Dean!also!worked!in!the!American!Southwest!on!zooarchaeological!

assemblages!from!Hohokam!sites.!!She!interperts!the!zooarchaeolcal!data!as!

reflective!of!site!use!intensity.!!Although!the!terminology!is!different!she!uses!the!

same!predatorCprey!relationship!theory!that!Yen!(1989)!and!Linares!(1979)!define!as!

domestication!of!the!environment,!garden!hunting!and!a!mammalian!tending!

pattern.!!Throughout!the!Hohokam!occupation!period!the!frequency!of!animals!that!

are!attracted!to!the!intensely!modified!environments!(microenvironment!of!the!

village)!increased.!!She!hypothesizes!that!the!predatorCprey!relationship!changed!

through!the!manipulation!of!the!environment!and!that!as!they!intensified!

horticulture!they!also!intensified!garden!hunting.!!!

The!predatory!strategy!of!domesticating!the!environment!to!increase!

biomass,!and!then!intensifying!this!action!by!adopting!horticulture!has!been!applied!

in!a!wide!varety!of!environments!in!different!locations!and!different!times.!!Perhaps!

this!is!why!Linares!(1976)!even!goes!as!far!to!say!that!the!garden!hunting!strategy!

and!mammalian!tending!pattern!may!have!taken!the!place!of!animal!domestication!

in!different!parts!of!the!world.!!I!expect!to!see!evidence!in!the!zooarchaeological!

assemblage!that!the!garden!hunting!strategy!was!also!employed!at!Cottonwood!

! 30!

Spring!Pueblo.!!This!predatory!strategy!will!be!identifiable!in!the!high!representation!

of!animal!groups!that!are!known!to!live!in!or!on!the!margins!of!these!disturbed!

areas.!!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!with!its!6!architectural!areas!spread!over!1!km2,!

the!farm!fields!and!other!activity!areas!created!a!large!intensely!modified!village!

microenvironment!(Lekson!and!Rorex!1987;!Kemrer!2011).!The!intensly!modified!

area!of!the!village!plus!the!domesticated!environment!surrounding!the!pueblo,!and!

the!resources!that!the!regional!environment!provided,!suggests!a!large!scale!

mammalian!tending!straegy.!!!!

Zooarchaeological!assemblages!represent!the!products!of!these!cultural!

adaptions!and!choices,!and!so!our!samples!are!biased!towards!human!hunting!

pressures!and!preferences!(Lyman!2008).!!!The!theory!discussed!previously!suggests!

the!presence!of!small!game!and!other!species!can!tell!us!a!lot!about!the!cultural!

choices!made!by!the!people!who!created!the!assemblage.!!There!is!much!debate!

about!how!best!to!interpret!the!composition!of!zooarchaeological!assemblages!in!

terms!of!estimating!relative!taxonomic!abundance,!the!environment!and!human!

predatorCprey!interactions,!but!a!number!of!indices!have!been!developed!in!order!to!

attempt!to!separate!these!factors!(Badenhorst!and!Driver!2009;!Lyman!2008;!

O’Connor!2000;!Peres!2010;!Reitz!and!Wing!2008).!!

One!of!the!first!wellCknown!examples!of!a!faunal!index!created!to!measure!

changes!in!the!environment!was!the!gazelle/dama!ratio!(Lyman!2008).!!!Gazelles!

were!known!to!prefer!open!environments!and!so!the!ratio!could!be!used!to!measure!

! 31!

aridity!in!the!Near!East!during!the!late!Pleistocene!(Bate,!1937).!!Other!

zooarchaeological!indices!are!the!cattle!index!(used!in!Africa!to!determine!

domestication!rates),!the!artiodactyl!index!(used!in!the!North!American!Great!Plains!

and!Southwest!to!indicate!the!importance!of!large!game!hunting),!the!turkey!index!

(used!in!the!Southwest!to!determine!importance!of!domestic!turkeys),!the!bovid!

index!(used!in!Africa!to!indicate!open!verses!closed!environments),!and!of!course!

the!lagomorph!index!which!will!be!described!in!the!following!section!(Badenhorst!

2011;!Badenhorst!and!Driver!2009;!Kappelman!1991;!Kingston!2007;!Lyman!2008;!

Peres!2010;!Reitz!and!Wing!2008).!

!Interpretation(of(Small(Game(

(

!As!discussed!earlier,!many!researchers!associate!small!game!with!resource!

depression.!!However,!small!game!can!also!represent!an!arid!environment,!an!

intensely!modified!environment,!or!the!concentrated!use!of!a!predatory!strategy!

such!as!a!mammalian!tending!pattern.!!To!better!understand!the!role!small!game!

played!in!the!human!predatorCprey!model!and!interpret!variation!in!small!game!

assemblages!between!sites!both!synchronically!and!diachronically!the!lagomorph!

index!was!created!by!Bayham!and!Hatch!(1985)!and!then!later!refined!by!Szuter!

(1989!and!1991).!The!index!was!created!in!order!to!specifically!address!sites!where!

lagomorphs!(rabbits!and!hares)!made!up!the!majority!of!small!fauna!in!the!

assemblages.!!Differences!in!the!ratio!of!rabbits!to!hares!at!it’s!most!basic!level!can!

! 32!

provide!information!about!the!environment.!!!The!lagomorph!index!(LI)!is!calculated!

by!dividing!the!number!of!cottontails/rabbits!(Sylvilagus)!by!the!sum!of!both!

cottontails/rabbits!(Sylvilagus)!and!jackrabbits/hares!(Lepus).!!Ratios!close!to!1!

reflect!high!numbers!of!rabbits!and!ratios!close!to!0!represent!high!numbers!of!

hares.!!

In!North!America!varying!proportions!of!hares!and!rabbits!(in!the!Southwest,!

Lepus*californicus*or!the!jackrabbit!and!Sylvilagus*audubonii!or!the!cottontail)!have!

been!used!to!reconstruct!changes!in!the!regional!environment!due!to!their!

differences!in!habitat!preferences!(Brown!1947;!Bayham!and!Hatch!1985;!Chapman!

and!Willner!1978;!Lightfoot!et!al.!2011;!Lyon!1904;!Turkowski!1975;!Vorhies!and!

Taylor!1933).!This!general!measure!of!small!mammal!variability!originated!in!the!

Southwest,!because!during!the!1960s!when!archaeologists!were!developing!more!

scientific!approaches!to!zooarchaeological!analysis!many!of!them!were!working!in!

the!Southwest!and!trying!to!incorporate!mathematical!and!biological!theories.!!

Borrowing!from!the!biological!sciences,!ecological!studies,!predatorCprey!theory!and!

dietary!breadth!models!were!incorporated!to!understand!the!development!small!

village!life!and!population!aggregation!(Bayham!and!Hatch!1985;!Lyman!2008;!Reitz!

and!Wing!2008).!!!

Differences!between!lagomorphs!in!habitat!preferences!and!predator!

avoidance!behaviors!are!strongly!linked!to!local!vegetation,!and!using!predatorCprey!

theory!act!as!one!measure!of!the!environment!(Brown!1947;!Chapman!and!Willner!

! 33!

1978;!Dean!2007b;!French!et!al.!1965;!Lightfoot!et!al.!2011;!Turkowski!1975;!Vorhies!

and!Taylor!1933).!!Rabbits/cottontails!inhabit!areas!with!dense!underbrush!making!it!

easier!to!hide!or!to!freeze!to!avoid!detection!by!predators!(Chapman!and!Willner!

1978;!Turkowski!1975).!Hares/jackrabbits!are!found!in!open!habitats!with!less!

ground!cover!because!they!prefer!open!space!in!order!to!see!and!flee!from!

predators!(Brown!1947;!French!et!al.!1965;!Vorhies!and!Taylor!1933).!!

Elevation!gradient!is!another!environmental!measure!using!the!ratio!of!

rabbits!to!hares!(Dean!2007b).!!In!Arizona,!sites!located!above!800!meters,!the!

percentage!of!rabbits!is!never!less!than!20%,!but!sites!below!this!elevation!contain!

very!few!or!no!rabbits!(Dean!2007b).!!Although!the!lagomorph!index!has!the!

potential!to!measure!changes!in!environment!due!to!differences!in!habitat!

preference!and!known!distributions,!it!is!important!to!remember!the!animals!

represented!in!a!zooarchaeological!assemblage!are!subject!to!human!behavioral!

factors.!The!animals!hunted!were!interacting!with!the!broader!regional!

environment,!but!the!animals!present!were!likely!a!product!of!predatorCprey!

dynamics!as!well.!!

Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!is!located!in!the!transition!zone!of!the!regional!

environment.!!It!is!between!desert!grasslands!(open!environment)!and!a!higher!

more!mountainous!region!(more!closed!environment).!!The!most!basic!

interpretation!of!the!lagomorph!index!from!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!is!expected!

! 34!

to!be!slightly!more!weighted!towards!jackrabbits,!but!still!have!a!significant!

population!of!cottontails!because!of!the!proximity!of!both!types!of!environments.!!!

!Critiques(of(the(Lagomorph(Index(

!!

Zooarchaeological!studies!in!the!Southwest!show!that!the!ratio!of!jackrabbits!

to!cottontails!varies!spatially!and!temporally!(Badenhorst!and!Driver!2009;!Bayham!

and!Hatch!1985;!Dean!2007b;!DeBry!2012;!Driver!and!Woiderski!2008;!Szuter!1989).!!!

Initially!the!index!was!developed!to!act!as!a!marker!for!environmental!change.!!

Recently!have!people!hypothesized!that!differences!in!the!number!could!be!

reflecting!anthropogenic!modifications!to!the!environment!such!as!farm!fields!or!

less!intensely!modified!microenvironments!as!well!as!different!predatory!behaviors!

(Badenhorst!and!Driver!2009;!Dean!2007b;!Driver!and!Woiderski!2008;!Szuter!1991).!!

This!means!that!lagomorph!bones!found!in!archaeological!sites!are!not!a!

straightforward!representation!of!the!natural!environment.!!The!application!of!such!

an!index!needs!to!be!examined!more!closely!and!the!anthropogenic!factors!affecting!

the!index!need!to!be!better!understood!especially!in!the!presence!of!different!

intensely!modified!environments!that!together!could!represent!a!mammalian!

tending!pattern.!!Analysts!trying!to!apply!it!to!other!parts!of!the!world!as!well!as!

Southwestern!zooarchaeological!analysts!have!made!this!criticism,!and!yet!it!is!a!

standard!measure!found!in!nearly!all!Southwest!zooarchaeological!reports!(Dean!

2007b;!Driver!and!Woiderski!2008;!Hockett!and!Bicho!2000;!Rodríguez!2010).!!The!

! 35!

critiques!of!the!lagomorph!index!stem!from!its!widespread!use!but!illCdefined!

practice!in!calculation!and!poorly!understood!relationship!to!behavioral!phenomena!

related!to!predatorCprey!theory!and!the!manipulation!of!the!environment.!It’s!one!

thing!to!propose!this!equation,!but!it’s!another!to!put!it!into!practice.!!

!Calculating*the*Lagomorph*Index*

!!

The!lagomorph!index!(LI),!is!most!often!calculated!using!the!NISP!(number!of!

identified!specimens)!where!each!bone!and!fragment!is!counted!as!one!specimen!

(Driver!and!Woiderski!2008;!Lyman!2008).!This!equation!is!used!with!many!possible!

variables,!and!what!variable!were!used!are!often!not!defined.!!Zooarchaeological!

analysts!have!used!various!combinations!of!three!possible!variables!in!this!index!

calculation;!SYL!(total!number!of!specimens!identified!as!Sylvilagus),!LEP!(total!

number!of!specimens!identified!as!Lepus),!and!in!some!cases!LAG!(total!number!of!

specimens!identified!as!SYL!+!LEP!+!all!specimens!only!identified!to!the!family!level)!

(Driver!and!Woiderski!2008).!!!

Distinction!between!Sylvilagus*and!Lepus*is!generally!done!on!the!basis!of!

size;!further!distinction!from!the!genus!level!to!species!level!is!difficult!based!on!

osteology,!and!only!rarely!is!it!confidently!done!(Driver!and!Woiderski!2008;!Hillson!

1992;!Olsen!1964).!!Generally!the!most!common!Lepus*and!Sylvilagus*in!the!area!are!

chosen!as!representative!species.!!Archaeologists!have!used!variations!of!the!

equation!with!the!LAG!variable!as!the!denominator!so!that!it!includes!specimens!

! 36!

only!identified!to!the!family!level!and!other!times!using!the!LEP!as!the!numerator!

(Driver!and!Woiderski!2008).!!!!

It!is!important!to!standardize!what!values!are!being!used!when!calculating!

the!Lagomorph!index.!!I!have!chosen!to!exclude!specimens!that!cannot!be!identified!

to!the!genus!level,!and!I!have!chosen!to!use!Lepus*californicus,*and*Sylvilagus*

audubonii!as!my!representative!species.!The!majority!of!analysts!seem!to!use!this!

method!and!sometimes!the!fragmentary!nature!of!the!zooarchaeological!

assemblage!can!significantly!skew!the!numbers!if!specimens!identified!to!Family!or!

above!are!included!(Driver!and!Woiderski!2008).!!!It!should!also!be!noted!here!that!

loose!teeth!will!not!be!counted!as!part!of!the!NISP!used!to!calculate!the!LI!as!is!

recommended!by!Driver!and!Woiderski!(2008)!because!different!sized!screens!are!

likely!to!retain!rabbit!teeth!in!different!proportions.!!!!

(

Confounding*Factors*of*the*Lagomorph*Index*!!

In!addition!to!calculation!differences,!theoretical!interpretations!of!this!index!

can!be!complicated!because!people!have!linked!many!factors!to!changes!in!the!

index!number!(Bayham!and!Hatch!1985;!Dean!2007b;!Driver!and!Woiderski!2008;!

Szuter!1991).!!These!factors!include!cultural!or!behavioral!changes!like!new!hunting!

methods,!solitary!versus!group!hunting,!prey!preference,!and!social!influences!such!

as!dietary!stress.!!However,!factors!like!these!are!not!sufficiently!well!understood!to!

allow!for!a!straightforward!interpretation!of!the!lagomorph!index!(Dean!2007b;!

! 37!

Driver!and!Woiderski!2008;!Szuter!1991).!These!additional!behavioral!factors!need!

to!be!controlled!for!when!applying!the!results.!!!

One!criticism!is!that!in!addition!to!habitat!preference,!the!behavioral!

differences!of!jackrabbits!and!cottontails!determine!how!they!are!hunted!and!thus!

influence!proportions!in!the!archaeological!record!(Dean!2007b;!Driver!and!

Woiderski!2008;!Szuter!1991).!Cottontails!have!a!tendency!to!hide,!and!so!were!

easily!prayed!upon!by!an!individual!using!a!variety!of!techniques!such!as!bow!and!

arrow,!barbed!club,!snares,!traps,!or!stone!projectile!while!gathering!wild!plants!or!

tending!the!crops!(Cushing!1920;!Dean!2007b;!Steward!1938;!Szuter!1989).!!!

Jackrabbits!on!the!other!hand!are!described!in!the!ethnographic!literature!as!

more!likely!captured!during!communal!hunts!(rabbit!drives)!(Cushing!1920;!Shaffer!

and!Gardner!1995;!Steward!1938).!!Their!tendency!to!run!rather!than!hide!allowed!

large!numbers!of!prey!to!be!directed!to!one!area!and!killed!all!at!once!(Anderson!

2005;!Cushing!1920;!Steward!1938).!This!predatory!activity!could!skew!the!index!in!

favor!of!jackrabbits,!regardless!of!how!often!cottontails!were!hunted!or!how!

frequently!they!were!encountered!on!the!landscape.!!A!single!event!could!

dramatically!increase!jackrabbit!representation!in!the!assemblage.!!

Both!rabbit!drives!and!hunting!individual!prey!while!doing!other!activities!

represented!high!value!prey!in!the!predatorCprey!theory,!and!so!they!would!have!

been!cost!effective!where!small!game!was!plentiful!either!in!the!microenvironment!

of!the!village!or!in!the!regional!environment!(Szuter!1984).!!Since!these!hunting!

! 38!

methods!had!dramatically!different!results!expectations!for!index!differences!are!

confused.!

In!addition!to!differences!in!preferred!habitat!and!behaviors,!cottontails!and!

jackrabbits!also!have!differences!in!preferred!food!and!responses!to!availability!

(Brown!1947;!Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952;!French!et!al.!1965;!Turkowski!1975;!

Vorhies!and!Taylor!1933).!!A!study!done!by!Vorhies!and!Taylor!(1933)!analyzed!

stomach!contents!from!179!Lepus!collected!in!southern!Arizona!throughout!the!year!

suggest!a!seasonal!preference!for!new!shoots!of!annuals!(usually!C3)!and!grasses!(C4)!

in!the!spring!and!summer!following!rains!and!for!mesquite!(C3),!cactus!(CAM),!and!

other!shrubs!(usually!C3)!in!the!drier!months!(Lightfoot!et!al.!2011;!Vorhies!and!

Taylor!1933).!!Grasses!make!up!as!much!as!45%!of!their!annual!diet,!mesquite!makes!

up!as!much!as!56%,!and!approximately!25%!of!their!diet!was!made!up!of!other!

vegetation!(Vorhies!and!Taylor!1933).!!Cottontails!have!a!similar!pattern!with!the!

bulk!of!their!diet!coming!from!grasses!and!forbs!in!the!spring!and!summer!months,!

but!a!switch!to!succulents!and!woody!stems!of!various!shrubs!in!the!drier!months!

(Brown!1947;!Chapman!and!Willner!1978;!Lightfoot!et!al.!2011;!Vorhies!and!Taylor!

1933).!!!

These!dietary!differences!are!reflected!in!stable!carbon!isotopic!signatures!

(0/00!δ13C)!found!in!the!bone!collagen!of!leporids!(DeNiro!and!Epstein!1978;!Kemp!

2008;!Munoz!et!al.!2014;!Smith!et!al.!2014).!!Results!of!a!study!done!with!both!

jackrabbits!and!cottontails!over!desert!grass/scrubland!and!a!mesic!grassland!

! 39!

environmental!zones,!show!that!in!general!jackrabbits!have!more!C4/CAM!plants!

(grasses!and!succulents)!in!their!diet!than!cottontails!in!both!desert!grass/scrubland!

and!mesic!grassland!environments!(Smith!et!al.!2014).!Both!cottontails!and!

jackrabbits!have!higher!levels!of!C3!(trees,!some!shrubs,!and!cool!season!annuals)!

mesic!grassland!environments!in!their!diets!(Smith!et!al.!2014).!!This!shows!that!the!

preferred!foods!are!C3!plants!and!that!these!animals!eat!C4/CAM!plants!as!a!fall!back!

food!in!both!environments.!!The!wetter!environment!allows!for!more!preferred!C3!

plants!and!those!plants!are!chosen!even!when!there!is!plenty!of!C4!grass!around.!!!In!

a!microenvironment!such!as!a!farm!field!the!rabbits!would!choose!the!corn,!beans,!

squash,!or!other!cultivated!broadCleafed!C3!and!C4!plants,!that!choice!would!be!

reflected!in!their!isotopic!signatures.!The!knowledge!of!preferred!diet!in!less!

modified!environments!can!be!used!as!a!control!factor!when!interpreting!the!

lagomorph!index!for!archaeological!sites!by:!!

1. Reinforcing!regional!environmental!reconstructions!as!a!general!LI!

application!!

2. Acting!as!a!proxy!measure!for!the!presence!of!different!levels!of!

intensely!modified!microenvironments!(regional!environment,!

domesticated!environment,!or!microenvironment!of!the!village)!

3. Indicating!which!individual!animals!were!hunted!in!the!regional!

environment!versus!which!ones!were!hunted!in!the!village!area,!an!

will!also!indicate!the!hunting!method!likely!used!

! 40!

Alone,!the!lagomorph!index!does!not!have!direct!accurate!interpretations!

beyond!the!simple!indication!of!open!versus!closed!environment.!!Stable!carbon!

isotopes!in!lagomorph!bones!have!been!used!to!monitor!shortCterm!vegetation!

patterns!in!a!few!modern!day!regions!and!archaeology!sites!but!this!data!has!not!yet!

been!used!as!evidence!for!measuring!degree!of!anthropogenic!changes!to!the!

environment!such!as!farm!fields!or!to!infer!behavior!such!as!predation!strategies!

(Kemp!et!al.!2013;!Munoz!et!al.!2014;!Smith!et!al.!2014).!In!order!to!gain!a!complete!

picture!of!what!factors!(both!environmental!and!behavioral)!contributed!to!any!

given!zooarchaeological!assemblage!multiple!lines!of!evidence!need!to!be!combined!

in!order!to!identify!the!major!contributing!factors!for!the!observations.!!The!addition!

of!stable!carbon!isotope!ratios!from!leporids!will!add!a!line!of!evidence!to!the!

taxonomic!data!and!calculations,!the!regional!environmental!reconstruction,!and!

ethnographic!evidence.!By!controlling!for!different!microenvironments,!the!

lagomorph!index!will!take!on!a!more!concrete!meaning!when!human!behavioral!

differences!are!used!to!explain!variations.!!

!Using(Stable(Carbon(Isotopes(in(Zooarchaeological(Analysis(to(Strengthen(the(

Lagomorph(Index!!!

The!natural!abundance!of!stable!isotopes!has!increasingly!become!an!

important!tool!for!archaeologists!in!environmental!studies!(Phillips!and!Gregg!2003).!!

Traditionally,!archaeologists!have!relied!on!environmental!reconstruction,!

! 41!

ethnographic!evidence,!and!the!interpretation!of!zooarchaeological!remains!to!

understand!how!humans,!animals!and!the!environment!all!interacted!together.!!The!

chemical!makeup!of!specimens!from!a!zooarchaeological!assemblage!assesses!the!

diet!of!a!particular!group!of!animals!(in!this!case,!leporids)!providing!evidence!of!

how!the!environment!affects!predatorCprey!interactions.!!!!

Stable!carbon!isotopes!can!be!used!to!measure!what!types!of!plants!(ratio!of!

C3!to!C4/CAM)!made!up!the!lagomorph’s!diet.!!This!measure!reveals!variations!in!the!

plants!present!in!an!individual’s!environment!and!comparing!differences!between!

individuals!indicate!distinctions!between!the!microenvironments!they!were!living!

and!hunted!in.!!Stable!carbon!isotope!values!depend!on!two!processes,!the!

photosynthetic!mechanism!of!the!plant!(C3!vs.!C4!vs.!CAM),!and!the!absorption!of!the!

stable!carbon!isotopes!into!the!animal’s!tissues!(DeNiro!and!Epstein!1978).!!

Photosynthesis!is!the!process!of!converting!atmospheric!carbon!dioxide!(CO2)!

and!water!into!complex!organic!molecules!that!can!be!used!to!create!new!growth!

(Tipple!and!Pagani!2007).!There!are!three!main!variations!of!the!photosynthetic!

mechanism,!the!most!common!is!C3,!while!C4!and!CAM!are!uncommon!adaptions!to!

drier!environments!designed!to!conserve!water!!(Tipple!&!Pagani,!2007).!!The!carbon!

dioxide!in!the!atmosphere!is!made!up!of!a!relatively!constant!ratio!of!carbonC12!(12C)!

and!carbonC13!(13C)!stable!isotopes!(Budzikiewicz!and!Grigsby!2006;!Frieden!1972;!

O’Leary!1988).!!The!atmospheric!ratio!of!stable!isotopes!goes!through!carbon!

fractionation!(reduction!of!the!ratio!of!heavy!carbon!isotopes!along!a!gradient)!in!

! 42!

plants!during!photosynthesis!(O’Leary!1988;!Tipple!and!Pagani!2007).!!Discrimination!

against!13C!occurs!during!the!carboxylation!(initial!incorporation!of!CO2)!step!in!

photosynthesis!(O’Leary!1988).!!The!results!of!carboxylation!in!the!different!

photosynthetic!mechanisms!(C3!and!C4/CAM)!produce!distinct!and!nonCoverlapping!

0/00!δ13C!signatures!that!when!incorporated!into!animal!tissue!can!indicate!diet!

(Budzikiewicz!and!Grigsby!2006;!DeNiro!and!Epstein!1978;!O’Leary!1988;!Tieszen!et!

al.!1983;!Ugan!and!Coltrain!2012).!

Experimental!studies!show!that!the!δ13C!herbivore!bone!collagen!values!(see!

Figure!2.1)!reflect!the!stable!carbon!isotope!composition!of!the!diet!of!vegetation!

type!(C3!vs.!C4/CAM)!that!is!consumed!throughout!its!lifetime!(DeNiro!and!Epstein!

1978;!Smith!et!al.!2014;!Tieszen!et!al.!1983).!!In!a!zooarchaeological!sample!the!

stable!carbon!isotopes!have!been!incorporated!the!bone!collagen!present!in!the!

remaining!bone,!this!is!extracted!and!then!samples!are!run!through!an!Isotope!Radio!

Mass!Spectrometer!to!determine!the!stable!carbon!isotopic!signature.!!The!sample!is!

measured!against!the!carbon!standard!known!as!the!Vienna!PeeDee!Belemnite!that!

is!assigned!a!δ13C!value!of!00/00,!the!difference!between!the!sample!and!the!

standard!is!known!as!the!relative!13C!content!designated!by!δ!(delta).!!The!δ13C!value!

of!a!sample!is!given!by!the!equation:!!

!

! 43!

δ13C =13! 12! !"#$%&13! 12! !"#$%#&%

− 1 ×!1000 ! !!!

!

The!distinctive!δ13C!values!of!the!C3!and!C4!plant!are!explained!by!the!

differences!in!photosynthesis!processes.!!The!C3!photosynthetic!pathway!is!

characterized!by!a!series!of!reactions!known!as!the!CalvinCBenson!cycle!that!

discriminates!against!13C!because!it!is!heavier,!12C!is!easier!to!grab!(Frieden!1972;!

Tipple!and!Pagani!2007).!!This!means!that!a!lower!percentage!of!the!13C!isotope!is!

incorporated!into!the!plant!tissues!of!C3!plants!and!in!return!into!the!tissue!of!

animals!that!ingest!it!(DeNiro!and!Epstein!1978;!O’Leary!1988;!Ugan!and!Coltrain!

2012).!This!results!in!a!more!negative!δ13C!signature!for!both!the!plants!that!use!this!

cycle!such!as!beans,!squash,!and!mesquite,!as!well!as!the!animals!that!consume!

them!(DeNiro!and!Epstein!1978).!!The!δ13C!values!for!C3!plants!(see!Figure!2.1)!

generally!range!from!C35.0!0/00!to!C20.0!0/00!with!an!average!of!about!C26.0!

0/00!

(Tipple!and!Pagani!2007).!!!

Plants!preferred!by!both!leporids!and!humans!often!fall!into!the!C3!plant!

group!and!include!fruits,!nuts,!vegetables!and!annuals!such!as!wild!flowers.!!!In!an!

arid!environment!these!types!of!plants!have!a!limited!availability!during!the!early!

spring!and!late!summer!monsoon!seasons!(Gibbens!et!al.!1996;!Havstad!et!al.!2006;!

Lightfoot!et!al.!2011).!!!Also!cultigens!such!as!beans!and!squash!(C3!plants)!

! 44!

constituted!an!important!part!of!the!flora!in!the!intensively!modified!domesticated!

microenvironments!(Blake!and!Cutler!2001;!Cutler!1954;!Gibbens!et!al.!1996).!!

!

Figure!2.1C!Herbivore!Stable!Carbon!Isotope!Values!Overlaid!C3!and!C4!Plant!Frequency!and!Values.!!(Plant!stable!carbon!isotope!values!and!frequency!adapted!from!Tipple!and!Pagani!2007:439,!herbivore!values!adapted!from!Ambrose!1987:93).!

!Plants!with!a!C4!pathway!are!usually!warm!season!grasses!such!as!black!

grama!grass,!corn,!and!amaranth!and!are!well!adapted!to!lots!of!sunlight!(Gibbens!et!

al.!1996;!O’Leary!1988).!!These!plants!use!the!HatchCSlack!pathway!that!conserves!

water,!and!are!a!proxy!for!drought!(Tipple!and!Pagani!2007).!!The!CAM!

photosynthetic!pathway!is!another!pathway!that!was!evolved!in!arid!environments;!

succulents!like!prickly!pear!cactus,!cholla,!and!yucca!use!this!pathway!(Gibbens!et!al.!

ANRV309-EA35-15 ARI 20 March 2007 15:58

photorespiration. Under modern atmospheric CO2 levels, the high affinity of PEP-Cfor HCO3

− facilitates enzyme saturation. As a consequence, C4 plants can decreasetheir stomatal width and reduce transpiration, while fixing CO2 at rates equal orgreater than C3 plants under similar conditions (Taiz & Zeiger 1998). As a result, C4

plants’ water-use efficiency (water loss per unit carbon assimilated) is twice that of C3

plants at ∼25◦C (Hatch 1987). Moreover, higher rates of carbon assimilation can bemaintained under elevated water-stressed conditions.

Given the physiological advantages of the C4 pathway, it is not surprising to findthat C4 flora are better adapted to hot, high-light, and dry environments (Sage et al.1999a), making up more than two-thirds of all grasses in tropical and subtropicalregions, and more than 90% of tropical savanna floral ecosystems (Sage 2001). Onlyfive species represent the C4 photosynthetic pathway in C3-dominated region above60◦ N (Sage et al. 1999a). Seasonal aridity with a wet growing season is also an im-portant environmental constraint influencing C4 floral distributions, but representsa secondary control (Sage 2001).

Higher Plant Carbon Isotopic CompositionDifferences in the physiologies of C3 and C4 plants result in distinct stable carbonisotope signatures (Figure 3). The stable carbon isotopic composition of all higherplants is a function of the carbon isotopic composition of atmospheric CO2 (δ13CCO2 )and the ratio of partial pressure of atmospheric CO2 ( pCO2) inside the leaf ( pi) relativeto atmospheric pCO2 ( pa) (O’Leary 1981, Farquhar et al. 1989). Farquhar et al. (1989)empirically demonstrated that the δ13C composition of bulk C3 plant material can beexpressed by the following equation:

δ13CC3plant = δ13CCO2 − a − (b − a)pi

pa, (1)

δ13Cplant

Freq

uenc

y

C3 plants

C4 plants

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

00-5-10-15-20-25-30-35-40

Figure 3Histogram showing normaldistribution of bulk C3 andC4 plant isotopic values.Data from Cerling & Harris(1999).

www.annualreviews.org • Origins of C4 Photosynthesis 439

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use

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.

!Herbivores

Browsers!like!Deer

Grazers!like!Bison

Mixed!Feeders!like!Rabbits

Freq

uency

δ13Cplant!(

0/00)

! 45!

1996;!Tipple!and!Pagani!2007).!!Both!C4!and!CAM!plants!occupy!the!same!regions!

and!also!have!similar!δ13C!signatures!which!ranges!from!approximately!C16.0!0/00!to!C

7.0!0/00!with!an!average!of!about!C12.0!0/00!(see!Figure!4.1);!this!signature!is!then!also!

incorporated!into!the!animals!that!consume!C4/CAM!plants!(Tipple!and!Pagani!2007;!

Ugan!and!Coltrain!2012).!!

Stable!carbon!isotope!ratios!(δ13C)!found!in!leporid!bones!can!be!used!to!

measure!vegetation!changes!in!the!environment!because!leporids!consume!a!broad!

spectrum!of!plants!with!different!photosynthetic!pathways!(C3,!C4,!and!CAM)!and!

shift!their!diet!as!the!dominate!vegetation!changes!(DeNiro!and!Epstein!1978;!Kemp!

et!al.!2013;!Munoz!et!al.!2014;!O’Leary!1988;!Smith!et!al.!2014;!Ugan!and!Coltrain!

2012).!This!mixed!feeder!status!is!critical!to!this!investigation!because!the!leporids!

δ13C!value!has!the!potential!to!reflect!the!dominant!plant!type!in!an!environment!

and!record!small!changes!either!spatially!or!temporally!(Kemp!et!al.!2013;!Munoz!et!

al.!2014;!Smith!et!al.!2014).!!Also!because!leporids!have!an!estimated!lifespan!of!two!

to!three!years!and!a!lifetime!home!range!of!about!1!km2!they!will!make!excellent!

proxy!measures!of!differences!in!the!regional!environment!(Burt!and!Grossenheider!

1952;!Vorhies!and!Taylor!1933).!

Higher!values!of!δ13C!in!the!rabbits!are!indicative!of!environments!with!low!

precipitation,!where!grasses!(C4)!and!succulents!(CAM)!are!available!yearCround,!and!

where!desirable!C3!plants!are!only!available!during!the!wet!season!(Lightfoot!et!al.!

2011;!Smith!et!al.!2014;!Vorhies!and!Taylor!1933).!Lower!δ13C!values!indicate!an!

! 46!

environment!with!higher!levels!of!precipitation!because!preferred!C3!plants!are!

available!for!a!greater!portion!of!the!year!(Lightfoot!et!al.!2011;!Smith!et!al.!2014).!!

Human!modified!environments!such!as!agricultural!fields!that!emphasize!the!

cultivation!of!C3!plants!like!beans,!squash,!Indian!ricegrass,!and!lamb’s!quarters,!

raise!the!availability!of!the!preferred!C3!plants!(Badenhorst!and!Driver!2009;!HunterC

Anderson!1986;!Szuter!1991).!!!

Changes!in!vegetative!cover!can!be!determined!by!looking!at!the!leporid!

proportions,!the!regional!environmental!reconstruction,!and!variation!in!stable!

carbon!isotope!signatures!that!show!dietary!differences!(Dean!2009;!Mauldin!1995;!

Smith!et!al.!2014).!These!changes!in!vegetative!cover!can!be!linked!to!the!intensity!

of!environmental!domestication!or!drought!(Dean!2007a,!2009;!Emery!et!al.!2000;!

Gibbens!et!al.!1996;!Szuter!1991;!Yen!1989).!!The!environment!lagomorphs!were!

hunted!in!can!differentiate!human!predator!behavior!by!estimating!the!vegetative!

differences!between!the!environments!directly!surrounding!the!pueblo!and!those!

further!away!helping!to!refine!what!the!lagomorph!index!can!measure.!!Combining!

the!idea!that!variation!in!the!lagomorph!index!and!dietary!differences!can!represent!

changes!in!the!environment!allow!for!a!better!interpretation!of!what!the!lagomorph!

index!is!a!measure!of.!!!

!

!

! !

! 47!

CHAPTER(3:(Case(Study(of(Cottonwood(Spring(Pueblo:(Research(Setting(!!

! ! The!purpose!of!this!chapter!is!to!introduce!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!as!a!

case!study!for!understanding!the!range!of!subsistence!practices!in!an!arid!

environment.!!Starting!off!with!the!environmental!setting,!and!the!location!of!

Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!I!detail!how!the!surrounding!regional!environments!

would!have!affected!the!occupants!behaviors.!!Following!this!I!give!a!brief!over!view!

of!the!history!of!research!in!the!Jornada!Mogollon!culture!area!and!the!

environmental!reconstruction!related!to!transition!in!cultural!phases.!!The!

environmental!reconstruction!puts!the!trends!in!the!Jornada!Mogollon!subsistence!

practices!through!the!cultural!phases!into!perspective.!!By!looking!at!the!general!

subsistence!practice!trends!in!an!arid!environment!combined!with!those!seen!in!the!

region!will!help!to!define!the!expectations!for!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo.!!This!

chapter!concludes!with!a!history!of!research!preformed!at!Cottonwood!Spring!

Pueblo!during!the!three!seasons!New!Mexico!State!University!excavated!(2012C

2014).!!The!collection!methods!used!during!the!field!school!season!for!the!

zooarchaeological!remains!will!also!be!described.!The!information!in!this!chapter!

combined!with!predatorCprey!theory,!zooarchaeological!analysis,!and!stable!carbon!

isotopes!will!provide!a!way!to!measure!diversity!of!general!subsistence!strategies!as!

well!as!hunting!behaviors.!!!

(

(

! 48!

(

(

Environmental(Setting(of(Cottonwood(Spring(Pueblo(

(

(

Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblos’!location!in!an!arid!grass/scrubland!environment!

makes!it!a!good!case!study!when!looking!to!understand!the!changes!related!to!

adaptations!in!a!marginal!environment.!!The!environment!was!a!major!limiting!

factor!in!determining!subsistence!practices!the!people!of!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!

were!using.!!Reconstructing!the!environment!and!how!it!has!changed!through!time!

will!help!to!understand!subsistence!trends!and!occupation!patterns!up!to!and!during!

the!occupation!of!the!Pueblo.!!!

Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!is!located!on!the!west!slope!of!the!San!Andres!

Mountains!in!the!Jornada!region!(see!Figure!3.1).!!The!Jornada!is!a!high!altitude!

desert!in!which!parallel!ranges!surround!wide!sandy!basins.!!Currently!it!is!

dominated!by!C3!desertCshrubs!and!C4!grasses!that!support!a!range!of!wildlife!

(Brown!1982;!Gibbens!et!al.!1996;!Havstad!et!al.!2006).!!With!the!exception!of!the!

Rio!Grande,!the!only!permanent!water!sources!are!springs!located!in!the!mountains!

(Brown!1982;!Higgins!and!Railey!2002).!!Both!the!wildlife!and!the!people!of!the!

Jornada!Mogollon!are!dependent!on!these!sources!so!it!is!not!a!surprise!that!

prehistoric!settlements!(like!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo)!are!patterned!according!to!

their!availability!(Browning!1991;!Miller!and!Graves!2012;!Whalen!1981).!!

! 49!

!

Figure!3.1C!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!Location!in!Relation!to!Jornada!Type!Sites.!!!Regional!El!Paso!Phase!pueblos!differentiated!between!linear!and!plaza!room!block!layout,!and!Mesilla!Phase!Pit!house!site!indicated!with!a!green!dot.!!(Adapted!from!Miller!and!Graves!2009,!pg.!21).!

(

!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!(LA!175)

!

!

!

San(Andres(

Mountains

Organ(

Mountains

Sacramento(Mountains

Franklin(

Mountains

Los(Tules !

! 50!

Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!is!located!in!a!protected!research!area!called!the!

Jornada!Experimental!Range!(JER),!this!is!an!area!with!extensive!data!on!the!local!

environment!going!back!150!years!(Brunelle!et!al.!2013;!Havstad!et!al.!2006;!Peters!

et!al.!2015).!!These!climate!records!contribute!to!the!understanding!of!what!the!

environment!was!like!during!the!occupation!of!the!pueblo,!helping!to!predict!the!

kind!of!zooarchaeological!remains!as!well!as!viable!subsistence!practices.!!Land!

surveys!in!this!area!in!the!midCnineteenth!century!described!58%!of!the!JER!as!being!

C3!shrub!free,!with!more!than!98%!categorized!as!fair!to!very!good!grass!cover!

(Gibbens!et!al.!1996;!Havstad!et!al.!2006;!Peters!et!al.!2015).!!During!this!time!the!

water!table!was!also!reported!as!much!higher!(Havstad!et!al.!2006).!!However!by!

1963!dramatic!drying!of!the!environment!was!visible!with!surveys!showing!that!less!

than!25%!of!the!land!had!good!grass!cover,!none!of!it!was!C3!shrub!free,!and!the!

water!table!had!fallen!significantly!(Gibbens!et!al.!1996;!Peters!et!al.!2015).!!

Although!environmental!data!for!the!Chihuahuan!Desert!suggests!that!after!

3000!BP!there!was!an!overall!drying!trend!and!replacement!of!C4!grasses!with!C3!

desert!shrubs,!the!Tularosa!Basin!region!had!a!brief!return!to!more!mesic!species!

like!grasses!that!required!a!wellCbalanced!moisture!supply!(Mauldin!1995).!!Ray!

Mauldin!(1995)!did!a!paleoCenvironmental!reconstruction!for!the!southern!

Southwest!using!data!from!the!Jornada!Experimental!Range!and!packrat!middens!

from!the!El!Paso!region!Hueco!Mountains.!!His!results!suggest!that!in!the!region!

from!3000C1700!BP!(B.C.!1050!C!A.D.!250)!there!was!a!significant!decline!in!the!C3!

! 51!

desert!shrubs!and!an!increase!in!C4!grasslands!(Mauldin!1995).!!!This!kind!of!

environment!would!have!supported!large!populations!of!rabbits!and!allowed!for!dry!

farming!practices!(Brown!1947;!Kemrer!2011;!Lightfoot!et!al.!2011).!!Several!

significant!periods!of!increased!precipitation!as!well!as!the!historical!data!suggest!

that!the!grasslands!persisted!well!into!the!El!Paso!phase,!indicating!a!favorable!

environment!for!hunterCgatherer!groups!as!well!as!horticulturalists!(GrissinoCMayer!

et!al.!1997;!Mauldin!1995).!!!

(

Archaeology(of(the(Jornada(

(

(

The!Jornada!Mogollon!is!a!branch!of!the!Mogollon!culture!of!central!Arizona,!

southern!New!Mexico!and!Northern!Chihuahua!(see!Figure!3.2).!!Emil!Haury!defined!

the!Mogollon!culture!area!based!on!excavation!at!the!Harris!and!Mogollon!Village!

sites!located!along!the!Mimbres!and!San!Francisco!Rivers!in!New!Mexico!(Haury!

1936).!!!Ceramic!and!architecture!styles!differed!from!the!Anasazi!and!Hohokam!

cultures!in!that!they!used!primarily!brown!wear!ceramics!(Haury!1936).!!

The!Mogollon!culture,!similar!to!the!Anasazi!and!Hohokam,!begins!with!a!

period!where!people!are!living!in!pithouses!and!as!population!increases!they!shift!to!

surface!dwellings!(Haury!1936,!1976;!Plog!1974).!!Haury’s!student!Donald!Lehmer!

defined!the!Jornada!branch!of!the!Mogollon!culture!area!as!different!from!the!

Mimbres!branch!based!on!excavations!at!Los!Tules,!the!Bradfield!site,!and!the!

Alamogordo!1!and!2!sites!seen!in!Figure!3.1!(Lehmer!1948).!!Building!on!Haury’s!

! 52!

work,!Lehmer!(1948)!initially!defined!three!phases!and!assigned!them!dates!for!the!

Jornada;!an!early!pithouse!period!!(Mesilla!Phase!A.D.!900C1100),!a!transitional!

period!(Doña!Ana!Phase!A.D.!1100C1200),!and!the!pueblo!period!(El!Paso!Phase!A.D.!

1200C1400).!!!

!

Figure!3.2C!Approximate!Geographical!Extent!of!the!Cultural!Areas!of!the!Southwest.!Location!of!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!as!well!as!several!other!sites!mentioned!in!the!text!related!to!cultural!areas!of!the!Southwest!(Adapted!from!Speakman!2013:3!Figure!1.1).!

!Recently!Myles!Miller!(2005)!has!revised!these!Jornada!phases!by!recognizing!

their!parallels!to!the!Mimbres!and!other!Mogollon!sequences!(phases!detailed!in!

Table!3.1!below).!!For!example!the!Mimbres!Classic!phase!corresponds!to!the!Early!

Ancestral*Puebloan (Anasazi)

Hohokam

Mimbres Jornada

Mogollon

Patayan

Sinagua

500!Kilometers

United!States

California

Texas

Utah

Nevada Colorado

Mexico

! Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!(LA!175)

!!

Harris!Site Mogollon!Village

N

Kilometers

! 53!

Doña!Ana!Phase!A.D.!1000C1150,!as!do!the!Black!Mountain!and!Late!Doña!Ana!

Phases!!(Miller,!2005).!!Many!of!the!larger!pueblos,!including!Cottonwood!Spring!

Pueblo,!are!located!on!the!boundary!between!these!two!cultural!branches!(Jornada!

and!Mimbres).!!For!some!of!these!pueblos!it!is!unclear!what!phase!sequences!are!

appropriate!to!apply!to!them!because!they!exhibit!traits!associated!with!both!

(Browning!1991;!Miller!and!Graves!2012;!Whalen!1981).!!

!Table!3.1C!Summary!of!Calendar!Dates!of!the!Jornada!and!Mimbres!Branches!of!the!Mogollon!Culture!Area.!Based!on!Myles!Miller’s!(2005)!Revision!of!the!Jornada!Mogollon!Ceramic!Period!Sequence!and!Alignment!with!the!Greater!Southwest.!!!

Dates(

Jornada(

Phases( Mimbres(Phases( Regional(Period(

A.D.!200/400C650! Early!Mesilla!

Early!Pithouse!!

Early!Pithouses!and!Ceramics!

*******Cumbre*(200(550)*

*******Georgetown*(550(650)*

A.D.!650C1000! Late!Mesilla!!

Late!Pithouse!

****San*Francisco*(650(750)*

*****Three*Circles*(750(1000)*

A.D.!1000C1150! Early!Doña!Ana! Classic!Mimbres! Transitional!Ceramics!and!Architecture!A.D.!1150C1300! Late!Doña!Ana! Black!Mountain!

A.D.!1300C1450! El!Paso! Cliff!Late!Ceramics!and!

Pueblos!

!

!General!measures!of!cultural!differences!and!social!change!include!mobility!

pattern,!the!shift!from!pithouse!to!pueblos,!changes!in!pottery!styles!(plain!to!black!

and!white!to!polychrome),!shifts!in!iconography!that!represent!religious!changes,!

and!increased!use!of!domesticates!(Miller!2005).!One!way!we!see!this!mix!of!

attributes!at!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!is!through!Area!A’s!plaza!orientated!pueblo!

! 54!

which!is!similar!to!the!layout!of!a!pueblo!from!the!Cliff!Phase!of!the!Mimbres,!

however,!the!linear!pueblos!in!Area’s!D!and!E!are!more!consistent!with!the!Jornada!

pueblos!layout.!!Although!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!is!classified!as!a!Jornada!

pueblo!it!is!important!to!remember!that!the!cultural!branch!distinctions!are!not!

clearCcut.!

The!phases,!in!the!Jornada!and!throughout!the!Southwest,!often!correlate!

with!major!climate!changes!(data!summarized!in!Figure!3.3),!and!in!some!ways!the!

reorganization!associated!with!changing!phases!is!a!response!to!the!environment!

(D’Arrigo!et!al.!2006;!GrissinoCMayer!et!al.!1997;!Miller!2005).!!!Even!with!the!

environmental!reconstruction!of!a!more!mesic!grassland!(discussed!earlier)!the!

unpredictability!of!the!rains!in!the!Jornada!is!thought!to!have!fueled!a!higher!degree!

of!residential!mobility!compared!to!other!cultural!areas!throughout!all!phases!

(Higgins!and!Railey!2002;!Miller!and!Graves!2009;!Whalen!1994).!This!pattern!is!even!

seen!in!the!El!Paso!Phase!when!reliance!on!domesticated!crops!was!at!a!high!

(Higgins!and!Railey!2002;!Miller!2005).!!Generally!this!dependence!on!horticulture!is!

linked!with!sedentism,!however,!the!people!in!the!Jornada!El!Paso!Phase!still!

retained!some!level!of!seasonal!mobility!(Bogucki!1988;!Earle!and!Christenson!1980;!

Kent!1989;!Miller!2005).!!

! 55!

!!

Figure!3.3CClimate!Shifts!and!Jornada!Phases.!!Jornada!phases!dates!are!associated!with!changes!in!both!average!temperature!and!precipitation.!!Changes!in!average!yearly!temperature!based!on!Canadian!ice!cores,!and!changes!in!average!yearly!precipitation!based!on!tree!rings!from!northern!New!Mexico,!both!plotted!relative!to!a!longCterm!average!(Adapted!from!D’Arrigo!et!al.!2006:12;!GrissinoCMayer!1996:199)!

!Modeling(Subsistence(Practices(in(the(Jornada(

!

For!the!most!part!hunting!strategies!remained!consistent!through!the!

formative!period!in!the!Jornada,!with!small/medium!mammals!(like!rodents,!

jackrabbit!and!cottontail)!making!up!the!majority!of!species!hunted!(Higgins!and!

Railey!2002;!Whalen!1994).!!This!was!probably!linked!to!the!fact!that!the!Jornada!

was!comparatively!stable!in!climactic!shifts!relative!to!the!Mimbres!and!Anasazi!

areas!(GrissinoCMayer!et!al.!1997).!!As!discussed!earlier,!large!game!was!important!

Medieval(Warm(Period Little&Ice&Age

!

Early&Doña&Ana

Late%Doña%Ana

El Paso Late%Mesilla

(

Year%A.D.

!

!

800 1200 2000 1400 1800 1000 1600

!

Average

Average

Higher

Higher

Lower

Lower

Temperature

Precipitation

! 56!

for!procurement!of!large!quantities!of!meat!(MacArthur!and!Pianka!1966),!but!in!

arid!environments!large!game!was!rare,!and!small!game!played!a!significant!role.!!!In!

arid!environments!people!were!often!following!the!availability!of!plant!species!

rather!than!animals!(Steward!1938;!Whalen!1994).!!This!behavior!explains!the!high!

level!of!mobility!seen!in!the!Jornada!as!well!as!the!focus!on!small/medium!

mammals.!

Using!the!predatorCprey!theory!can!provide!insight!into!the!cultural!

adaptations!and!behavior!choices!that!shaped!the!Jornada!cultural!sequence!and!

transitions!in!subsistence!practices!(Boone!2002;!Grayson!2001;!MacArthur!and!

Pianka!1966).!!Starting!around!A.D.!200!small!bands!of!early!farmers!living!in!this!

area!put!minimal!effort!into!the!agricultural!fields!and!remained!highly!mobile!

(Whalen!1994).!!As!populations!increased!they!became!more!sedentary,!building!

aboveground!structures!and!they!increasingly!relied!on!horticulture!(Miller!and!

Graves!2009;!Whalen!1994).!This!increased!investment!decreased!the!cost!related!to!

finding!both!plant!forage!and!prey,!although!the!people!remained!reliant!on!wild!

resources!with!some!seasonal!mobility!(Higgins!and!Railey!2002;!Miller!and!Graves!

2009;!Whalen!1994).!!Some!cultures!made!this!transition!much!more!rapidly!and!

intensively;!Anasazi!as!early!as!600!A.D.!and!the!Hohokam!as!early!as!1000!B.C.!

(Cordell!1984;!Decker!and!Tieszen!1989;!Plog!1974).!However,!the!Jornada!mastered!

a!diverse!subsistence!base!using!both!mobile!and!sedentary!strategies!(Higgins!and!

Railey!2002;!Whalen!1994).!!

! 57!

Mesilla!Phase!sites!(A.D.!200C1000)!show!that!despite!the!presence!of!

ceramics!(indicating!agriculture),!the!people!remained!mobile!and!heavily!reliant!on!

collecting!native!plants!(Miller!2005;!Whalen!1994).!During!this!time!lagomorphs!

were!the!main!source!of!animal!protein,!often!as!high!as!80%!of!the!

zooarchaeological!remains!because!they!were!frequently!encountered!on!the!

landscape!while!foraging!(Higgins!and!Railey!2002;!Whalen!1994).!The!people!of!the!

Jornada!remained!seasonally!mobile!and!so!hunting!and!gathering!strategies!likely!

were!the!focus!of!subsistence!practices.!!!However!the!trend!of!increased!

dependence!on!horticulture!begins!in!the!Mesilla!Phase!as!a!way!to!minimize!risk!

and!cost!associated!with!finding!food!(Miller!2005).!!At!this!time!gardens,!and!the!

domesticated!environment!were!likely!recognized!as!a!hunting!ground!and!a!

predatory!strategy!to!attract!the!small/medium!animals!they!had!come!to!rely!upon!

(Balee!1984;!Linares!1976;!Nagaoka!2002;!Miller!and!Graves!2009).!!

The!Doña!Ana!Phase!(A.D.!1000C1300)!was!a!transitional!phase!in!

architecture!and!subsistence!strategies!that!shows!evidence!of!seasonally!recurring!

occupation!and!winter!provisioning!strategies!as!they!intensified!horticultural!

productions!and!invested!more!energy!into!settlements!(Miller!2005).!!Many!of!the!

strategies!used!in!this!area!during!the!Mesilla!and!Doña!Ana!Phases!like!high!

mobility,!winter!provisioning,!patterns!of!community!organization,!and!modifying!or!

domesticating!the!environment!can!be!seen!as!responses!that!involved!low!risk!and!

cost,!and!a!large!benefit!(Whalen!1994).!The!increased!dependence!on!horticulture!

! 58!

was!probably!a!twofold!response!ensuring!against!a!bad!foraging!season!by!growing!

and!storing!more,!as!well!as!a!recognized!strategy!for!increasing!locally!available!

prey!(Halstead!and!O’Shea!2004;!Higgins!and!Railey!2002).!!Animal!exploitation!

focused!on!small!and!medium!animals,!with!jackrabbits!making!up!a!substantial!part!

of!the!diet!during!the!Doña!Ana!Phase.!!This!is!especially!true!in!the!lowland!basin!

areas!because!they!support!large!numbers!of!jackrabbits!and!other!small!mammals!

which!are!easily!hunted!via!drives!(Mauldin!et!al.!1998;!Shaffer!and!Gardner!1995).!!

After!A.D.!1300!in!the!El!Paso!Phase!(A.D.!1300C1450)!the!severity!of!longC

term!wet!and!dry!periods!diminished!(on!a!hundred!year!spline),!and!the!Jornada!

had!periods!of!higher!than!average!precipitation!from!about!A.D.!1355C1400!

(GrissinoCMayer!et!al.!1997:25).!!!This!suggests!that!the!El!Paso!Phase!was!a!period!

of!increased!productivity!in!terms!of!environmental!resources.!!A!strategy!used!to!

cope!with!the!growing!population!was!to!aggregate!around!environmental!transition!

zones!like!the!area!in!between!a!mountainous!region!and!grasslands.!!This!strategic!

location!allowed!them!to!take!advantage!of!the!diversity!of!resources!available!

within!a!close!range!increasing!edge!zones!(Yahner!1988).!!Additionally!the!

microenvironment!of!the!village!and!fields!created!more!edge!zones!and!another!

environment!to!take!advantage!of,!further!diversifying!the!prey!resources!available!

(Emery!et!al.!2000;!Powell!1977;!Yahner!1988;!Yen!1989).!!Although!based!on!the!

continual!diversity!of!small!individual!rooms!across!different!environmental!zones!

! 59!

indicate!that!the!people!remained!somewhat!mobile!the!subsistence!economies!

were!more!variable!and!complex!than!once!suspected!(Miller!and!Graves!2012).!

Investing!in!crops!such!as!corn!and!beans!was!one!way!to!increase!the!

available!resources,!but!using!the!predatorCprey!theory!and!the!idea!of!

environmental!domestication!and!a!mammalian!tending!pattern!was!a!way!to!

harness!the!resources!of!an!entire!food!system.!!Investing!in!this!

horticultural/predatory!strategy!increased!the!carrying!capacity!of!the!region!

surrounding!the!pueblo!and!acted!as!insurance!against!a!poor!year!by!storing!the!

harvest!from!the!crops!(Halstead!and!O’Shea!2004;!Higgins!and!Railey!2002;!Smith!

1989).!!Additional!economic!changes!associated!with!the!El!Paso!Phase!include!bulk!

processing!of!succulents!and!other!nonCdomestic!plants,!this!is!evident!from!large!

amounts!of!fire!cracked!rocks!(Lekson!and!Rorex!1987;!Miller!and!Graves!2009).!This!

was!another!strategy!to!take!advantage!of!resources!locally!available!so!as!to!

minimize!the!cost!of!bringing!resources!from!further!afield!to!the!settlement!(Miller!

and!Graves!2009).!!One!way!the!people!of!the!El!Paso!Phase!dealt!with!the!arid!

environment!and!guaranteed!high!locally!available!recourses!was!to!settle!near!

playas,!the!lower!margins!of!the!mountains!or!springs!(Lowry!2005;!Miller!and!

Graves!2009).!!!Settling!near!a!reliable!source!of!water!helped!to!avoid!the!

uncertainties!of!water!availability,!at!the!same!time!controlling!the!limited!resources!

making!farming!easier!and!taking!advantage!of!the!microenvironment!of!the!spring!

(Higgins!and!Railey!2002;!Miller!and!Graves!2009).!!

! 60!

An!example!of!this!type!of!strategic!control!of!resources!is!Hot!Well!Pueblo!

(41EP5FB6363),!a!Jornada!pueblo!in!the!Tularosa!basin!(Lowry!2005).!!The!occupants!

invested!significant!energy!in!building!and!maintaining!a!reservoir!in!the!runoff!zone!

of!the!Hueco!Mountains.!!!The!reservoir!would!have!paid!off!by!making!farming!

easier!and!creating!an!environment!that!attracted!prey!to!the!fields!and!reservoir,!

decreasing!the!cost!associated!with!obtaining!both!plants!and!animals!(Boone!2002;!

Halstead!and!O’Shea!2004;!Lowry!2005).!!

!The!development!of!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!on!a!major!runoff!channel!

from!the!San!Andres!Mountains!and!its!location!next!to!a!spring!is!a!logical!place!to!

find!one!of!the!largest!pueblos!in!the!region.!By!cultivating!a!microenvironment!

through!farm!fields,!middens,!and!cleared!land,!the!local!environment!increased!in!

carrying!capacity!for!both!edible!plants!and!prey!animals.!Along!with!the!control!of!

water!resources,!the!more!intensively!human!modified!environments!surrounding!

villages!allowed!large!settlements!such!as!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!and!Hot!Well!

Pueblo!to!support!their!populations.!!!Large!aggregations!of!people!were!able!to!

survive!in!the!desert!by!using!winter!provisioning!strategies!like!growing!corn,!beans,!

and!squash!to!store,!at!the!same!time!increasing!the!prey!supported!by!the!

surrounding!environment!and!also!taking!advantage!of!resources!further!afield.!

(

(

(

(

(

! 61!

Cottonwood(Spring(Pueblo((LA(175)(

(

(

The!Jornada!is!poorly!understood!relative!to!other!cultural!areas!in!the!

Southwest.!!This!is!because!there!are!very!few!large!pueblos!in!the!area,!and!very!

little!academic!study!of!the!few!that!are!present!(Miller!and!Graves!2009).!Prior!to!

the!excavation!of!Sacramento!Pueblo!(LA!37103)!in!2010!and!2011,!the!last!

excavation!of!a!Jornada!Pueblo!with!more!than!twenty!rooms!took!place!in!1930!

(Miller!and!Graves!2009).!!These!large!villages!are!the!most!relevant!places!to!look!

for!the!changes!in!human!predatory!behavior!due!to!the!creation!of!

microenvironments!from!human!activity!and!the!presence!of!resource!

concentrations!within!the!regional!environment.!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!is!an!

important!piece!of!the!puzzle!because!of!its!large!size,!its!location!on!the!border!of!

two!branches!of!the!Mogollon!and!the!fact!that!it!dates!to!the!last!period!of!major!

population!aggregation!in!the!region.!!!

Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo,!is!a!large!late!prehistoric!multiCcomponent!site!

located!on!Cottonwood!Draw!on!the!west!side!of!the!San!Andres!Mountains,!dated!

using!carbonC14!and!ceramics!to!the!El!Paso!Phase!(A.D.!1300C1450).!!It!is!made!up!

of!six!areas!(ACF)!located!within!a!1!km2!area!(see!Figure!3.4).!!The!zooarchaeological!

assemblage!comes!from!Area!A,!the!main!pueblo!(see!Figure!3.5)!with!an!estimated!

200!rooms!(Lekson!and!Rorex!1987;!Walker!et!al.!2012).!!

! 62!

Kenneth!Chapman!was!the!first!to!describe!the!site!located!in!the!lower!

areas!of!Cottonwood!Draw!(Chapman!1926).!!At!this!time!Chapman!described!what!

he!called!the!main!area!of!occupation!(area!E!Figure!3.4),!as!still!having!adobe!walls!

visible!between!the!sand!dunes!and!an!“abundance!of!artifacts!scattered!in!great!

profusion”!(Chapman!1926:120).!!!In!this!report!he!briefly!describes!a!less!extensive!

site,!what!is!now!seen!as!the!main!pueblo!Area!A!(Figure!3.5!the!location!of!NMSU!

Archaeology!Field!School!2012C2014),!noting!the!exposed!adobe!walls!and!vertical!

lines!of!rocks!in!the!walls!sticking!up!under!the!mesquite!trees!(Chapman!1926).!!

!

Figure!3.4C!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!(LA!175)!Areas!ACF.!!(Adapted!from!Lekson!and!Rorex!1987)!!

In!the!1950s!Herbert!Yeo,!an!engineer!for!the!Bureau!of!Reclamation!and!

New!Mexico!State!mapped!the!site!again!(Lekson!and!Rorex!1987;!Yeo!n.d.).!!He!was!

an!amateur!archaeologist,!who!gained!recognition!for!creating!some!of!the!most!

! 63!

comprehensive!surveys!of!the!lower!Rio!Grande!and!the!Jornada!del!Muerto!(Lekson!

and!Rorex!1987).!!Yeo!(n.d.)!only!mapped!the!western!half!of!the!site,!but!this!map!is!

important!to!note!because!he!identifies!four!huge!linear!adobe!roomblocks!that!are!

labeled!Yeo’s!house!ACD!(Figure!3.4).!These!houses!are!interesting!to!note!because!

they!represent!some!of!the!largest!El!Paso!Phase!structures!known!in!southern!New!

Mexico!(Lekson!and!Rorex!1987).!!!

!!

Figure!3.5C!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!Area!A.!!Excavated!roomblocks!shown!in!relation!to!the!rest!of!the!site!(Adapted!from!Lekson!and!Rorex!1987).!

!

!

! 64!

Stephen!Lekson!and!Allen!Rorex!again!recorded!the!site!in!1987!in!

association!with!Human!Systems!Research,!Inc.,!to!better!record!the!large!sites!

(Indian!Tanks!and!Cottonwood!Spring)!of!the!Jornada!del!Muerto!and!to!reexamine!

Yeo’s!houses.!It!was!at!this!time!that!the!site!was!divided!up!into!areas!ACF,!and!the!

several!LA!numbers!that!Cottonwood!was!assigned!!(LA!2284,!LA!9068,!both!thought!

to!represent!Area!A,!as!well!as!LA!2867,!and!LA!9069)!were!clarified!(Lekson!and!

Rorex!1987).!!!The!entire!site!is!separated!into!an!eastern!and!western!part.!!Areas!

DCF!(western!part)!are!located!in!the!lower!portion!of!Cottonwood!Draw!less!than!a!

mile!away!from!area!A!which!is!a!large!plaza!orientated!pueblo!with!about!200!

rooms!(Lekson!and!Rorex!1987;!Walker!et!al.!2012).!Area!B,!located!in!the!eastern!

part,!is!a!group!of!small!stone!rooms!across!Cottonwood!Draw!from!area!A,!and!just!

above!several!panels!of!rock!art!(Lekson!and!Rorex!1987).!!Area!C!is!a!circle!of!rocks!

on!a!hill!just!to!the!north!of!area!B,!also!associated!with!some!rock!art!(Lekson!and!

Rorex!1987).!!!

Area!A!is!one!of!the!largest!pueblos!of!the!El!Paso!Phase!and!

contemporaneous!with!the!Pueblo!IV!period!of!the!greater!Southwest,!although!it!

stands!apart!as!one!of!the!largest!in!southern!New!Mexico!(Miller!and!Graves!2009;!

Miller!2005;!Walker!et!al.!2012).!!Area!A!sits!immediately!above!the!spring,!in!a!large!

‘F’!or!‘L’!shape!(Lekson!and!Rorex!1987).!!It!was!made!of!adobe!with!cimientos!

(foundations!for!puddle!adobe!walls),!and!due!to!the!thickness!of!the!walls!it!is!

thought!by!Lekson!and!Rorex!(1987)!that!it!is!no!more!than!one!story!tall.!!!

! 65!

Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!is!thought!to!have!large!agricultural!fields!

associated!with!it!down!in!the!draw!(Kemrer!2008,!2011).!!Scatters!of!farmhouses,!

midden!areas,!and!artifacts!such!as!farming!implements!are!found!over!several!acres!

in!close!proximity!to!the!pueblo!(Kemrer!2008).!The!microenvironments!made!up!of!

the!domesticated!environment!and!village!area!of!these!very!large!settlements!

(~200+!rooms)!would!have!provided!even!more!of!a!draw!for!prey!animals!than!

those!created!around!the!average!pueblo!settlement!(<20!rooms).!!This!would!turn!

the!micro!into!a!macro!environment!surrounding!the!settlements!and!could!

represent!a!largeCscale!mammalian!tending!pattern.!!Large!villages!like!Cottonwood!

Spring!that!are!spread!over!1!km2!do!not!occur!frequently!in!the!Jornada,!but!

pueblos!like!Hot!Well!Pueblo!located!to!the!south!as!well!as!a!number!of!other!small!

groupings!of!pueblos!that!could!be!considered!a!settlement!are!found!in!the!region!

(Browning!1991;!Lowry!2005;!Miller!and!Graves!2009,!2012).!!However,!the!fact!that!

many!of!these!sites!haven’t!been!fully!excavated!suggests!we!do!not!fully!

understand!the!range!of!subsistence!strategies!and!the!predatory!role!people!in!this!

region!were!playing.!

Since!other!large!Jornada!Mogollon!Pueblos!have!not!been!excavated,!a!

comparison!pueblo!is!difficult!to!find.!However,!Madera!Quemada!Pueblo,!an!El!

Paso!Phase!pueblo!that!is!located!approximately!40!miles!to!the!south!of!

Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!will!act!as!the!main!comparison.!!This!because!stable!

carbon!isotope!ratios!have!also!been!done!on!lagomorphs!at!this!site.!!Madera!

! 66!

Quemada!Pueblo!is!a!much!smaller!pueblo!(13!rooms)!but!because!it!is!located!in!

the!Tularosa!Basin,!and!has!a!very!similar!environment!the!zooarchaeological!

assemblages!will!be!comparable.!!Given!that!they!are!the!in!same!environment!and!

from!the!same!time,!the!differences!between!the!assemblages!should!represent!the!

differences!in!subsistence!strategies.!!I!hypothesize!that!the!differences!between!the!

zooarchaeological!assemblages!will!likely!represent!the!differences!between!hunting!

in!a!minimally!modified!environment!and!hunting!in!an!intensively!modified!

environment!large!fields!and!occupation!areas!created.!

(

Collection(of(Zooarchaeological(Materials(

(

!! ! During!the!three!excavation!seasons!the!NMSU!field!school!was!working!18!

rooms!were!exposed!and!approximately!50!square!meters!of!Area!A!was!excavated!

(~10%!of!the!area).!The!zooarchaeological!assemblage!from!Cottonwood!Spring!

Pueblo!was!generally!well!preserved.!!During!excavation!all!materials!were!screened!

through!either!1/4!inch!or!1/8!inch!screens.!!The!choice!of!screen!size!was!based!on!

what!was!being!excavated;!a!1/4!inch!screen!was!used!for!general!surface!clearing,!

and!an!1/8!inch!screen!was!used!when!excavating!inside!structures!and!features.!!

This!choice!was!made!because!it!was!assumed!that!surface!artifacts!were!disturbed!

and!preservation!of!small!bones!would!be!more!likely!inside!rooms!and!features.!!

This!choice!probably!had!a!significant!impact!on!the!materials!recovered!because!it!

has!been!shown!that!loss!of!elements!among!taxa!with!live!weights!of!less!than!100!

! 67!

grams!was!approximately!74C100%!(Shaffer!1992a;!Shaffer!and!Sanchez!1994).!!Tests!

have!clearly!shown!the!value!of!using!1/8’’!screens!for!a!less!biased!recovery!of!

small!and!medium!sized!mammals!(Shaffer!and!Sanchez!1994).!!!

The!importance!of!recovering!small!mammals!is!especially!relevant!to!

understanding!the!garden!hunting!strategy!because!small!mammals!such!as!rodents,!

lizards,!leporids,!and!seed!birds!are!more!prevalent!in!these!intensely!human!

modified!environments!and!so!are!part!of!the!argument!for!the!presence!of!garden!

hunting!(Badenhorst!&!Driver,!2009;!Cushing,!1920;!Dean!R.!,!2001;!Driver!&!

Woiderski,!2008;!Emslie,!1981;!Linares,!1976;!Minnis,!1985;!Pelikan!&!Nesvadbova,!

1979;!Shaffer!1992a;!Szuter!1989).!!!Potential!small!mammal!loss!is!taken!into!

consideration!when!assessing!the!assemblage.!!However,!it!is!common!to!use!1/4’’!

screen!size!for!recovery!of!artifacts!and!zooarchaeolocal!remains!in!the!Southwest,!

and!so!any!compairisons!made!to!other!sites!should!be!of!relativly!equal!!

proportions.!!!

Using!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!as!a!case!study!to!better!understand!what!

subsistence!strategies!these!large!villages!were!using!to!survive!will!add!to!the!

regional!understanding!as!well!as!a!more!general!understanding!of!human!adaptions!

to!an!arid!environment!when!using!horticultural!strategies.!!Using!a!diversity!of!

strategies,!the!zooarchaeological!assemblage!should!show!a!mix!of!animals!attracted!

to!disturbed!areas!and!animals!that!are!usually!found!away!from!settlements.!!The!

intensively!human!modified!microenvironments!and!the!high!and!lowland!

! 68!

environmental!zones!would!have!supported!a!large!array!of!animals!such!as!

cottontails,!jackrabbits,!rodents,!birds,!deer,!and!foxes.!!

I!hypothesize!the!people!living!in!the!Jornada!area!took!advantage!of!wild!

resources!and!integrated!domesticated!plants.!!!This!entailed!intentionally!

manipulating!their!environment!at!several!scales!from!the!most!intensely!modified!

microenvironment!of!the!village!(includes!occupation!area!and!farm!fields),!to!the!

least!intensely!modified!areas!of!the!regional!environment.!Using!animal!indices!and!

stable!carbon!isotope!values!of!rabbits!this!hypothesis!will!be!tested.!!!

( (

! 69!

CHAPTER(4:(Research(Questions(and(Methods(

!!

This!chapter!will!define!the!methods!used!to!learn!about!the!interactions!of!

people!and!animals!at!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo,!and!specify!how!they!will!help!to!

answer!the!research!questions!designed!to!test!my!hypothesis.!!My!goal!is!to!

identify!the!subsistence!strategies!the!people!of!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!were!

utilizing!in!an!arid!environment!to!support!a!large!population.!!I!pursue!the!

hypothesis!that!prey!animals!(such!as!desert!cottontails,!blackCtailed!jackrabbits,!

whitetail!deer,!mule!deer,!smaller!rodents,!or!birds)!were!hunted!in!

microenvironments!created!through!intense!modifications!to!the!regional!

ecosystem.!Ethnographic!evidence!from!the!Southwest!and!other!arid!environments!

suggests!that!the!human!relationship!with!plants!and!animals!exists!on!a!continuum!

of!intensities!(Harlan!1995;!Linares!1976;!Smith!2007;!Yen!1989).!!The!

zooarchaeological!assemblage!can!reflect!the!intensity!of!these!relationships!by!

estimating!the!relative!taxonomic!abundance!and!comparing!animals!associated!

with!various!levels!of!intensities.!!The!analysis!presented!in!the!following!chapters!

forms!the!basis!for!addressing!the!hypothesis!that!the!people!at!Cottonwood!Spring!

Pueblo!were!using!the!agricultural!fields!like!bait!to!draw!the!prey!animals!in.!The!

following!questions!are!answered!through!the!primary!data!collected!and!the!

secondary!data!that!is!calculated!by!analyzing!the!zooarchaeological!assemblage!of!

Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo.!!!

! 70!

• What!is!the!relative!taxonomic!abundance!of!different!species!in!the!

Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!assemblage?!Does!the!relative!taxonomic!

abundance!represent!the!types!of!animals!that!are!attracted!to!intensely!

modified!environments?!!

• Is!there!evidence!the!animals!attracted!to!intensely!modified!environments!

were!used!for!food?!!

• Did!the!people!of!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!have!access!to!large!game?!

• What!is!the!Rodent!Index!for!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo?!

• What!is!the!Lagomorph!Index!for!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo?!

• Did!the!people!of!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!target!particular!animals?!

• What!are!the!stable!carbon!isotope!values!for!the!sample!of!lagomorphs?!!!

Methods!for!quantifying!the!zooarchaeological!component!(3,551!bones)!of!

the!material!record!have!been!extensively!covered!by!researchers!such!as!Lyman!

(2008,!1994),!and!Reitz!and!Wing!(2008).!!Both!primary!and!secondary!data!included!

in!this!analysis!will!follow!these!researchers,!unless!otherwise!specified.!!All!methods!

used!are!described!in!detail!in!the!following!sections.!Primary!zooarchaeological!

analysis!recorded!taxon!(species!list!is!found!in!Appendix!A)!and!anatomical!element!

identification!when!possible!(element!list!is!found!in!Appendix!B).!!Other!

observations!are!also!included!in!the!primary!data!such!as!element!side,!

approximate!age,!human!modifications,!environmental!and!animal!modification,!and!

weight!(Variable!and!Value!list!used!can!be!found!in!Appendix!C).!!!

! 71!

The!primary!data!count!of!Number!of!Identified!Specimens!(NISP)!is!a!count!

of!identified!specimens!by!taxonomic!identification!and!is!an!estimate!of!relative!

taxonomic!abundance.!!Minimum!Number!of!Individuals!(MNI),!and!Sample!Biomass!

are!secondary!data!calculations!and!provide!additional!ways!to!measure!the!relative!

taxonomic!abundance.!!!The!Artiodactyl!Index!(AI),!Rodent!Index!(RI)!and!the!

Lagomorph!Index!(LI)!are!calculations!that!measure!the!targeted!species!frequency!

in!the!zooarchaeological!assemblage.!!The!Artiodactyl!Index!measures!whether!or!

not!they!had!access!to!large!game,!and!frequency!that!the!deer!were!hunted.!!The!

Rodent!Index!is!a!measure!of!the!frequency!rodents!were!hunted,!and!is!also!

associated!with!environmental!conditions!such!as!level!of!disturbance.!!The!

Lagomorph!Index!compares!the!frequency!of!cottontails!and!jackrabbits!and!is!used!

as!a!measure!of!the!environment.!ShannonCWeaver!Heterogeneity!and!Evenness!

and!Indices!are!a!measure!of!species!richness!and!an!estimation!of!diet!breadth.!!

Furthermore,!isotopic!analysis!of!a!sample!of!leporid!bones!will!offer!a!way!

to!measure!the!vegetative!community!the!lagomorphs!are!found!and!specify!what!

the!Lagomorph!Index!is!measuring.!!This!will!aid!in!the!interpretation!of!the!regional!

environment,!presence!of!microenvironments,!and!human!behavioral!factors.!!When!

relevant!this!data!will!be!compared!with!Madera!Quemada!Pueblo.!!All!raw!data!is!

available!to!researchers!upon!request!from!the!author,!and!pending!funding!it!will!

be!available!through!the!tDAR!(The!Digital!Archaeological!Record!at!

https://www.tdar.org).!!!

! 72!

(

(

Zooarchaeological(Identification(and(Primary(Data(Recording(Methods(

!!

A!detailed!zooarchaeological!analysis!for!the!entire!assemblage!(3,551!

specimens!plus!eggshell,!59!shells,!4!fossils)!has!been!completed!and!records,!but!

not!all!of!this!data!has!been!used!in!the!analysis.!When!possible,!broken!bones!were!

refit!(cross!mended)!and!each!specimen!was!identified!to!a!taxon!(species!when!

possible,!but!most!often!to!a!broader!category!like!Genus,!Family,!Order,!or!Class)!

(Reitz!et!al.!2010).!Using!modern!comparative!specimens!from!the!Department!of!

Anthropology!Zooarchaeology!Lab!on!the!NMSU!Campus,!and!published!taxonomic!

keys!(Adams!and!Crabtree!2012;!France!2009;!Hillson!1992;!Morris!1966;!O’Connor!

2000;!Olsen!1964,!1968,!1972;!Schaefer!et!al.!2009;!White!et!al.!2011;!White!and!

Folkens!2005)!the!specimines!in!the!zooarchaeological!assemblage!were!identified.!

The!Vertebrate!Species!list!for!Southern!New!Mexico!(Appendix!A)!was!compiled!

using!species!range!maps!(Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952;!Hall!and!Kelson!1951;!

Morris!1966;!Sibley!2008;!Stebbins!1966;!Stokes!and!Stokes!1996;!Williamson!et!al.!

1994).!!All!species!were!crossCreferenced!in!the!Integrated!Taxonomic!Information!

Systems!or!ITIS!(http://www.itis.gov),!to!verify!validity!of!taxonomic!name.!!!

Due!to!the!fragmentary!nature!of!the!assemblage!size!class!categories!(such!

as!extra!small,!small,!medium,!and!large!mammal)!were!created!as!the!lowest!level!

of!specificity!apart!from!unidentifiable!vertebrate.!!Size!classifications!are!based!on!

! 73!

the!shape!and!thickness!of!the!bone,!and!are!subjective.!In!the!case!of!mammals,!

extra!small!mammals!are!rodent!size,!small!mammals!are!rabbit!size,!medium!

mammals!are!coyote!size,!and!large!mammals!are!deer!size.!!Similar!labels!for!birds!

have!also!been!used,!with!small!bird!referring!to!sparrow!size,!medium!bird!is!quail!

size,!and!large!birds!are!turkey!size.!!Animals!that!fell!into!these!general!taxonomic!

categories!were!recorded!as!part!of!the!Number!of!Identified!Specimens,!but!per!

recommendation!of!Lyman!2008!they!will!not!be!used!in!subsequent!calculations!

quantifications.!

When!possible,!specimens!were!identified!to!a!skeletal!element!(Appendix!

B),!but!often!a!more!general!element!code!was!assigned!like!phalanx!or!tooth!

fragment.!!Other!variables!and!values!found!in!Appendix!C!were!recorded!like!side,!

portion,!and!a!maturity!age!was!given!(using!epiphyseal!closure,!development!of!

bone!and!size).!Specimens!were!analyzed!for!environmental!taphonomic!

modifications,!such!as!weathering,!erosion,!or!root!traces!using!a!scale!for!the!

degree!of!damage!and!what!portion!of!the!bone!it!occurs!on.!!Animal!taphonomic!

modifications!include!gnawing!by!rodents!or!carnivores!and!cultural!modifications!

such!as!cut!marks,!burning,!or!polish!were!also!recorded.!!!Human!taphonomic!

modification!can!help!to!answer!questions!about!how!people!used!the!animal.!

Human!alteration!like!burning!was!also!noted!by!intensity!(tan,!black,!or!calcined)!

and!portion.!Specimens!that!had!been!worked!or!modified!into!tools!or!jewelry!were!

noted,!and!will!be!described!separately.!!Also!the!weight!of!each!specimen!was!

! 74!

recorded!in!order!to!do!secondary!data!calculations!such!as!biomass.!!These!data!

along!with!locus,!provenience!designation!(PD)!and!field!specimen!(FS)!number!has!

been!recorded!in!a!Microsoft!Excel!spreadsheet.!!!

Other!categories!of!zooarchaeological!remains!besides!animal!bone!were!

analyzed.!!Shell!(freshwater!and!saltwater)!was!separated!into!a!separate!data!table,!

as!well!as!eggshells,!and!fossils.!!Specimens!in!each!of!these!categories!were!

recorded!using!the!same!element!and!variable!code!lists!when!applicable!(Appendix!

ACC).!These!will!be!discussed!separately!from!the!vertebrate!zooarchaeological!

remains.!!

*Number*of*Identified*Specimens*(NISP)!!!

!

It!is!important!to!remember!that!“NISP!is!the!measured!variable!whereas!

taxonomic!abundances….!is!the!target!variable”!(Lyman!2008:!26).!!Establishing!the!

relative!taxonomic!abundance!or!the!relative!frequency!of!each!species!is!the!

ultimate!goal!for!zooarchaeologists!(Lyman!2008:!21).!!Number!of!Identified!

Specimens!(NISP)!is!the!most!basic!unit!in!zooarchaeological!analysis!by!which!the!

remains!are!tallied!and!a!taxonomic!abundance!is!estimated!using!primary!data!

(Lyman!2008:!27).!!An!initial!calculation!of!NISP!as!defined!by!Reitz!et!al.!(2010:!225)!

has!been!done!in!order!to!discuss!taxonomic!abundance!by!Class.!!This!definition!of!

NISP!includes!all!specimens!identified!to!the!taxonomic!level!of!Class,!those!

specimens!categorized!as!indeterminate!vertebrate!were!weighed!and!recorded!but!

! 75!

not!counted!(Reitz!et!al.!2010:!225).!!!However,!for!remainder!of!the!NISP!discussion!

and!all!subsequent!calculations,!the!definition!for!NISP!will!be!defined!by!Lyman!

(2008:27)!as!“the!number!of!skeletal!elements!(bones!and!teeth)!and!fragments!

thereofC!all!specimensC!identified!to!the!taxon!they!represent.”!!The!statement!

‘taxon!they!represent’!refers!to!a!specimen!that!has!been!minimally!identified!to!a!

skeletal!element!and!at!least!to!a!taxonomic!Order!if!not!Family,!Genus,!or!Species!

(Lyman!2008:!27).!Each!bone,!tooth,!antler,!or!any!other!part!of!an!animal!(unless!it!

can!be!cross!mended)!is!counted!as!a!single!unit,!regardless!of!percent!of!original!

element!remaining.!!!As!long!as!it!can!be!identified!to!the!skeletal!element!and!

taxonomic!category!of!order!or!below,!it!is!included.!!This!is!a!basic!calculation!from!

which!many!other!calculations!are!derived,!and!a!specific!definition!is!needed.!!

NISP!is!commonly!used!and!is!an!effective!measure!for!relative!taxonomic!

abundance.!!NISP!allows!the!question!of!what!is!the!relative!taxonomic!abundance!

of!different!species!in!the!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!assemblage.!!!However,!it!may!

differentially!inflate!sample!sizes!across!taxa!(Lyman!2008;!Peres!2010;!Reitz!and!

Wing!2008).!!Misrepresentations!are!due!to!a!number!of!different!variables;!animals!

have!different!numbers!of!bones,!butchering!patterns!(which!ones!are!carried!back!

to!the!village,!and!which!ones!are!consumed!whole),!and!some!species!and!bones!

are!more!easily!identifiable!(Peres!2010;!Reitz!and!Wing!2008).!!It!is!to!be!expected!

that!some!animals!bones!are!either!more!likely!to!be!identifiable!or!to!preserve,!and!

those!animals!would!be!overrepresented!(large!animals!like!deer)!(Peres!2010;!Reitz!

! 76!

and!Wing!2008).!!An!underrepresentation!in!NISP!would!be!expected!with!animals!

like!birds!and!rodents!because!their!bones!are!fragile!and!less!likely!to!preserve!

enough!to!be!identifiable,!not!to!mention!the!ethnographic!evidence!that!those!

small!bones!were!often!ingested,!or!burned!(Beaglehole!1936;!Cushing!1920;!

Stevenson!1904;!Teague!and!Crown!1984).!While!NISP!is!a!good!measure!for!dietary!

breadth!it!is!not!always!a!good!measure!of!taxonomic!abundance.!!This!is!due!to!

preservation!rates,!portion!of!the!animal!used!at!the!site,!and!possible!relatedness!

of!skeletal!elements.!!

*Taphonomic*Modification*

!!

! ! The!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!zooarchaeological!assemblage!has!also!been!

analyzed!for!modifications!from!animals,!the!environment,!and!humans.!!

Anthropogenic!processes!such!as!butchering,!predation,!and!utilization!leave!

taphonomic!traces!such!as!cut!marks!and!evidence!of!cooking!and!burning.!!Animals!

present!in!the!environment!can!also!leave!traces!in!the!form!of!gnawing!or!chewing!

marks.!!Other!forces!in!the!environment!can!also!leave!taphonomic!traces,!like!those!

from!weathering,!solution!staining,!root!tracing!or!erosion.!!All!of!these!taphonomic!

traces!will!be!recorded!and!briefly!discussed,!they!can!help!decipher!what!factors!

affected!the!assemblage!and!uncover!different!biases.!!All!variable/value!lists!for!

taphonomic!processes!can!be!found!in!Appendix!C.!

!

! 77!

Human*Modification.!The!presence!of!burning!is!discussed!in!terms!of!

amount!of!bone!burned!and!the!degree!to!which!it!was!burned.*Evidence!of!burning!

on!the!animals!is!one!way!to!answer!the!question!of!which!animals!were!used!for!

food.!!If!the!animals!that!show!evidence!of!burning!falls!into!the!category!of!animals!

attracted!to!the!intensely!modified!environments!then!this!(combined!with!relative!

taxonomic!abundance)!will!provide!evidence!the!animals!attracted!were!used!as!a!

prey!source.!!!

Other!types!of!modifications!have!been!defined!as!a!cut!marks,!if!it!was!

grooved!and!broken,!impacted,!abraded!or!polished,!drilled!or!sawn,!some!are!

associated!with!consumption!of!the!animal,!and!others!are!manufacture!marks!

(Lyman!1994;!Reitz!and!Wing!2008).!!Human!alteration!in!the!form!of!spiral!fracture!

or!impact!fracture!was!not!noted!because!the!highly!fragmentary!nature!of!the!

collection!made!it!too!difficult!to!distinguish!between!human!caused!fracturing!and!

natural!fracturing.!!Type!of!modification!to!the!bone!such!as!bead,!waste,!awl,!or!

bracelet!was!recorded.!The!bones!with!evidence!of!tool,!effigy,!or!jewelry!

manufacture!were!individually!described!and!other!modifications!such!as!production!

waste!will!be!briefly!discussed.!These!artifacts!will!indicate!which!taxa!were!

important!to!the!people!of!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!for!tool!manufacture!and!in!

the!case!of!an!effigy,!important!for!cultural!reasons!such!as!what!they!represented!

or!identified.!*

!

! 78!

Animal*Modification.**Animals!present!during!the!time!of!deposition,!such!as!

domestic!dogs!or!scavengers!that!were!attracted!to!the!refuse!piles!leave!marks!on!

the!bones.!!They!can!affect!the!assemblage!in!that!they!can!cause!additional!

fragmentation,!as!well!as!carry!material!away!from!the!site!(Lyman!1994;!Reitz!and!

Wing!2008).!!There!is!no!way!to!know!what!percentage!of!the!assemblage!is!missing!

but!we!can!look!at!the!evidence!on!the!bones!present!to!determine!what!animals!

were!effecting!the!assemblage!(Lyman!1994).!!Intrusion!of!animals!after!deposition!

can!also!affect!the!assemblage!in!terms!of!rodent!or!carnivore!gnawing.!This!

evidence!will!be!briefly!discussed.!*

*Environmental*Modification.**The!most!intense!environmental!modifications!

are!recorded!for!each!bone.!!Multiple!forces!such!as!weathering,!root!tracing,!

staining,!erosion!or!pitting!will!have!affected!bones!found!in!archaeological!contexts,!

but!for!simplicity!the!most!evident!type!was!recorded.!!The!type!of!alteration!was!

then!rated!on!the!intensity!of!which!it!occurred,!and!on!what!proportion!of!the!

specimen!it!occurred.!!*

(

Secondary(Data(

(

(

The!primary!goal!of!zooarchaeologists!is!to!“relate!animal!remains!to!the!

other!materials!from!the!specific!site!and!to!other!sites!so!that!larger!cultural!and!

biological!inferences!can!be!made”!(Reitz!and!Wing!2008:!182).!Secondary!data,!or!

! 79!

the!analysis!of!primary!data,!includes!age,!classes,!sex!ratios,!relative!frequencies!of!

taxa,!and!dietary!contributions!(Reitz!and!Wing!2008:!153).!!For!the!Cottonwood!

Spring!Pueblo!assemblage!a!variety!of!quantifications!and!indices!have!been!

calculated!to!help!answer!research!questions!and!facilitate!analysis!of!the!animal!

remains.!!Methods!of!these!data!follow,!and!include!MNI!(minimum!number!of!

individuals),!sample!biomass,!Artiodactyl!Index!(AI),!Rodent!Index!(RI),!Lagomorph!

Index!(LI),!and!the!ShannonCWeaver!Heterogeneity!and!Evenness!Indices!(Lyman!

2008;!Peres!2010;!Reitz!and!Wing!2008).!!!

!Minimum*Number*of*Individuals*(MNI)***

*The!Minimum!Number!of!Individuals!(MNI)!was!developed!to!assess!the!

amount!of!meat!provided!by!each!taxon,!but!most!zooarchaeologists!use!it!as!a!

comparative!tool!to!assess!the!accuracy!of!NISP!(Lyman!2008:!41;!Peres!2010).!!MNI!

helps!to!overcome!the!problems!such!as!interCtaxonomic!variation!in!the!number!of!

identifiable!elements,!and!overcomes!interdependence!of!specimens!from!the!same!

individual!across!the!site!(Lyman!2008:!44).!!It!provides!a!way!to!increase!confidence!

that!the!NISP!values!are!reflecting!the!accurate!contributions!of!each!taxon!to!the!

estimated!relative!taxonomic!abundance,!but!doesn’t!mean!that!it!is!the!better!

measure!(Lyman!R.!L.,!2008;!Reitz!&!Wing,!2008).!!Lyman!(2008:!56)!argues!that!

because!NISP!contains!fewer!steps!and!assumptions!it!should!be!preferred.!!*

! 80!

Estimates!of!the!MNI!at!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!are!based!on!paired!

elements!and!age!(Reitz!et!al.!2010:!227).!The!MNI!calculated!for!Cottonwood!Spring!

Pueblo!has!been!done!with!only!one!location!(MNI!was!not!calculated!by!locus!or!

PD).!!Not!all!animals!have!the!same!number!of!bones!in!their!skeleton,!and!so!MNI!

has!been!calculated!using!bones!that!occur!in!pairs!and!that!occur!with!the!same!

frequency!in!all!vertebrates!that!appear!in!this!assemblage.!!!These!elements!include!

mandible,!humerus,!radius,!ulna,!femur,!and!tibia.!!The!most!frequent!element!for!

each!taxon!with!in!the!same!age!class!was!obtained!and!then!separated!by!side.!!

When!side!could!not!be!accurately!assigned,!the!average!of!the!unCsided!specimens!

was!added!to!the!more!frequently!represented!side!of!that!element!to!get!MNI.!!!!All!

taxonomic!categories!of!Order!or!below!were!calculated.!!!

MNI!is!not!an!actual!representation!of!the!number!of!animals!used!at!the!site!

but!rather!a!relative!contribution!of!each!taxon!(Reitz!and!Wing!2008).!One!major!

weakness!of!MNI!is!questions!of!aggregation,!looking!at!the!entire!site!as!a!whole!or!

looking!at!individual!units!can!produce!very!different!numbers!of!MNI!(Lyman!2008:!

56).!This!data!will!answer!the!question!of!relative!importance!in!terms!of!dietary!

contributions!of!each!species!for!the!people!of!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!and!show!

what!animals!were!important!to!their!subsistence!strategies,!almost!identically!to!

NISP.!!However,!expected!differences!between!species!that!are!frequently!

represented!and!those!that!are!infrequently!represented!is!to!be!expected!because!

MNI!exaggerates!the!importance!of!the!rare!taxa!(Lyman!2008).!MNI!will!help!to!

! 81!

balance!the!relative!taxonomic!abundance!of!taxonomic!categories!such!as!birds,!

rodents,!and!small!reptiles!at!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo.!!

!Biomass*and*Estimates*of*Dietary*Contribution*

*Recording!the!weight!of!specimens!is!a!common!practice!in!

zooarchaeological!analysis!for!several!reasons.!!Specimen!weight!is!a!basic!unit!of!

primary!data!and!does!not!need!to!be!manipulated!any!further!to!have!meaning,!it!

can!be!used!to!measure!the!relative!importance!of!each!taxon,!and!it!can!be!use!to!

study!the!relative!dietary!contributions!(Lyman!2008;!Peres!2010;!Reitz!and!Wing!

2008).!!!The!estimation!of!biomass!is!“based!on!the!allometric!principle!that!the!

proportions!of!body!mass,!skeletal!mass!and!skeletal!dimensions!change!with!

increasing!body!size”!(Reitz!et!al.!2006:!227).!!The!calculation!of!biomass,!is!the!

result!of!an!allometric!calculation!or!as!Lyman!(2008:!84)!states!“the!total!amount!of!

biological!tissue!represented!by!taxa!represented!in!the!collection”.!There!are!2!

different!ways!people!usually!measure!biomass,!the!first!is!through!the!estimates!of!

dietary!contribution!of!whole!animals,!and!the!second!is!to!estimate!dietary!

contributions!from!specimen!weight!(Peres!2010:!28;!Reitz!and!Wing!2008:!234C

242).!!I!will!be!using!the!second!method!for!sample!biomass!estimation.!!!

!This!value!measures!the!estimated!dietary!contribution!or!kilograms!of!meat!

by!taxon,!is!represented!by!kilograms!of!organic!material!where!the!archaeological!

specimen!weight!is!used,!this!is!another!way!to!estimate!the!relative!taphonomic!

! 82!

abundance!(Lyman!2008:!93C102;!Reitz!et!al.!2006:!227C229;!Reitz!and!Wing!2008:!

233C239).!*The!estimated!biomass!for!major!categories!of!animals!found!at!

Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!were!calculated!using!the!formula:*

! = !!!!

where!Y!represents!the!calculated!biomass!represented!by!the!zooarchaeological!

assemblage,!a!is!the!YCintercept!of!the!linear!regression!line,!b!is!the!slope!of!the!

regression!line,!and!X!is!total!weight!of!bone!specimens!for!each!taxon!group!(Lyman!

2008;!Reitz!and!Wing!2008).!!The!slope!and!YCintercept!values!are!constants!that!

vary!according!to!class!of!taxa,!and!were!taken!from!Reitz!and!Wing!(2008:!68).!The!

X!value!was!calculated!by!adding!the!specimen!weights!of!all!that!fell!into!a!

particular!taxon.!!The!resulting!Y!value!is!a!“conservative!estimate!of!meat!and!other!

soft!tissues!obtained!from!the!zooarchaeological!materials!recovered!from!the!site,!

the!term!biomass*refers!to!the!results!of!this!calculation”!(Reitz!et!al.!2006:!228).!

Biomass!calculations!have!many!of!the!same!weaknesses!of!MNI!because!

assumption!have!to!be!made!regarding!average!live!weights!and!edible!tissue!

amounts!(Lyman!2008:!140).!!However!Reitz!and!Wing!(2008:!239)!and!Peres!(2010:!

28)!state!that!the!predictions!of!sample!biomass!have!lower!errors!than!other!

approaches!because!they!are!based!on!biological!relationships!and!make!fewer!

assumptions!about!edible!tissues!or!the!number!of!individuals.!!!Sample!biomass!

reflects!the!probability!that!only!certain!portions!of!the!animal!were!being!used!at!

the!site,!and!is!an!estimation!of!relative!taxonomic!abundance.!!The!sample!biomass!

! 83!

will!be!an!additional!measure!of!the!relative!taxonomic!abundance!at!Cottonwood!

Spring!Pueblo.!!It!will!also!provide!an!estimate!of!which!animals!had!the!largest!

dietary!contribution,!and!if!those!animals!are!found!associated!with!intensely!

modified!environments.!!

!Rodent*Index**

!! ! The!rodent!index!is!a!measure!of!the!frequency!of!rodents!in!an!assemblage,!

and!it!has!been!linked!to!changing!subsistence!practices!such!as!farming!because!

they!are!attracted!to!the!intensely!human!modified!environments!and!disturbed!soil!

(Reitz!and!Wing!2008;!Shaffer!1992b;!Szuter!1984).!!A!value!closer!to!1!meant!that!

there!were!more!rodents,!and!a!value!closer!to!0!is!associated!with!really!low!

numbers!of!rodents.!The!index!has!also!been!linked!to!population!growth!and!an!

effort!to!increase!the!carrying!capacity!of!the!environment!(Stiner!et!al.!1999).!!

However,!some!have!criticized!this!link,!citing!that!there!is!ethnographic!evidence!of!

rodents!being!a!food!staples!because!they!are!plentiful!in!disturbed!areas,!easy!to!

catch!and!locally!available!(Dean!2007a;!Shaffer!1992b;!Szuter!1984).!!In!the!

Southwest!the!increase!of!rodents!in!the!diet!has!been!linked!to!site!use!intensity!

and!increase!in!horticultural!production,!suggesting!that!rodents!were!preyed!upon!

for!crop!protection!as!well!as!their!meat!(Dean!2007a;!Szuter!1984).!This!index!has!

been!calculated!using!NISP!of!animals!classified!to!at!least!the!order!level.!!!The!

formula!is:!!

! 84!

!"#$%&!!"#$%!(!") = ∑ !"#$%&'∑(!"#$%$&'ℎ! + !"#$%&')!

The!rodent!index!of!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!is!a!measure!of!the!frequency!

that!rodents!appear!in!the!environment,!the!frequency!they!occur!measures!how!

disturbed!the!environment!is,!and!how!disturbed!the!environment!is!measures!the!

intensity!that!humans!modified!the!environment.!Answering!the!question!of!

whether!there!is!evidence!humans!were!intensely!modifying!the!environment!and!

using!the!animals!attracted!to!it!as!food.!

!Artiodactyl*Index*

!!

The!Artiodactyl!index!was!developed!to!access!the!frequency!deer!were!

being!hunted!when!compared!to!small!animals!such!as!rabbits!and!was!linked!to!

changing!climate!and!the!impact!humans!had!on!their!populations!(Byers!et!al.!2005;!

Cannon!2000).!!It!is!used!to!determine!overall!access!to!large!mammals!by!taking!the!

number!of!artiodactyl!specimens!relative!to!the!total!artiodactyl!and!lagomorph!

specimens!(Byers!et!al.!2005;!Cannon!2000;!Reitz!and!Wing!2008).!!The!formula!is!as!

follows:!

!"#$%&'(#)*!!"#$%!(!") = ∑ !"#$%&!'#()*∑(!"#$%&!'#()* + !"#$%$&'ℎ!)!

!

This!index!will!be!calculated!using!the!NISP!values!for!Order!level!groups,!

instead!of!the!total!bone!counts!of!large!and!small!mammals!as!some!analysts!

! 85!

suggest!(Reitz!and!Wing!2008).!The!level!of!Order!has!been!chosen!because!I!was!

unable!to!differentiate!between!Mule!deer,!Whitetail!deer!and!Pronghorn!antelope!

using!the!comparative!references!and!collections,!but!I!was!able!to!rule!out!intrusive!

bovid.!!A!value!close!to!1!means!there!are!more!artiodactyl!in!the!sample,!while!a!

value!close!to!0!mean!that!there!are!more!lagomorphs!in!the!sample.!!This!can!help!

answer!questions!about!hunting!strategies,!availability!of!large!game!and!

environmental!composition!(Byers!et!al.!2005).!!!

!Lagomorph*Index*

!!

! ! The!lagomorph!index!has!been!discussed!in!detail!in!the!previous!chapters!

and!will!be!briefly!recapped!here.!!The!lagomorph!index!was!developed!in!the!

Southwest!independently!on!several!different!occasions,!but!Bayham!and!Hatch!

(1985)!are!most!often!credited!(Bayham!and!Hatch!1985;!Dean!2007b;!Driver!and!

Woiderski!2008;!Szuter!1991).!!It!was!used!to!indicated!changes!in!environment!

specifically!related!to!the!density!of!cover,!this!is!because!jackrabbits!tend!to!prefer!

more!open!environment!and!cottontails!are!found!more!often!where!there!is!good!

ground!cover!(Bayham!and!Hatch!1985;!Dean!2007b;!Driver!and!Woiderski!2008;!

Szuter!1991).!The!index!is!calculated!using!the!following!formula:!

*Lagomorph*Index*(LI)=! !"#$%#&'()!(!"#)

!"#$%#&'()!(!"#)!!!!"#$%!(!"#)!*

**

! 86!

! ! The!lagomorph!index!will!be!calculated!using!NISP!from!only!the!Lepus*

californicus*and!Sylvilagus*audubonii*species!categories.!!Those!specimens!that!have!

only!been!classified!to!the!leporid!category!and!isolated!teeth!have!been!left!out!of!

the!calculations.!!Only!a!general!environmental!interpretation!of!the!lagomorph!

index!will!only!be!done,!instead!results!from!the!stable!carbon!isotope!analysis!will!

be!used!to!strengthen!the!interpretations.!This!is!because!analysts!have!argued!that!

the!index!could!be!measuring!other!factors!such!as!hunting!technologies,!

subsistence!practices,!prey!preference,!or!dietary!stress.!Looking!at!the!index,!the!

regional!environmental!reconstruction!and!dietary!evidence!in!the!form!of!stable!

carbon!isotope!signatures,!the!vegetative!community!of!the!environments!can!be!

determined!and!human!predator!behavioral!inferences!can!be!made,!helping!to!

refine!what!the!lagomorph!index!can!tell!us.!

*Shannon(Weaver*Heterogeneity*and*Evenness*Indices**

!!

The!ShannonCWeaver!(also!known!as!the!Shannon!index!or!ShannonCWiener!

index)!was!developed!in!order!to!measure!how!heterogeneous!a!particular!taxon!

within!a!group!of!taxon!are(Lyman!2008;!Reitz!and!Wing!2008).!!!These!two!values!

will!help!to!answer!the!question!of!whether!the!people!of!Cottonwood!Spring!

targeted!certain!prey!species,!and!can!indicate!the!use!of!specialized!hunting!

strategies.!This!measure!may!be!done!using!the!entire!site!or!within!a!class!(such!as!

! 87!

mammal)!or!within!an!order!(such!as!rodent).!!The!formula!used!to!calculate!the!

heterogeneity!is:!

!! = −Σ!!!(!"!!!)!

!!where!H!is!the!heterogeneity!level,!Pi*!is!the!number!of!individuals!(NISP)!in!the!

taxonomic!category!divided!by!the!total!number!of!specimens!in!the!assemblage!you!

are!looking!at,!could!be!site!NISP,!mammals!NISP!or!any!other!total!of!a!group!

(Lyman!2008:!192).!!Once!the!Pi!is!calculated!for!each!species/taxonomic!group!it!is!

multiplied!by!the!natural!log!(ln)!of!Pi,!then!each!of!the!species!values!are!summed!

and!multiplied!by!C1!(Lyman!2008).!!The!resulting!index!produces!a!heterogeneity!

value!for!the!taxonomic!group!that!is!being!measured.!!This!value!generally!falls!

between!1.5!and!3.5!(Lyman!2008).!!Larger!values!represent!taxonomic!categories!

that!are!more!equally!represented!and!a!diverse!community;!the!lower!values!are!

interpreted!as!low!diversity,!and!subsistence!strategies!targeted!specific!species!or!

taxonomic!groups!(Lyman!R.!L.,!2008).!!

! ! In!order!to!assess!the!evenness!of!represented!taxon!in!the!sample,!the!

Shannon!index!of!evenness!is!applied!to!the!ShannonCWeaver!heterogeneity!value.!!

The!formula!for!this!index!is:!

!! = !/ ln !!

!!

! 88!

where!H*is!heterogeneity!(the!ShannonCWeaver!value),!this!value!is!then!divided!by!

the!natural!log!(ln)!of!S!(number!of!identified!taxa!or!NTAXA)!(Lyman!2008).!!The!

resulting!value!reflects!the!evenness!of!a!group!of!taxa!or!the!how!even!the!number!

of!individuals!represented!in!each!taxa!within!a!group!are.!!

(

Stable(Carbon(Isotope(Samples(

! !

The!sample!used!for!the!stable!carbon!isotope!signatures!consisted!of!50!of!

the!most!intact!long!bones!of!leporids!(18!cottontail!and!32!jackrabbit).!!Their!

relative!frequencies!are!biased!towards!jackrabbits!because!they!are!larger!and!as!a!

result!preserve!better.!!Samples!were!selected!from!four!distinct!areas!in!the!site,!

Room!3!(both!floors),!roomblock!100!and!the!midden,!in!order!to!get!a!fair!

representation!(Table!4.1).!!To!obtain!the!δ13C!values!from!leporid!bones,!the!bone!

collagen!first!has!to!be!extracted.!!Following!lab!procedures!detailed!by!Dr.!Raymond!

Mauldin!from!University!of!Texas,!San!Antonio,!I!describe!the!process.!Sample!were!

processed!in!the!Wildlife!Ecology!Lab!and!the!Nutrition!Lab!run!by!Dr.!Scott!Carleton!

and!Dr.!Amanda!Ashley,!respectively.!!!

!Collagen*Extraction*Method***

!

I!selected!50!unburned!lagomorph!bones!that!had!a!significant!amount!of!

cortical!bone!(because!they!contain!more!collagen),!and!weighed!at!least!.5!g!(some!

of!the!cottontail!samples!were!.3C.4!g).!!These!were!usually!long!bones!(femur,!tibia,!

! 89!

humerus)!but!occasionally!a!calcaneus!or!os!coxe!(pelvic!bone)!was!used.!!Due!to!the!

fragmentary!nature!of!the!assemblage!it!was!difficult!to!find!specimens!that!fit!these!

criteria!for!Sylvilagus.*Samples!selected!by!area!can!be!seen!in!Table!4.1!below.!!!As!a!

result,!50!possible!specimens!were!selected,!18!Sylvilagus!(cottontail)!and!32!Lepus!

(jackrabbit).!!It!was!not!clear!all!the!specimens!would!work!because!once!they!were!

cleaned!it!was!revealed!that!some!may!have!been!burned!or!under!weight.!!*

!Table!4.1C!Stable!Carbon!Isotope!Sample!Selection!by!Area!Location:(

(

(

Species:(

Room!3!Floor!2! Room!2,!3,!5,!6,!Room!3!Floor!1!

Room!block!100!(rooms!100,!101,!and!102)!

Midden!Deposits!

Jackrabbit!!(Lepus*sp.)*

9! 9! 4! 9!

Cottontail!(Sylvilagus*sp.)*

5! 2! 3! 8!

!

After!selecting!the!bones!I!cleaned!them!in!an!ultrasonic!bath!using!distilled!

water!for!fiveCminute!increments.!!!I!repeated!this!step!replacing!the!distilled!water!

until!the!water!came!out!clear.!!!I!allowed!the!bones!to!dry!before!placing!them!back!

in!their!bags.!I!then!used!a!Dremmel!tool!to!clean!off!the!exterior!bone!if!degraded,!

discolored!or!had!mineral!deposits.!I!used!240!grit!sandpaper!tips!or!the!fine!

grinding!stone!tip.!!After!processing!each!bone!I!cleaned!the!dremmel!tips!with!

alcohol!and!a!toothbrush!rotating!them!out!as!they!dried.!

Once!the!bones!had!been!cleaned!and!dremmeled!of!any!degraded!or!

suspect!bone!they!were!crushed!using!a!mortar!and!pestle.!!The!bone!was!crushed!

! 90!

to!~.5C2!mm!chunks,!and!any!of!the!trabecular!(spongy)!bone!or!powdered!bone!was!

removed!saving!only!the!larger!chunks.!!!Between!each!sample!the!equipment!was!

cleaned!with!alcohol!and!a!dremmel!brush!tip!and!allowed!to!dry.!!!Each!sample!was!

then!put!into!a!labeled!test!tube!and!again!placed!in!the!ultrasonic!bath!with!

distilled!water.!!!!

Samples!were!cleaned!for!60!minutes!at!a!time!using!distilled!water.!!At!the!

end!of!the!60!minutes!the!water!was!replaced!using!a!pipette!and!then!placed!in!the!

ultrasonic!bath!again.!!I!repeated!these!steps!until!the!water!was!clear.!Once!the!

samples!had!been!cleaned,!distilled!water!was!used!to!wash!the!crushed!bone!out!of!

the!test!tubes!and!the!water!and!bone!were!placed!in!labeled!sterile!glass!vials.!!

Then!as!much!water!as!was!possible,!was!carefully!poured!off.!!!

Once!in!the!labeled!glass!vials,!they!were!placed!in!a!drying!oven!with!their!

lids!removed.!!The!drying!oven!was!set!to!40C50!oC,!and!the!samples!left!in!for!

approximately!12!hours!or!over!night.!!Once!the!samples!were!removed!from!the!

drying!oven,!two!plastic!15!mL!centrifuge!test!tubes!with!screw!on!caps!were!labeled!

with!each!specimen!number!(#Ca/#Cb).!!Archaeological!samples!may!be!degraded,!so!

it!was!recommended!that!two!sample!be!run!at!the!same!time!just!in!case!(labeled!

sample!#Ca!and!#Cb),!but!they!were!combined!when!the!collagen!was!in!liquid!form.!

Approximately!100!mg!samples!were!weighed!out!using!small!sterile!aluminum!

sample!cups!placed!on!a!scale!that!measures!up!to!three!one!hundredths!of!a!gram,!

and!placed!in!the!labeled!test!tubes.!!

! 91!

Under!a!fume!hood!wearing!gloves!and!goggles,!5!cc!of!0.5!M!HCl!

(hydrochloric!acid)!was!added!to!each!test!tube,!running!approximately!20!at!a!time!

to!allow!for!appropriate!timing.!!Samples!were!left!for!30!hours!in!a!refrigerator!set!

to!4°C.!!The!bone!appeared!translucent!at!this!point.!!The!HCl!was!poured!off!into!a!

waste!disposal!container!and!samples!washed!with!ultra!pure!H2O.!!The!test!tubes!

were!filled!with!ultra!pure!H2O!and!washed!using!a!centrifuge!on!a!delicate!speed!

(below!1000!rpm)!for!5!minutes!at!a!time,!pouring!the!water!off!and!replacing!it!

each!time.!!Samples!were!washed!approximately!six!times!or!until!the!pH!paper!gave!

a!neutral!reading!(pH=7.0),!or!it!read!the!same!as!the!ultra!pure!water.!!!

Under!a!fume!hood,!wearing!safety!goggles!and!gloves,!5!cc!of!0.1!M!NaOH!

(Sodium!Hydroxide)!was!added!to!the!test!tubes!(after!as!much!of!the!water!as!

possible!could!be!poured!off).!!The!samples!were!left!to!sit!for!30!minutes,!and!then!

checked.!!If!the!base!was!whitishCclear!to!clear!then!the!base!was!discarded,!but!if!it!

was!brown,!it!was!left!for!15!more!minutes.!!Samples!were!not!left!for!more!than!45!

minutes!total.!!!

Samples!were!washed!with!ultra!pure!H2O,!using!a!centrifuge!if!necessary,!

until!the!pH!paper!gave!a!neutral!reading.!!Then!under!the!fume!hood!wearing!

goggles!and!gloves!5!cc!0.01!M!HCl!(pH=3)!was!added!to!the!test!tubes.!To!prevent!

evaporation!lids!were!placed!immediately!back!on!the!test!tubes,!and!they!were!

placed!in!a!drying!oven!set!to!70!oC.!!Samples!were!left!in!for!approximately!11!hours!

! 92!

with!a!weight!on!the!lids!to!prevent!them!from!popping!off.!!If!samples!were!left!in!

for!more!than!12!hours!collagen!may!have!degraded.!!!

At!this!time!the!collagen!was!in!liquid!form!(supernatant),!and!the!mixture!

appeared!slightly!opaque.!!Any!remaining!bone!appeared!puffy!and!clear,!

‘resembling!rock!candy’.!!The!mixture!was!not!aloud!to!cool,!and!placed!immediately!

in!the!centrifuge,!and!ran!at!about!1000!rpm!for!5!minutes,!this!allowed!the!

supernatant!to!be!poured!off!easily!into!labeled!glass!vials!with!a!lid.!!At!this!point!

samples!A!and!B!of!the!same!specimen!were!combined.!!Samples!were!quickly!

covered!with!paraffin,!their!lids!screwed!on,!and!immediately!placed!in!the!freezer.!!

Samples!were!left!in!the!freezer!for!at!least!24!hours.!!!

Sample!vial!caps!were!taken!off!and!the!paraffin!was!punctured,!creating!

several!small!holes,!and!then!placed!in!the!freeze!dryer!for!approximately!36!hours.!!

Once!samples!were!freeze!dried,!they!were!weighed.!!The!resulting!collagen!was!

then!rated!on!a!1C5!scale.!!!

!1!–!a!trace!of!collagen!looking!like!lines!or!smudges!against!the!glass!

2!–!a!puff!of!collagen!looking!like!a!trace!that!expanded!up!a!bit!into!the!vial!

3!–!approximately!¼!of!the!vial!

4!–!1/3!of!the!vial!

5C!more!than!1/3!

!

! 93!

Samples!were!then!covered!with!paraffin!and!stored!in!the!freezer!until!they!

were!ready!to!weigh!and!submit.!!Out!of!the!50!samples!run!only!32!of!them!had!a!

rating!of!3!or!above,!32!samples!were!submitted!to!the!Stable!Isotope!lab.!!Tin!

capsules!and!trays!were!ordered!from!the!Northern!Arizona!Stable!Isotope!Lab.!!

Each!sample!was!weighed!(according!to!the!submission!sheet)!into!the!tin!cups!

taking!care!to!clean!surfaces!and!tweezers!in!between!each!sample.!The!tin!cups!

were!crushed!and!the!encapsulated!samples!placed!into!wells!of!a!plastic!tray,!

taking!care!to!notate!the!well!number!and!sample!number.!Two!of!each!sample!

were!done!as!a!precaution!and!test!for!the!lab.!!The!tray!was!sealed!with!paraffin!

sheets!and!wrapped!up!with!foil!to!ensure!the!top!would!stay!on!during!shipping.!!

The!samples!were!then!sent!to!NAU!lab!for!processing.!!!

The!application!uses!mass!balance!equations!and!the!distinct!isotopic!

signatures!of!various!sources!to!determine!their!relative!contributions!to!the!mixed!

signature!in!an!end!product!(Phillips!and!Gregg!2003).!!Results!have!been!

interpreted!using!predatorCprey!theory,!hunting!strategies!based!on!ethnographic!

evidence!and!modern!leporid!stable!carbon!isotope!values!from!known!

environments.!!

!Expectations(

(

(

! ! I!expect!NISP,!MNI!and!Sample!Biomass!to!good!estimates!of!the!relative!

taxonomic!abundance!of!the!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!zooarchaeological!

! 94!

assemblage.!!If!the!relative!taxonomic!abundance!is!similar!to!the!expected!regional!

taxonomic!abundance!then!it!supports!the!predatoryCprey!theory!that!the!hunting!

strategies!the!people!of!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!used!focused!on!the!most!

commonly!encountered!animals.!For!instance!since!the!most!common!animals!

across!the!landscape!in!the!Jornada!region!are!cottontails!and!jackrabbits!and!would!

be!the!most!commonly!encountered,!then!the!predatorCprey!theory!suggest!that!

they!would!also!be!the!most!commonly!hunted!animals.!Modifying!the!environment!

or!domesticating!the!landscape!can!increase!the!abundance!of!certain!species!and!

the!available!biomass!on!the!landscape.!!If!I!find!that!taxonomic!groups!such!as!

lagomorphs,!deer!and!other!animal!groups!that!are!known!to!be!attracted!to!

domesticated!environments!are!present,!and!that!these!animals!have!a!significantly!

higher!relative!taxonomic!abundance!than!other!taxa!then!it!supports!the!

hypothesis!that!they!were!using!the!domesticated!environments!as!a!hunting!

ground.!!!

! ! If!the!Artiodactyl!Index!is!high!then!it!means!that!the!people!of!Cottonwood!

Spring!Pueblo!were!actively!pursuing!deer!as!a!preferred!resource.!!This!would!fail!to!

support!theory!that!they!focused!on!the!most!commonly!encountered!resource!and!

hypothesis!that!they!were!taking!advantage!of!the!domesticated!environment!to!

increase!prey!resources.!!I!expect!the!artiodactyl!index!to!relatively!low,!suggesting!

that!they!were!still!a!high!value!prey!that!was!taken!advantage!of!as!they!were!

encountered.!!Although!if!they!were!more!frequently!encountered!than!expected!in!

! 95!

regional!landscape!then!it!could!support!the!hypothesis!of!hunting!in!intentionally!

modified!environments.!!!

If!the!rodent!index!is!high!then!it!means!that!rodents!were!common!in!the!

environment!and!because!rodent!populations!tend!to!be!higher!in!disturbed!areas!it!

would!support!the!idea!that!intentionally!modified!environments!such!as!occupation!

areas!and!farm!fields!were!used!as!resources!for!prey.!!If!the!data!supports!the!

hypothesis!that!prey!animals!were!hunted!in!the!intentionally!modified!

microenvironments!such!as!fields!and!occupation!areas,!then!I!expect!that!a!certain!

number!of!both!jackrabbits!and!cottontails!that!were!hunted!would!have!been!

opportunistically!feeding!off!crops.!!If!they!were!living!and!hunted!in!the!

microenvironment!made!up!of!farm!fields!and!occupation!areas!they!would!have!

had!more!access!to!wild!broad!leaf!C3!plants!that!were!encouraged!as!well!as!

domesticated!C3!plants!such!as!squash!and!beans.!!!Meaning!they!could!have!a!

carbon!isotope!signature!consistent!with!a!wetter!environment!(temperate!

grassland!Figure!4.1).!!However,!if!I!find!an!even!stronger!C4!signature!than!those!on!

the!desert!grassland!(Figure!4.1),!then!it!could!also!support!the!hypothesis!that!the!

people!were!hunting!in!the!intentionally!modified!fields.!It!would!mean!that!they!

were!growing!large!amounts!of!corn!and!amaranth,!plus!another!C4!plant,!purslane.!!!

This!possibility!complicates!expectations!because!the!dominate!crop!is!

unknown,!what!is!known!is!that!the!intensely!human!modified!microenvironment!of!

the!fields!will!be!different!from!the!less!modified!regional!one.!!Animals!feeding!in!

! 96!

the!regional!environment!would!be!expected!to!have!δ13C!values!that!compare!to!

modern!day!desert!grassland,!and!those!living!in!the!microenvironment!will!either!

have!significantly!more!negative!or!less!negative!values.!!

!

Figure!4.1CHistogram!showing!normal!distribution!of!bulk!C3!and!C4!plant!isotopic!values,!superimposed!are!Cottontail!and!Jackrabbit!whole!diet!isotopic!values!from!drier!(desert!grassland!~8C10!in.!annual!precipitation)!and!wetter!(temperate!grassland!~30C34!in.!annual!precipitation).!!(Figure!adapted!from!Smith!et!al.!2014;!Tipple!&!Pagani!2007).!

!!

However,!if!all!samples!of!both!species!have!more!negative!values!it!will!

suggest!that!the!weather!was!wetter!than!expected,!but!will!not!tell!us!where!the!

rabbits!were!being!hunted.!!!If!values!within!the!species!show!a!bimodal!distribution!

ANRV309-EA35-15 ARI 20 March 2007 15:58

photorespiration. Under modern atmospheric CO2 levels, the high affinity of PEP-Cfor HCO3

− facilitates enzyme saturation. As a consequence, C4 plants can decreasetheir stomatal width and reduce transpiration, while fixing CO2 at rates equal orgreater than C3 plants under similar conditions (Taiz & Zeiger 1998). As a result, C4

plants’ water-use efficiency (water loss per unit carbon assimilated) is twice that of C3

plants at ∼25◦C (Hatch 1987). Moreover, higher rates of carbon assimilation can bemaintained under elevated water-stressed conditions.

Given the physiological advantages of the C4 pathway, it is not surprising to findthat C4 flora are better adapted to hot, high-light, and dry environments (Sage et al.1999a), making up more than two-thirds of all grasses in tropical and subtropicalregions, and more than 90% of tropical savanna floral ecosystems (Sage 2001). Onlyfive species represent the C4 photosynthetic pathway in C3-dominated region above60◦ N (Sage et al. 1999a). Seasonal aridity with a wet growing season is also an im-portant environmental constraint influencing C4 floral distributions, but representsa secondary control (Sage 2001).

Higher Plant Carbon Isotopic CompositionDifferences in the physiologies of C3 and C4 plants result in distinct stable carbonisotope signatures (Figure 3). The stable carbon isotopic composition of all higherplants is a function of the carbon isotopic composition of atmospheric CO2 (δ13CCO2 )and the ratio of partial pressure of atmospheric CO2 ( pCO2) inside the leaf ( pi) relativeto atmospheric pCO2 ( pa) (O’Leary 1981, Farquhar et al. 1989). Farquhar et al. (1989)empirically demonstrated that the δ13C composition of bulk C3 plant material can beexpressed by the following equation:

δ13CC3plant = δ13CCO2 − a − (b − a)pi

pa, (1)

δ13Cplant

Freq

uenc

y

C3 plants

C4 plants

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

00-5-10-15-20-25-30-35-40

Figure 3Histogram showing normaldistribution of bulk C3 andC4 plant isotopic values.Data from Cerling & Harris(1999).

www.annualreviews.org • Origins of C4 Photosynthesis 439

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Modern'Temperate' Grasslands Cottontail

Modern'Temperate' Grasslands Jackrabbit

Modern' Desert&Grasslands Cottontail

Modern' Desert&Grasslands Jackrabbit

!

!

!

!n=10

n=16

n=16

n=16

! 97!

or!an!especially!wide!range!then!it!will!suggest!differences!in!hunting!strategies,!

even!when!the!same!species!is!targeted.!!

The!object!is!to!apply!more!robust!and!objective!methodologies!for!

identifying!the!contribution!of!animals!hunted!in!an!intentionally!modified!

environment!and!animals!hunted!in!the!less!modified!regional!environment!to!the!

relative!taxonomic!abundance.!Such!a!distinction!has!proven!difficult!through!

estimated!relative!taxonomic!abundances!and!animal!indices!such!as!the!lagomorph!

index!alone.!!I!hypothesize!that!by!combining!information!from!zooarchaeological!

analysis!and!stable!carbon!isotope!analysis,!a!more!detailed!picture!of!the!

interactions!between!humans,!animals!and!the!environment!will!emerge.!!!

!

! !

! 98!

CHAPTER(5:(Zooarchaeological(Analysis(Results(!!!

This!chapter!summarizes!the!zooarchaeological!assemblage!found!at!

Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo.!!I!analyzed!3,551!specimens!found!over!three!seasons!

(2012C2014)!of!excavations!at!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo.!!I!identified!taxon,!

element,!element!side,!portion,!age,!as!well!as!environmental,!animal!and!human!

modifications!(data!found!in!Appendix!ACC).!!I!used!modern!comparative!specimens!

from!the!Department!of!Anthropology!Zooarchaeological!Lab!on!the!NMSU!Campus,!

and!published!taxonomic!keys!(Adams!and!Crabtree!2012;!France!2009;!Hillson!

1992;!Morris!1966;!O’Connor!2000;!Olsen!1964,!1968,!1972;!Schaefer!et!al.!2009;!

White!and!Folkens!2005;!White!et!al.!2011).!I!compiled!a!Vertebrate!Species!list!for!

Southern!New!Mexico!(Appendix!A)!using!species!range!maps!(Burt!and!

Grossenheider!1952;!Hall!and!Kelson!1951;!Morris!1966;!Sibley!2008;!Stebbins!1966;!

Stokes!and!Stokes!1996;!Williamson!et!al.!1994).!!All!species!were!then!crossC

referenced!through!ITIS!(Intigrated!Taxonomic!System!!http://www.itis.gov)!to!verify!

validity!of!taxonomic!name.!!!

I!found!that!1,372!specimens!were!identifiable!to!the!taxonomic!category!of!

Order!or!below.!!These!specimens!represent!approximately!109!(MNI)!animals!(see!

Table!5.1),!representing!32!taxon!categories!(including!Order,!Family,!Genus,!

Species).!!There!were!12!orders!(4CMammalia,!6CAves,!2CReptilia)!represented,!and!!

!

! 99!

Common%Name NISP MNI%%of%NISP

%%of%MNI

%%of%Biomass

Mammals

Rodent,Size 58 2 1.66% 6 6

Rabbit,Size 1069 2 30.57% 6 6

Dog,Size 171 2 4.89% 6 6

Deer,Size 793 2 22.68% 6 6

Carnivores 6 6 6 6 6

Dogs,,Wolves,,Foxes 7 1 0.20% 0.92% 0.80%

Canis&sp. Wolf,,Dog,,Cyote 21 2 0.60% 1.83% 3.05%

Urocyon&cinereoargenteus Gray,Fox 4 1 0.11% 0.92% 0.60%

Gnawing,Mammals 15 2 0.43% 1.83% 0.30%

Squirrels 31 4 0.89% 3.67% 0.54%

Cynomys&ludovicianus Blacktail,Prairie,Dog 1 1 0.03% 0.92% 0.09%

Citellus&spilosoma Spotted,Ground,Squirrel 8 1 0.23% 0.92% 0.13%

Pocket,Gophers 14 4 0.40% 3.67% 0.51%

Kangaroo,Rats,,Pocket,and,Kangaroo,Mice 26 4 0.74% 3.67% 0.25%

Perognathus&sp. Pocket,Mouse 7 1 0.20% 0.92% 0.07%

Dipodomys&sp. ,Kangaroo,Rat 27 3 0.77% 2.75% 0.14%

Mice,,Rats,Lemmings,,Voles 39 3 1.12% 2.75% 0.60%

Reithrodontomys&megalotis Western,Harvest,Mouse 2 1 0.06% 0.92% 0.01%

Peromyscus&sp. Mouse 5 1 0.14% 0.92% 0.02%

Neotoma&sp. Woodrat 5 1 0.14% 0.92% 0.10%

Sigmodon&sp. Cotton,Rat 2 1 0.06% 0.92% 0.02%

Rabbits,,Hares,and,Pikas 6 6 6 6 -

Rabbits,,Hares 24 2 0.69% 1.83% 0.48%

Lepus&californicus& Blacktail,Jackrabbit 592 35 16.93% 32.11% 32.71%

Sylvilagus&auduboni Desert,Cottontail 364 22 10.41% 20.18% 8.53%

Deer,and,Pronghorn,Antelope 139 5 3.97% 4.59% 48.92%

Birds

Finch,or,Sparrow,Size 8 6 0.23% 6 6

Small,Hawk,or,Quail,Size 21 6 0.60% 6 6

Turkey,or,Crane,Size 5 6 0.14% 6 6

Ducks,,Geese,,Swans,,&,Waterfowl 1 1 0.03% 0.92% 0.13%

Hawks 2 2 6 6 -

Accipiter&sp. Hawk 2 1 0.06% 0.92% 0.11%

Falco&sp. Falcon 3 1 0.09% 0.92% 0.30%

Quails, 6 6 6 6 -

New,World,Quails 6 2 0.17% 1.83% 0.10%

Callipepla&gambelii Gambel's,Quail 5 1 0.14% 0.92% 0.16%

Meleagris&gallopavo Wild,Turkey,&,Domestic,Turkey 3 1 0.09% 0.92% 0.22%

Pigeons,,and,Doves 6 6 6 6 -

Pigeons,,Doves 2 1 0.06% 0.92% 0.04%

Cockoos, 2 2 6 6 -

Geococcyx&californianus Greater,Roadrunner 1 1 0.03% 0.92% 0.01%

Perching,Birds 2 1 0.06% 0.92% 0.03%

Reptiles

Turtles 2 2 6 6 -

Terrapene&ornata Western,Ornate,Box,Turtle 12 2 0.34% 1.83% 0.19%

Collared,and,Spiny,Lizards 6 6 6 6 -

Collared,Lizards,&,Leopard,Lizards 2 2 0.06% 1.83% 0.01%

3497 109

Family%Heteromyidae

Extra,Small,Mammal

Small,Mammal

Medium,Mammal

Large,Mammal

Total

Family&Odontophoridae

Family&Columbidae

Order%Cuculiformes

Order&Passeriformes

Family%Crotaphytidae

Class,Reptilia

Order%Squamata

Order&Anseriformes

Order%Accipitriformes

Order%Galliformes

Order%Columbiformes

Order,Testudines

Small,Ave

Medium,Ave

Large,Ave

Table,5.16Cottonwood,Spring,Pueblo,Zooarchaeological,Assemblage,Summary

Family&Cricetidae

Family&Leporidae

Order%Lagomorpha

Order%Carnivora

Taxon

Class%Mammalia

Family%Canidae

Order&Rodentia

Order&Artiodactyla

Class%Aves

Family&Sciuridae

Family&Geomyidae

! 100!

biographical!sketches!for!taxon!or!group!of!taxon!present!has!been!prepared!in!the!

next!section.!!!!

Following!the!biographical!sketches!for!the!taxonomic!categories!identified!in!

this!assemblage!is!a!summary!of!the!results!of!the!zooarchaeological!analysis,!the!

quantification!data!and!various!indices!described!in!Chapter!4.!!Additionally!an!

interpretation!of!the!assemblage!in!terms!of!subsistence!strategies!and!exploitation!

of!faunal!resources!the!people!at!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!were!using!to!thrive!in!

an!arid!environment!will!be!discussed.!!Interpretations!will!be!related!to!the!

predatorCprey!theory!when!relevant,!as!well!as!the!garden!hunting!subsistence!

strategy.!!The!entire!vertebrate!assemblage!will!be!discussed!together,!followed!by!

taphonomic!modifications,!a!description!of!human!modified!bones,!shells,!fossils!

and!eggshells.!!I!will!then!go!into!secondary!data!calculations!such!as!the!ShannonC

Weaver!Evenness!Index,!biomass,!the!Rodent!Index,!Artiodactyl!Index,!and!

Lagomorph!Index.!!

(

Biographical(Sketches(

(

(

( ( Reptiles!and!birds!were!poorly!represented!at!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo,!

but!at!the!other!extreme!lagomorphs!were!the!most!common!taxa!representing!

approximately!70%!of!the!assemblage.!!What!follows!are!brief!descriptions!of!the!

categories!of!animals!found!in!the!zooarchaeological!assemblage!their!behaviors!and!

the!biotic!communities!they!inhabit.!

! 101!

**

Class*Reptilia.**There!were!two!taxonomic!classes!of!reptiles!found,!and!

together!represent!approximately!1%!of!the!total!zooarchaeological!assemblage!

with!a!NISP!of!14!and!an!MNI!of!4!animals.!!

Order:!Testudines!Family:!Testudinidae!Terrapene*ornate*!

The!Ornate!Box!Turtle!is!a!small!terrestrial!turtle!with!an!adult!carapace!

length!of!approximately!10.1C14.6!cm!(Stebbins!1966).!The!shell!is!high!and!rounded!

and!marked!by!radiating!lines!or!black/dark!brown!dots!on!a!yellow!or!horn!colored!

background.!They!inhabit!primarily!grasslands,!or!treeless!plains,!but!is!not!adverse!

to!water(Stebbins!1966).!!They!seek!sandy!or!loose!soil!that!is!suitable!for!

burrowing,!and!are!frequently!found!under!stones!or!boards.!!They!are!omnivorous,!

and!eat!a!variety!of!plants,!animals!and!insects(Stebbins!1966).!!They!breed!both!

spring!and!autumn,!and!lay!a!clutch!of!2C8!eggs!in!their!burrows(Stebbins!1966).!!

They!range!across!New!Mexico!and!Arizona,!down!to!the!Gulf!Coast!and!in!the!

Sonora!desert.!!

Order:!Squamata!Family:!Crotophytidae!!! ! This!family!of!lizards!ranges!from!Colorado!to!Mexico!and!California!to!New!

Texas,!they!are!robust!lizards!with!well!developed!limbs!(Stebbins!1966;!Williamson!

et!al.!1994).!!They!are!widely!distributed!in!arid!and!semi!arid!enironments,!and!

! 102!

usually!seek!refuge!under!rocks!and!other!objects!(Stebbins!1966).!!Given!the!

Species!range!I!expect!that!these!are!the!remains!of!a!spiny!lizard!(either!Sagebrush!

or!Desert!Spiny!Lizard).!!They!inhabit!arid!and!semiarid!regions!on!plains!and!lower!

slopes!of!mountains,!they!can!be!found!in!creosote!brush,!mesquiteCyucca!grassland!

and!juniper!and!mesquite!woodland!(Stebbins!1966).!!They!eat!insects!like!ants,!

beetles,!grasshoppers!and!termites,!occasionally!consuming!buds!or!flowers.!!!

**

Class*Aves.**Birds!are!the!second!least!represented!taxon!at!Cottonwood!

Spring!Pueblo.!!Birds!represent!approximately!1.8%!of!the!taxon’s!identified!with!a!

NISP!of!64!and!an!MNI!of!10!animals.!!Identifiable!elements!are!from!7!identifiable!

taxa.!!There!is!one!element!from!the!family!Anatidae!(ducks,!geese,!and!waterfowl),!

five!elements!from!the!order!Accipitriforme!(hawks),!11!from!the!Quail!family!

(Odontophoridae),!3!that!are!likely!to!be!Turkey!(Meleagris*gallopavo),!one!

Roadrunner!(Geococcyx*californianus),!and!two!that!are!from!the!order!

Passeriformes!(perching!birds).!

Order:!Anseriformes!Family:!Anatidae!!! ! There!is!only!one!specimen!belonging!to!this!taxon,!but!it!looks!to!be!from!

larger!size!water!foul,!either!goose!or!duck!size.!!This!taxon!is!well!adapted!for!

water,!and!their!range!is!spread!across!all!continents.!!Many!of!these!species!are!

migratory!birds!that!follow!the!availability!of!water!as!they!migrate!north!during!the!

! 103!

summer!or!south!for!winter(Sibley!2008;!Stokes!and!Stokes!1996).!!They!are!

generally!herbivorous,!and!are!monogamous!breeders,!laying!eggs!at!their!summer!

nesting!grounds,!usually!on!the!ground!(Sibley!2008;!Stokes!and!Stokes!1996).!!!

Order:!Accipitriformes!!! ! Five!specimens!were!identified!to!this!taxon,!and!it!is!made!up!of!hawks!and!

falcons,!as!well!as!most!of!the!diurnal!birds!of!prey!(Sibley!2008;!Stokes!and!Stokes!

1996).!!They!have!a!wide!range!across!North!America,!and!can!be!found!in!most!

open!forests,!grasslands!and!deserts.!!They!usually!have!sharply!hooked!beaks,!and!

strong!broad!wings!that!are!suitable!for!soaring!flight!(Sibley!2008).!!They!have!

raptorial!claws!and!an!opposable!hind!claw.!!They!usually!hunt!small!mammals!and!

reptiles!by!sight!during!the!day!or!at!twilight!(Stokes!and!Stokes!1996).!!Overall!they!

have!low!reproductive!rates,!a!long!fledgling!stage!before!they!reach!sexual!

maturity,!and!are!longClived!(Sibley!2008;!Stokes!and!Stokes!1996).!!They!are!

monotonous,!laying!a!small!clutch!of!2C3!eggs!in!elevated!nests!in!trees!and!on!cliff!

faces!(Sibley!2008;!Stokes!and!Stokes!1996).!!

Order:!Galliformes!Family:!Odontophoridae*Callipepla*gambelii*!! ! There!were!11!specimens!that!were!identified!to!the!Quail!family.!!This!

family!is!made!up!of!small!groundCdwelling!birds.!!They!inhabit!the!desert!regions!of!

Arizona,!California,!Colorado,!New!Mexico,!Nevada,!Utah,!Texas,!and!Sonora.!!The!

Gambel’s!quail!live!in!warm!deserts!with!brushy!and!thorny!vegetation,!but!also!

! 104!

survive!well!in!cultivated!or!agricultural!environments!(Sibley!2008).!!Colorful!

plumage!and!the!distinctive!topknot!defines!the!appearance!of!this!bird!(Sibley!

2008).!!Their!diet!consist!of!mostly!plants!such!as!seeds,!leaves,!fruits,!berries!from!

cacti,!but!also!consume!insects!(Sibley!2008).!!They!pair!up!in!the!spring!and!lay!

clutches!of!5C15!eggs!in!a!shallow!sandy!depression!on!the!ground,!chicks!stay!with!

the!parents!through!the!winter.!!

Order:!Galliformes!Family:!Phasianidae*Meleagris*gallopavo**! ! Three!specimens!represent!the!turkey!(wild!or!domesticated),!it!is!a!large!

powerful!bird!with!strong!legs!which!are!spurred!in!the!male.!!It!was!formerly!

distributed!from!Maine!to!Guatemala,!but!since!European!colonization!it!has!

diminished.!!They!tend!to!stick!to!the!woodlands!and!mixed!open!forest,!roaming!in!

small!flocks!(Sibley!2008).!!They!feed!on!grain,!seeds,!berries!and!insects!on!the!

ground!and!roost!in!the!trees!at!night!(Sibley!2008).!!It!is!unknown!whether!the!

specimens!represented!at!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!are!wild!or!domestic,!but!

domestication!of!turkeys!in!the!Southwest!occurred!between!200!B.C.!and!A.D.!500!

(Rawlings!and!Driver!2010).!!!

Order:!Columbiformes*Family:!Columbidae!!! ! Two!specimens!were!identified!to!the!Dove!family,!and!are!likely!either!

Mourning!Dove!or!WhiteCwinged!Dove!according!to!size!and!distribution.!!They!are!

! 105!

stout!bodied!birds!with!short!necks!and!slender!bills!(Sibley!2008).!These!birds!are!

typically!ground!feeders,!and!focus!on!seeds,!fruits!and!other!plants.!!The!Mourning!

dove!is!distributed!across!most!of!North!America!and!can!be!found!in!a!wide!variety!

of!open!and!semiCopen!habitats,!and!the!WhiteCwinged!dove!is!more!restricted!to!

more!open!areas!in!Mexico!and!the!southern!United!states!(Stebbins!1966).!!They!

have!a!spring!migration!from!March!to!May,!but!not!all!individual!migrate,!in!

warmer!climates!they!can!be!found!year!round!(Stokes!and!Stokes!1996).!!They!are!

monogamous!and!have!a!spring!courtship.!The!nests!are!usually!found!in!trees!or!

shrubs!and!the!females!almost!always!lay!two!eggs!(Sibley!2008).!!!

Order:!Cuculiformes!Family:!Cuculidae!Geococcyx*californianus*!! ! There!was!one!specimen!identified!as!Roadrunner.!!They!range!in!size!from!

46C56!cm!and!weigh!an!average!of!230C430!g!(Sibley!2008;!Stokes!and!Stokes!1996).!!

They!have!an!oversized!dark!bill,!and!brown!and!white!feathers.!!They!have!a!broad!

tail!with!white!tips!on!the!three!outer!tail!feathers.!!The!bird!has!a!bare!patch!of!skin!

behind!each!eye,!and!is!shaded!blue!to!red.!!Roadrunners!are!typically!found!in!open!

desert,!brushland,!and!open!pine!forests.!!They!mainly!feed!on!snakes,!lizards,!large!

insects!and!other!small!prey,!but!opportunistically!feeds!on!fruits!and!seeds!like!

those!from!the!prickly!pear!cactus!(Sibley!2008;!Stokes!and!Stokes!1996).!!They!can!

be!found!alone!or!in!pairs,!they!are!monogamous!and!mate!for!life.!!Pairs!can!hold!

territory!all!year,!although!the!reproductive!season!is!spring!to!midCsummer!(Sibley!

! 106!

2008;!Stokes!and!Stokes!1996).!!They!typically!have!nest!in!low!trees!brush!or!cactus,!

and!usually!lay!2C6!eggs!per!clutch!(Sibley!2008;!Stokes!and!Stokes!1996).!!!

*Class*Mammalia.**Mammals!by!far!made!up!the!majority!of!the!assemblage!

with!approximately!98%!a!NISP!of!3,465!and!an!MNI!of!96!animals!represented.!!!

There!are!specimens!in!the!mammal!assemblage!including!members!of!4!orders,!7!

families,!and!14!identified!species.!!!I!am!distinguishing!the!taxon!by!8!main!

categories;!Canis*sp.!(coyotes,!dogs,!wolf,!and!fox),!Sciuridae*sp.!(squirrels,!and!

prairie!dogs),!Geomyidae*sp.!(Pocket!gophers),!Heteromyidae*sp.*(kangaroo!rats,!

pocket!mice,!and!kangaroo!mice),!!

Order:!Lagomorpha*Family:!Leporidae*Lepus*californicus*!!! ! Jackrabbits!represent!the!largest!percentage!(43%)!of!taxon!(identified!to!

Order!or!below)!present!in!this!assemblage!with!a!NISP!of!592!and!an!MNI!of!35.!!

They!usually!weigh!between!2C2.8!kg,!and!about!465C630!cm!long!(head!and!body)!

(Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952;!Hall!and!Kelson!1951).!!They!are!usually!greyishC

brown,!large!blackCtipped!ears,!and!black!streak!on!top!of!the!tail.!Their!range!is!very!

extensive,!from!Southern!Oregon!in!the!north,!bordered!by!the!Missouri!river!on!the!

East,!down!into!Southern!Mexico,!and!they!prefer!open!areas,!brush!and!prairies!

(Hall!and!Kelson!1951).!!They!are!mostly!active!during!the!early!mornings,!and!hang!

out!at!the!base!of!bush!or!clump!of!grass!during!the!day!(Hall!and!Kelson!1951).!!

! 107!

They!feed!normally!at!night!on!green!grasses!and!vegetation!(Burt!and!

Grossenheider!1952).!They!can!run!30C35!mph,!and!breed!December!to!September!

(Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952).!They!do!not!prepare!a!nest,!and!have!3C4!litters!

throughout!the!year!giving!birth!to!attritional!young!(with!fur!and!eyes!open)!in!

litters!of!2C4!(Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952).!!!

Order:!Lagomorpha*Family:!Leporidae!Sylvilagus*auduboni*!!! ! Desert!Cottontails!were!the!second!highest!represented!with!26!%!of!the!

assemblage!identified!to!Order!or!below.!!They!had!a!NISP!of!364!and!an!MNI!of!22.!!

They!are!about!.6C1.2!kg!and!approximately!30.5C38!cm!long(Hall!and!Kelson!1951).!!

They!are!light!grey!with!a!yellow!tinge,!a!whitish!belly,!and!large!ears.!!They!prefer!

open!plains,!low!scrub!brush,!foothills,!and!grass!lands,!and!are!common!in!the!

valleys!and!arid!Southwest!(Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952).!The!species!range!is!the!

western!United!States,!Northern!range!is!up!in!northern!central!California,!lower!

Nevada,!Southern!Montana!and!Western!North!Dakota,!then!extends!down!South!

into!central!Northern!Mexico!including!the!Baja!Peninsula!(Burt!and!Grossenheider!

1952;!Hall!and!Kelson!1951).!!They!are!mostly!active!from!late!afternoon!into!the!

night,!but!are!seen!at!any!time!during!the!day!(Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952).!!This!

dense!vegetation!gives!them!a!place!to!hide!their!burrows!where!they!give!birth!to!

their!young,!and!are!common!in!habitats!with!dense!underbrush!like!along!

waterways!(Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952;!Turkowski!1975;!Vorhies!and!Taylor!

! 108!

1933).!!They!tend!to!hide!when!frightened.!!Females!have!much!smaller!ranges,!

around!one!acre,!and!males!are!around!15!acres!(Hall!and!Kelson!1951).!!The!young!

are!born!blind!and!litters!of!3C6!are!deposited!in!a!grassClined!nest!or!burrow,!

females!can!have!2C6!litters!throughout!the!year!(Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952;!Hall!

and!Kelson!1951).!!

Order:!Artiodactyla*Family:!Cervidae/Antilocapridae*!! ! This!taxonomic!category!was!not!able!to!be!further!specified!because!the!

differences!between!species!present,!Mule!deer!(Odocoileus*hemionus),!WhiteCtail!

Deer!(Odocoileus*virginianus)!and!Pronghorn!Antelope!(Antilocapra*americana)!

could!not!be!distinguished!using!comparative!literature!and!specimens!available!to!

me.!!All!specimens!identified!to!this!taxon!would!have!come!from!one!of!the!species!

listed.!!Although!it!was!possible!that!other!species!that!fall!into!the!Artiodactyla!

category!were!present!such!as!Elk,!Peccaries,!and!BigChorned!Sheep,!based!on!size!

and!identifying!features!on!the!bone!none!of!these!animals!make!up!the!Artiodactyl!

assemblage.!!!

Artiodactyl!was!the!third!highest!represented!taxon!making!up!10%!of!the!

animals!identified!to!the!level!of!Order!or!below.!!They!had!a!NISP!of!139!and!an!

MNI!of!5.!!They!range!in!size!from!34C181.5!kg.!!WhiteCtail!deer!males!are!usually!34C

181.5!kg,!and!females!fall!into!the!22.5C113!kg!range!(Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952).!

Mule!deer!males!are!similar!and!range!in!size!from!56.5C181.5!kg,!and!females!are!

! 109!

45.5C68!kg!(Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952).!!Deer!are!hoofed!mammals!that!have!

antlers!and!are!shed!each!year,!they!are!mainly!browsers!and!they!chew!their!cud.!!

WhiteCtail!deer!tend!to!stick!to!forests,!and!wetter!environments,!but!are!seen!in!

open!brushy!areas!nearby!(Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952;!Hall!and!Kelson!1951).!!

Mule!deer!can!be!found!in!coniferous!forests,!desert!shrubs,!chaparral,!grassland!

with!shrubs,!but!needs!browse!plants!in!the!environment!(Burt!and!Grossenheider!

1952;!Hall!and!Kelson!1951).!!!Both!species!are!more!active!in!mornings,!evenings,!

and!moonlit!nights,!they!tend!to!occur!in!small!groups!or!by!them!selves!(except!the!

WhiteCtail!deer!during!the!winter,!groups!of!25+).!!They!have!a!breeding!season!from!

November!to!February!and!give!birth!to!1C3!young.!!!

Pronghorn!Antelope!weigh!approximately!34C59!kg,!and!are!found!in!

southern!Canada!and!northern!Mexico!and!have!a!distribution!from!eastern!

California!to!midCTexas(Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952).!!They!inhabit!open!prairies!

and!sagebrush!plains;!they!mostly!focusing!on!browse,!but!eat!some!grass!and!

sagebrush(Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952).!!Some!migrate!during!summer!and!winter.!!

They!are!seen!as!individuals!or!in!small!groups,!and!are!known!for!their!ability!to!run!

and!jump.!!The!usually!breed!January!to!April,!and!give!birth!to!1C3!young(Burt!and!

Grossenheider!1952).!!!

Order:!Rodentia!Family:!Sciuridae!!

! 110!

! ! The!family!Sciuridae!is!made!up!of!squirrels,!and!for!this!area!this!includes!

prairie!dogs!and!two!species!of!ground!squirrel!that!occur!in!this!region.!!Out!of!the!

40!specimens!identified!to!this!family!only!9!of!them!were!identified!to!a!species.!!

This!is!because!most!of!these!specimens!were!either!mandibles!or!maxillae,!and!a!

species!could!be!assigned!with!confidence.!!Only!one!specimen!was!identified!as!a!

Blacktail!Prairie!Dog,!and!8!were!identified!as!a!Spotted!Ground!Squirrel.!!The!

spotted!ground!squirrel!is!generally!found!in!areas!with!deep!sandy!soils!and!sparse!

vegetation,!such!as!along!the!bank!of!arroyos!and!in!short!grasslands!(Hall!and!

Kelson!1951).!!They!are!distributed!throughout!the!Chihuahuan!Desert,!into!parts!of!

the!Sonoran!desert,!as!far!north!as!Nebraska!and!into!west!Texas!(Burt!and!

Grossenheider!1952).!They!feed!on!green!vegetation,!seeds!and!insects,!and!usually!

burrows!beneath!bushes!or!rocks!(Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952).!!They!usually!have!

about!2!litters!a!year!with!5C7!young!(Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952).!!They!are!12.7C

15.24!cm!long!(Hall!and!Kelson!1951).!!!!

The!Blacktail!Prairie!Dog!is!slightly!bigger!with!a!size!range!of!28C33!cm!long!

(Hall!and!Kelson!1951).!!They!prefer!open!grasslands!and!prairies,!and!are!

distributed!throughout!the!northern!Chihuahuan!desert,!West!Texas!and!the!

grasslands!extending!north!into!Montana!(Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952).!!They!live!

in!groups!of!5C35,!and!create!groups!of!bare!mounds!(1C2!ft.!high)!where!they!take!

turns!feeding!and!as!a!lookout(Hall!and!Kelson!1951).!!They!are!primarily!diurnal!and!

feed!on!mostly!grasses!but!my!eat!grasshoppers!and!other!insects!(Burt!and!

! 111!

Grossenheider!1952).!!They!give!birth!to!3C5!young!that!are!naked!and!eyes!shut!in!

their!burrows(Hall!and!Kelson!1951).!!!

Order:!Rodentia!Family:!Geomyidae*!! The!family!Geomyidae!is!made!up!of!pocket!gophers,!they!are!small!to!medium!

sized!rodents!with!external!cheek!pouches!(Hall!and!Kelson!1951).!!They!tend!to!be!

solitary!for!much!of!their!lives,!and!active!day!and!night!throughout!much!of!the!

year!(Hall!and!Kelson!1951).!!They!burrow,!preferring!moister!loose!soils,!and!feed!

mostly!on!roots!and!tubers!(Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952).!!For!this!reason!they!are!

common!in!cultivated!fields.!!They!have!2!or!more!litters!a!year!with!2C5!young!(Hall!

and!Kelson!1951).!

Order:!Rodentia!Family:!Heteromyidae!Perognathus*sp.****!! There!were!7!specimens!identified!as!a!Pocket!Mouse,!all!were!either!mandibles!

or!maxillae,!and!were!positively!identified!based!on!their!teeth.!!They!could!be!the!

Merriam!Pocket!Mouse!(Perognathus*merriami),!the!Silky!Pocket!Mouse!

(Perognathus*flavus),!but!they!seem!to!closely!resemble!the!Apache!Pocket!Mouse!

(Olsen!1964).!!These!animals!are!small!rodents!with!furClined!cheek!pouches,!and!

feed!on!seeds!(Hall!and!Kelson!1951).!!They!burrow!and!have!stores!of!seeds!to!help!

them!through!the!winter.!!They!are!well!adapted!to!arid!environments!and!are!

! 112!

found!in!the!four!corners!region!and!down!into!Southern!New!Mexico!(Burt!and!

Grossenheider!1952).!!

Order:!Rodentia*!Family:!Heteromyidae!Dipodomys*sp.**!

There!were!27!specimens!identified!as!a!Kangaroo!rat,!but!because!there!are!

three!species!found!in!the!region!a!more!specific!identification!could!not!be!made.!!

The!bannerCtailed!kangaroo!rat!(Dipodomys*spectabilis),!Ord’s!kangaroo!rat!

(Dipodomys*ordii),!and!Merriam’s!kangaroo!rat!(Dipodomys*merriami)!are!all!located!

in!the!region!and!have!similar!behaviors!and!habitats.!!!They!are!about!12.7C15.24!

cm!long!with!a!17.7C23.3!cm!tail.!Kangaroo!rats!have!disproportionately!long!legs!

and!are!adapted!for!bounding!or!leaping!motions.!!!They!prefer!fine!sandy!areas!with!

little!vegetation!and!low!deserts,!such!as!yucca,!oak,!mesquite,!or!saltbush!

communities!(Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952).!!They!are!active!all!year,!are!mostly!

nocturnal!and!eat!green!vegetation!but!focus!on!seeds!(Burt!and!Grossenheider!

1952).!!!

Order:!Rodentia!Family:!Muridae*Sigmodon*sp.*!! ! There!are!two!species!of!Cotton!rat!in!the!region,!the!hispid!cotton!rat!

(Sigmodon*hispidus)!and!the!tawnyCbellied!cotton!rat!(Sigmodon*fulviventer).!!They!

are!both!well!adapted!to!arid!environments,!although!the!hispid!cotton!rat!has!a!

wider!range!from!most!of!Mexico!into!southern!New!Mexico!and!east!to!Florida!and!

! 113!

the!Virginias!(Hall!and!Kelson!1951).!!The!tawnyCbellied!cotton!rat,!is!found!along!the!

eastern!side!of!the!Sierra!Madre!in!central!New!Mexico!and!is!restricted!to!mesquite!

grasslands!(Hall!and!Kelson!1951).!!They!are!active!during!the!day!and!at!night,!and!

tend!to!construct!nests!woven!out!of!grasses!(Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952).!!Their!

diet!consists!of!perennial!grasses!and!other!forbs,!and!often!are!found!near!water!

sources!(Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952).!

Order:!Rodentia!Family:!Muridae*Neotoma*sp.**! ! There!are!3!species!of!woodrat!in!the!area,!whiteCthroated!woodrat!

(Neotoma*albigula),!Mexican!woodrat!(Neotoma*Mexicana),!and!the!Southern!Plains!

woodrat!(Neotoma*micropus)!(Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952;!Hall!and!Kelson!1951).*!

They!are!large!rodents,!who!build!complex!houses!or!dens!out!of!twigs,!cactus!and!

other!materials!(Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952).!!They!usually!contain!several!

chambers!for!nests!and!food!caches!(Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952).!!They!are!found!

through!out!New!Mexico,!Texas,!northern!Mexico!and!part!of!Arizona.!!Their!diet!

consists!of!nuts,!seeds,!fruits,!mushrooms,!cactus,!and!other!vegetation!(Burt!and!

Grossenheider!1952).!!They!typically!give!birth!to!young!in!the!spring!and!summer.!!!

Order:!Carnivora*Family:!Canidae*Canis*sp.***! ! Canis*sp.!found!in!the!region!includes!the!coyote!(Canis*latrans),!the!gray!

wolf!(Canis*lupus),!and!the!domestic!dog!(Canis*familiaris).!!Based!on!size!it!is!

! 114!

unlikely!that!any!of!the!21!specimens!were!from!the!gray!wolf,!and!because!the!only!

place!a!domestic!dog!and!a!coyote!can!be!distinguished!is!on!the!skull,!they!were!all!

placed!in!the!Canis*sp.*category.!!Coyotes!are!81C94!cm!long,!with!a!28C41!cm!long!

tail!(Hall!and!Kelson!1951).!They!are!mostly!nocturnal,!and!will!eat!almost!any!

animal,!and!sometimes!vegetables!too.!!They!scavenge,!but!also!hunt!small!

mammals!in!pairs!or!in!groups.!!They!will!sometimes!cache!uneaten!food,!in!their!

dens!or!other!shelters!(Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952).!!Coyotes!occur!throughout!

the!region!and!occupy!a!range!of!habitats.!!They!are!most!common!in!grass!and!

scrubland!environments!or!bolderCstrewn!areas!(Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952).!!

They!mate!in!JanuaryCFebruary,!and!give!birth!to!5C10!pups!in!AprilCMay!(Burt!and!

Grossenheider!1952).!!!!

Order:!Carnivora*Family:!Canidae*Urocyon*cinereoargenteus*!!! ! Grey!Fox!are!approximately!53C74!cm!long!(head!and!body)!with!a!28C41!cm!

long!tail,!and!weigh!3C6!kg!(Hall!and!Kelson!1951).!!They!are!found!in!Chaparral,!open!

forests,!and!rim!rock!country(Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952).!!Grey!foxes!are!known!

to!occupy!most!of!the!southern!United!States!and!are!found!south!in!Mexico,!and!as!

far!north!as!Maine!on!the!Eastern!Side!of!the!US!(Hall!and!Kelson!1951).!!Normally!

they!are!nocturnal,!and!secretive,!they!will!climb!trees!to!escape!predators,!but!

usually!dens!in!hollow!logs!or!in!ground!burrows!(Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952).!!

They!have!an!omnivorous!diet,!usually!eats!small!mammals,!but!also!includes!eggs,!

! 115!

birds,!acorns,!fruits,!and!insects!(Burt!and!Grossenheider!1952).!!A!litter!of!3C7!pups!

are!borne!between!April!and!May!in!their!dens,!and!are!blind!at!birth.!!!

!Taxonomic(Abundance(and(NISP(

(

!Out!of!the!total!assemblage!(3,551!specimens)!from!Cottonwood!Spring!

Pueblo!those!identifiable!to!the!level!of!Class!or!below!make!up!98%!(3,497)!of!the!

assemblage!(see!Figure!5.1).!!A!number!of!different!ways!to!quantify!the!relative!or!

estimated!taxonomic!abundance!have!been!established,!however,!NISP!(Table!5.1)!is!

considered!the!most!effective!way!of!measuring!relative!taxonomic!abundance!

(Lyman!2008).!!The!pie!chart!below!shows!the!number!of!identified!specimens!for!

each!taxonomic!class!represented!at!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo.!!

This!assemblage!is!dominated!by!mammals!(~98%),!followed!by!birds!(~2%),!

and!finally!reptiles!(~.5%).!!Given!the!environmental!setting!of!Cottonwood!Spring!

Pueblo!and!expected!relative!taxonomic!abundances!these!values!are!to!be!

expected.!!As!recommended!by!Lyman!(2008:!27)!comparisons!of!NISP’s!is!done!at!

the!taxonomic!rank!of!Order!or!below.!!When!this!is!done!the!NISP!for!Cottonwood!

Spring!Pueblo!is!reduced!to!approximately!38%!(1,372)!of!the!total!assemblage.!!

!

! 116!

!

Figure!5.1C!Class!Relative!Taxonomic!Abundance!by!Class!(NISP)!

!When!these!taxonomic!categories!are!compared!(Figure!5.2),!Artiodactyls!

(deer)!and!Leporids!(rabbits)!together!make!up!83%!of!the!assemblage.!!No!other!

category!of!animal!comes!close!in!terms!of!numbers!unless!all!rodents!are!combined!

which!would!make!up!13%!of!the!assemblage.!!

When!this!information!is!compared!with!Madera!Quemada’s!

zooarchaeological!assemblage!(NISP=985)!some!differences!are!revealed.!!!While!

many!of!the!taxonomic!categories!are!present!in!both!assemblages!the!ratios!are!

much!different.!!Leporid!are!by!far!the!most!common!group,!making!up!93%!of!the!

assemblage,!and!while!rodents!and!artiodactyl!are!still!present!in!the!assemblage!

they!have!very!low!representation!(~2%!each).!!This!relative!taxonomic!abundance!is!

explained!through!the!absence!of!garden!hunting!(Miller!and!Graves!2009).!!They!

state!that!the!lack!of!disturbed!areas!such!as!farm!fields!and!occupation!areas!kept!

Mammals!(3,465)!!98%!

Birds!!(64)!!2%!

Rep{les!(14)!!0%!

! 117!

the!populations!of!rodent!low,!and!were!not!as!prevalent!of!a!food!source!(Miller!

and!Graves!2009).!!

!

!

Figure!5.2C!Taxonomic!Abundance!(NISP)!

!Taphonomy(

(

(

! ! The!environment!is!one!of!the!most!powerful!forces!affecting!the!

zooarchaeological!assemblage.!!Almost!97%!of!the!assemblage!showed!clear!signs!of!

environmental!modification.!!These!include!pitting!(dissolution),!erosion!(scoring!or!

pitting),!weathering!(cracked!or!flaked),!solution!staining,!and!root!tracing.!!The!~3%!

that!did!not!have!clear!signs!of!environmental!modification!were!either!very!burned!

Canids!32!2%!Rodents!

182!14%!

Leporids!960!71%!

Ar{odactyls!139!10%!

Waterfowl!1!0%!

Hawks!5!1%!

Fowls!!14!1%!

Pigeons!!and!Doves!

2!0%!

Roadrunner!1!0%!

Perching!Birds!2!0%!

Box!Turtles!12!1%! Lizards!

2!0%!

! 118!

and!no!staining!was!present!or!they!looked!very!fresh!and!were!some!sort!of!

intrusive!animal.!!!

The!most!common!environmental!modification!was!solution!staining!(43.9%),!

this!type!of!staining!is!common!in!arid!environments!with!alkaline!soil!that!is!high!

mineral!content!such!as!iron!(Lyman!1994).!!The!next!most!common!was!root!tracing!

(29.5%)!again!this!is!common!in!dry!desert!grass/scrublands!because!most!of!the!

biomass!in!a!grassland!in!in!the!roots,!when!the!plant!is!alive,!it!is!secreting!humeric!

acid,!and!once!it!dies!the!fungus!living!on!the!roots!secrete!an!acid!as!well,!which!

explains!why!many!of!the!bones!had!significant!root!etching!on!them!(Lyman!1994).!!

Weathering!was!also!common!(23.3%)!but!not!as!common!as!was!expected,!this!

could!have!been!related!to!the!context!they!were!found!in.!!Most!of!the!bones!came!

out!of!rooms!or!the!midden,!both!of!which!would!have!protected!them!from!the!

elements!by!being!quickly!covered!with!other!sediments.!!!

! ! Animal!modifications!were!rare,!with!more!than!97%!having!no!identifiable!

marks.!!The!most!common!was!rodent!gnawing!with!61!specimens.!!This!indicates!

that!rodents!were!in!the!environment!both!during!the!occupation!and!after.!!The!

heavy!environmental!modifications!made!animal!modifications!difficult!to!see.!!

There!was!some!indeterminate!gnawing!(7!specimens)!and!carnivore!gnawing!(2!

specimens),!but!the!fragmentation!of!the!assemblage!could!have!been!concealing!

more.!!!

! 119!

! ! The!most!obvious!and!frequent!human!caused!modification!was!burning!

(Figure!5.3).!!Burning!of!zooarchaeological!remains!in!an!archaeological!context!is!

generally!associated!with!the!preparation,!consumption,!and!disposal!of!food.!!Over!

59%!of!the!assemblage!showed!some!signs!of!burning.!!Although!solution!staining!

can!be!confused!with!light!tan!burning,!this!number!may!be!an!overestimate.!!Some!

of!the!bones!have!a!graded!burn!pattern!with!the!distal!ends!blackened;!this!is!

usually!evidence!of!a!roasting!technique!where!the!less!burned!portions!were!

protected!by!the!meat.!However,!many!of!the!bones!are!highly!fragmented!and!

consistently!burned,!this!suggests!a!different!mode!of!processing!or!disposing!of!the!

animals.!Ethnographic!evidence!shows!that!animal!bones!would!often!be!broken!to!

let!the!marrow!out!and!thrown!in!with!the!meat!to!create!a!stew!(Beaglehole!1936;!

Cushing!1920).!!Some!of!the!small!bones!and!pieces!would!be!ingested,!while!others!

would!be!taken!out!while!eating!and!discarded,!sometimes!into!the!fire!and!other!

times!just!onto!the!ground!(Beaglehole!1936;!Cushing!1920).!!This!would!help!to!

explain!the!fragmentary!nature!of!the!assemblage!and!the!burning!pattern!of!those!

burned!evenly!burned.!!

Burning!of!the!rodent!bones!is!important!to!note!in!that!it!provides!

additional!evidence!that!many!of!the!rodents!present!were!food!and!not!intrusive!

(Szuter!1984).!!Many!of!the!bones!were!not!burned!(61.8%),!but!more!than!8%!had!

clear!evidence!of!burning!(graded!tan!to!black,!black,!graded!black!to!calcined,!or!

calcined).!!!The!remaining!30%!fell!into!the!indeterminate!category!or!burned!tan!

! 120!

category,!while!some!of!this!probably!due!to!staining,!a!portion!of!it!probably!falls!

into!the!tan!category!because!we!have!other!rodent!bones!that!definitely!exhibit!

burning.!

!

!

Figure!5.3C!Percent!of!Assemblage!by!Type!of!Burning!Found!!

!Bone(Artifacts(

!!! ! The!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!zooarchaeological!assemblage!includes!28!

bone!artifacts.!!They!include!7!bone!awl!fragments,!3!ring!fragments,!9!grooved!

bones,!1!jackrabbit!innominate!tool,!and!1!animal!figure.!!Large!mammals!(likely!

artiodactyl)!are!well!represented!with!20!specimens,!3!are!from!a!medium!sized!

mammal!(likely!coyote!or!fox),!and!4!are!from!small!animals.!!The!predominant!

remains!at!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!are!lagomorph!however!only!2!artifacts!were!

identified!as!make!from!cottontail!or!jackrabbit!bone.!!

0%! 5%! 10%! 15%! 20%! 25%! 30%!

Indeterminate!

None!

Light!Tan!

Graded!Tan!to!Black!

Black!

Graded!Black!to!Calcined!

Calcined!

Percent(of(Assemblage(

Type(of(Burning(

! 121!

! ! Awls!seem!to!fall!into!one!of!several!categories,!and!are!comparable!to!those!

described!for!El!Paso!phase!sites!(Lehmer!1948).!!They!fall!into!3!categories,!large!

awl,!long!bone!splinter!awl/needle,!awl!made!from!a!small!mammal.!!A!fragmentary!

awl!recovered!from!the!midden!was!made!from!the!tibia!of!a!deer!(Figure!5.4,!A).!!

!

!!Figure!5.4C!Examples!of!Awl!Types!Found!at!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo.!!(A)!Large!awl!made!from!a!juvenile!deer!tibia!(Locus!3,!P.D.!26).!!(B)!Small!awl!made!from!a!cottontail!tibia,!shaft!is!extremely!polished!(Locus!2,!P.D.!145).!!(C)!Large!Awl!fragment!made!from!split!long!bone!(Locus!1,!P.D.!134).!!!

!

1"cm 1"cm

1"cm

C

A

B

! 122!

The!proximal!end!of!the!deer!tibia!was!used!as!the!butt!end.!!It!was!likely!

from!a!juvenile!deer,!since!the!epiphysis!has!broken!cleanly!off.!!Another!example!of!

a!large!awl!was!found!in!Locus!1!(seen!in!Figure!5.4,!C).!!Examples!of!the!long!bone!

splinter!awl/needles!can!be!seen!in!Figure!5.5.!They!appear!to!be!made!of!a!thick!

long!bone!splinter!that!was!polished!on!all!sides,!these!awls!are!.5C.7!cm!wide,!they!

have!all!been!split!down!the!middle.!!The!awl!made!from!a!cottontail!tibia!can!be!

seen!in!Figure!5.4!B.!!The!shaft!was!extremely!polished!and!proximal!end!was!the!

butt!of!the!awl.!!This!was!one!of!the!only!bone!artifacts!made!from!a!small!mammal,!

let!alone!a!cottontail.!!!!

! !

!!

Figure!5.5C!Examples!of!Long!Bone!Splinter!Awl/Needles!!

1"cm

! 123!

! ! One!deer!femur!exhibited!transverse!sawing!of!the!shaft!just!above!the!distal!

end!(Figure!5.6).!!The!shaft!was!sawn!around!the!circumference,!producing!a!VC

shaped!groove.!The!bone!was!then!snapped!and!presumably!broken!in!the!process.!!

The!diameter!of!the!shaft!suggests!that!this!was!the!biCproduct!of!ring!manufacture,!

but!segmenting!the!tubes!for!other!proposes!is!possible.!!There!are!8!other!bone!

fragments!with!this!same!pattern,!although!they!are!too!fragmentary!to!identify!

what!bone!and!for!what!purpose!they!were!grooved.!!There!were!3!bone!ring!

fragments!(Figure!5.7)!that!were!well!worn,!and!appear!to!be!about!the!same!

thickness!and!circumference!as!the!grooved!femur.!

!

!

Figure!5.6C!Grooved!and!Snapped!Distal!End!of!a!Deer!Femur.!!It!is!possible!that!it!represents!ring!manufacture!byCproduct!(Locus!1,!P.D.!41,!Feature!17),!reconstructed!from!8!pieces.!

1"cm 1"cm

! 124!

!!!

!!

!!!!!!!!!!!Figure!5.7C!Bone!Ring!Fragments!!!

There!were!two!unique!bone!artifacts!that!were!found!in!the!Cottonwood!

Spring!Pueblo!Assemblage.!!The!first!is!a!tool!made!from!the!innominate!of!a!

jackrabbit!(Figure!5.8).!!This!tool!was!found!in!the!first!year!of!excavation!in!the!

midden!area.!!It!is!the!only!tool!made!from!a!jackrabbit!bone,!the!distal!end!of!the!

innominate!has!been!modified!to!form!a!scraping!tool.!!It!is!thought!that!it!was!used!

to!shape!the!rims!of!ceramic!vessels!(Walker!et!al.!2012),!a!demonstration!of!fit!!can!

be!seen!in!Figure!5.8.!!

1"cm

! 125!

!!

Figure!5.8C!Jackrabbit!Innominate!Bone!Scraping!Tool.!!Found!in!the!midden,!P.D.!17.!!Distal!end!has!been!worn!down!to!form!a!scraping!tool,!and!is!thought!to!be!ceramic!vessel!rim!forming!tool!(Walker!et!al.!2012).!!!

The!final!and!most!unique!bone!artifact!that!has!been!found!at!Cottonwood!

Spring!Pueblo!is!what!appears!to!be!a!carved!head!of!a!BigChorned!Sheep!(J!Roberts!

Personal!Communication!May!24,!2015).!!Figure!5.9!depicts!the!figurine,!one!of!the!

horns!is!broken!off,!but!a!pecked!eye!and!muzzle!area!is!clear.!!It!is!thought!to!be!the!

carved!distal!end!of!a!femur!from!a!fox!or!some!other!small!canid.!It!was!found!in!

Locus!2,!P.D.!137!in!surface!collection!above!rooms!8!and!9.!!!

!!

1"cm

! 126!

!!Figure!5.9C!Head!of!BigChorned!Sheep!Carved!Figurine.!!Carved!from!the!distal!end!of!a!femur!from!a!fox!or!small!canid.!!!!!!

Shell(Artifact(

(

(

! ! Shell!is!an!excellent!source!of!information!on!trade!because!marine!shells!

were!was!commonly!used!in!prehistoric!sites!all!over!Mexico,!Arizona!and!New!

Mexico!(Colton!1941;!Whalen!2013).!!Trade!routs!from!the!Gulf!of!California!or!the!

Pacific!Coast!were!well!established!through!Casas!Grande,!the!Phoenix!Basin,!the!

Hopi!Plateaus,!Chaco,!the!Mimbres!Valley,!and!across!the!Rio!Grand!for!ceramics,!

hides,!and!other!artifacts!including!shell!(Colton!1941;!Whalen!2013).!!The!further!

away!from!the!coast!the!more!marine!shells!are!considered!a!prestige!item,!and!its!

1"cm

Eye

Nose

! 127!

ritual!significance!is!well!documented!in!sites!across!the!Southwest!(Creel!et!al.!

2003;!Forde!1931;!Miller!and!Graves!2009).!!

!Table!5.2C!Shell!Summary!by!Locus!Surface(collection(Total( 1(

!Indeterminate!Shell! 1!

Locus(1(Total( 13(

!Land!Snail! 2!

!Indeterminate!Shell! 1!

!Olivella*sp.* 10!

Locus(2(Total( 35(

!Land!Snail! 6!

!Indeterminate!Shell! 6!

!Olivella*sp.* 15!

!Conus*sp.* 2!

!Nassarius*complanatus* 3!

!Glycymeris*sp.* 2!

!Mollusks* 1!

Locus(3(Total( 10(

!Indeterminate!Shell! 1!

!Olivella*sp.* 6!

!Conus*sp.* 2!

!! Glycymeris*sp.* 1!Cottonwood(Spring(Pueblo(Total( 59

!

Shell!was!found!in!all!three!loci!(Table!5.2),!Locus!2!had!the!most!with!35,!

Locus!1!had!13!and!Locus!3!had!10.!!Five!genera!were!identified!as!well!as!

indeterminate!shell,!and!land!snail.!!The!most!common!shell!was!the!Olivella*whole!

shell!beads!(31),!this!is!a!common!artifact!traded!in!American!Southwest!cultures!

(Colton!1941;!Miller!and!Graves!2009).!!The!species!was!not!assigned,!but!based!on!

size,!placement!of!inner!lip,!distribution!ranges!and!some!faint!remaining!color!

! 128!

(Figure!5.10)!it!is!likely!Olivella*tergina*or*Olivella*dama*(Morris!1966).!The!next!most!

common!was*Glycymeris*(usually!used!for!bracelets),!followed!by!Nassarius*(whole!

shell!beads)!and*Conus*(whole!shell!beads!with!spire!removed),!and!mollusk!(mother!

of!pearl!pendant).!!!

!

Figure!5.10C!Olivella*Shells;!Olivella*tergina*or*Olivella*dama.*Note!the!light!tan!bands!on!left!shell!(Locus!2,!P.D.!77),!and!the!purple!tip!on!the!right!shell!(Locus!2,!P.D.!140).!!

!One!shell!pendent!(Figure!5.11)!was!collected!from!the!surface!of!the!site!

(P.D.!0).!!It!was!shaped!into!a!teardrop!form!and!broken!in!half.!!The!pendant!is!

listed!as!indeterminate!shell!but!is!likely!in!the!mollusk!family!because!it!looks!like!

mother!of!pearl.!!Locus!1!contained!two!land!snail!shells,!10!olivella!shells!and!one!

indeterminate!shell!disk!bead.!!!At!least!2!of!the!Olivella!shell!beads!were!found!in!

1!cm

! 129!

room!100,!the!rest!(including!the!disk!bead)!were!found!in!surface!P.D.’s!or!the!plaza!

area.!!!!

!

!!!!Figure!5.11C!Indeterminate!Shell!Pendant!from!!!!!Surface!Collection!(P.D.!0).!

!! !! ! Locus!2!had!the!highest!concentration!of!shells,!and!the!most!variety.!!One!of!

the!most!unique!shell!artifacts!was!found!in!the!surface!clearing!of!room!7!(P.D.!69),!

it!was!shaped!with!a!notch!in!the!base!and!it!is!labeled!as!a!mollusk!(Figure!5.12).!

Olivella!shell!beads!made!up!the!majority!of!the!specimens,!with!8!found!during!

surface!collection,!and!a!total!of!7!were!found!in!the!layers!of!Room!3.!!The!shell!

deposits!seem!to!concentrate!in!room!3;!1!Olivella!was!burned!and!came!from!the!

collapsed!roof!layer,!another!was!located!in!a!storage!pit!on!the!first!floor,!2!were!

found!in!the!fill!between!the!first!and!second!floors!and!two!more!were!found!

1"cm

! 130!

beneath!the!second!floor.!Also!found!in!room!3;!two!pieces!of!Glycymeris*shell!

bracelets!(Figure!5.12),!both!of!which!came!from!under!each!of!the!floors.!!!

!

!

Figure!5.12C!Shell!Pendant!and!Glycymeris*Bracelet!Fragments.!ACnotched!broken!mother!of!pearl!pendant!found!in!room!7!(P.D.!7).!!BCShell!bracelet!fragments!found!in!room!3!beneath!floors!1!and!2!(P.D.’s!94!and!154).!

!Two!Conus*sp.!shells!were!found!in!Locus!2,!both!partially!broken!with!the!

drilled!hole!intact!and!part!of!the!superior!edge!present.!!One!was!found!when!doing!

surface!clearing!above!room!10.!!The!other!(Figure!5.13)!was!found!just!under!the!

room!3!first!floor!surface!(P.D.!75),!and!was!possibly!ritually!deposited!as!part!of!the!

construction,!along!with!the!Olivella!beads!and!the!Glycymeris*shell!bracelet!

fragments!found!in!room!3.!!All!three!Nassarius*whole!shell!beads!(Figure!5.13)!

1"cm

1"cm

A B

! 131!

found!at!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!were!found!in!Locus!2,!this!species!is!much!less!

common!in!this!part!of!the!American!Southwest!than!the!olivella!shell!beads.!!Two!

were!found!in!room!3,!one!in!the!same!layer!(P.D.!75)!as!the!Conus*sp.!bead,!the!

other!was!found!in!the!main!support!posthole!fill!in!the!second!floor,!and!may!

represent!a!ritual!deposit.!!The!other!Nassarius*was!found!in!the!surface!clearing!

above!rooms!8,!9!and!4,!not!much!context!can!be!applied!to!this!specimen.!Four!

indeterminate!shell!disk!beads!(Figure!5.13)!were!found!in!PD!15!surface!collection!

(possibly!bone,!but!classified!as!shell)!along!with!a!small!shell!pendant.!!

The!midden!excavations!(Locus!3)!contained!9!shell!artifacts.!!There!were!2!

Conus*sp.*whole!shell!drilled!beads,!both!were!broken!and!had!multiple!cuts!near!

the!drilled!hole,!and!one!of!them!had!been!heavily!burned.!!Six!Olivella!shell!beads!

were!found,!and!curiously!5!of!them!were!still!in!good!shape,!which!again!suggests!

ritual!deposit.!!!There!was!also!1!small!indeterminate!disk!bead!as!well!as!1!

indeterminate!ribbed!shell!that!was!burned.!!!!

Since!shells!are!known!to!carry!prestige!value,!are!rare,!and!most!of!the!

shells!seemed!to!be!intentionally!sacrificed!(still!had!use!life!left!and!weren’t!

broken),!an!association!with!some!sort!of!ritual!is!inferred.!!The!shells!found!

associated!with!a!specific!layer!seem!to!be!placed!in!the!fabric!of!the!structure,!like!

in!the!roof!or!floors.!!The!still!usable!shells!in!the!midden!area!are!also!interesting!

because!middens!are!generally!associated!with!everyday!disposal!of!refuse!and!not!

! 132!

ritualized!disposal.!!In!addition!to!possible!ritual!practices,!these!shells!also!tell!us!

about!the!trade!networks!that!were!in!place.!!

!

!Figure!5.13C!Disk!and!Whole!Shell!Beads.!!Left,!indeterminate!shell!!disk!beads!found!together!(Locus!2,!P.D.!15).!Center,!Conus*sp.**whole!shell!bead!found!in!between!room!3!floors!(Locus!2,!P.D.!75).!!Right,!Nassarius*whole!shell!bead!found!beneath!room!3!floor!2!!(Locus!2,!P.D.!116).!

!!

(

Eggshell(

(

Eggshell!can!provide!evidence!of!diet,!and!has!been!used!to!infer!

domestication!of!turkeys!in!North!America!(Olsen!1972).!!The!68!eggshell!fragments!

have!tentatively!been!identified!as!turkey!(Meleagris*gallopavo)!based!on!the!

thickness!of!the!shell!and!the!broad!curvature!(Olsen!1972).!!Wild!turkeys!are!the!

largest!game!bird!in!the!country,!and!were!likely!available!to!the!inhabitants!of!

Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo.!The!eggshell!was!recovered!in!6!P.D.s!(Table!5.3)!and!the!

1cm

! 133!

entire!assemblage!of!eggshell!is!from!either!the!midden!or!room!3.!!Isolated!pieces!

were!found!in!the!midden,!along!with!a!gastrolith!(Figure!5.14),!and!when!combined!

with!the!presence!of!turkey!bones!in!the!zooarchaeological!assemblage!can!be!

interpreted!as!turkeys!and!their!eggs!were!used!as!food.!!

(

!

Figure!5.14C!Possible!Evidence!of!Turkeys.!The!gastrolith!was!found!in!the!midden!deposits.!!All!of!the!eggshells!seen!above!are!from!P.D.!95!(room!3!floor!fill),!it!though!to!represent!a!whole!egg!or!eggshell!from!a!whole!egg!deposited!in!the!floor!fill.!!!!

The!eggshells!found!in!room!3!seem!to!be!strategically!placed!below!the!

floors.!!Based!on!ethnographic!records,!turkeys!were!used!for!ceremonial!purposes!

such!as!prayer!sticks,!feather!robes,!headdresses,!or!glazes!(Beaglehole!1936;!Olsen!

1972;!Parsons!1939).!!Knowing!this,!and!noting!the!presence!of!shells!and!other!

ritually!important!artifacts,!it!is!hard!to!ignore!the!similarity!in!deposition.!!While!

1"cm

! 134!

most!of!the!recovered!eggshell!occurred!in!relatively!small!quantities,!the!shell!

recovered!from!the!floor!fill!(P.D.!94)!was!made!up!of!enough!pieces!for!a!complete!

or!nearly!complete!egg!(Figure!5.14).!!Also!a!chance!deposit!of!this!size!is!highly!

unlikely!especially!if!P.D.’s!75,!94!and!96!were!combined!as!a!single!floor!

preparation.!!The!eggshell!remains!found!at!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!and!the!

turkey!bones!found!in!the!general!vertebrate!assemblage!raises!the!question!of!

domestication.!!The!remains!present!are!not!enough!to!tell!if!the!turkeys!were!wild!

or!domestic,!the!remains!of!a!nearly!complete!egg!suggest!that!it!is!a!possibility!they!

were!domestic.!!Similar!artifacts!were!found!at!Madera!Quemada,!and!they!

hypothesize!that!they!were!domesticated!based!on!possible!turkey!pen!areas!(Miller!

and!Graves!2009).!

Table!5.3C!Recovered!Eggshell!by!Location!Locus( PD( FS( Room/(

Feature(

Taxon( Certainty( #(of(pieces(

Comments(

3! 42! 3! Midden! 138! 2! 1!White,!large!egg,!probable!turkey!

3! 54! 3! Midden! 138! 2! 3!

White,!large!egg,!probable!turkey,!*Gastrolith!also!

found!

2! 75! 44!Room!3,!between!floors!

138! 2! 2!White,!large!egg,!probable!turkey!

2! 94! 21!Room!3,!between!floors!

138! 2! 54!

White,!large!egg,!probable!turkey,!may!represent!a!

whole!egg!

2! 96! 24!Room!3,!between!floors!

138! 2! 6!White,!large!egg,!probable!turkey!

2! 99! 22!Room!3,!under!floor!2!

138! 2! 2!White,!large!egg,!probable!turkey!

! ! ! ! !Total=( 68(

!(

! 135!

Fossils(

(

(

! ! Only!five!fossils!were!recovered!from!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo,!these!

include!2!possible!shrimp!burrows,!1!crinoid!(Echinodermata)!segment,!1!unknown!

piece!of!coral,!and!1!brachiopod!(Figure!5.15).!!!All!of!these!fossils!can!be!found!in!

sedimentary!formations!throughout!the!region!(Miller!and!Graves!2009).!!Although!

the!fossils!could!be!found!in!the!area,!they!still!likely!held!a!significant!value!because!

they!are!uncommon!objects.!!Fossils!are!often!found!deposited!in!floor,!or!subfloor!

in!the!Jornada!area!(Miller!and!Graves!2009),!the!ritual!value!seems!to!be!associated!

with!either!construction!or!retirement!events,!and!many!times!they!have!evidence!

of!working!like!grinding!or!grooves.!!Unfortunately!the!fossils!found!at!Cottonwood!

Spring!Pueblo!were!not!directly!associated!with!any!deposits!of!this!type.!!Most!

were!found!in!the!surface!collection!above!rooms,!and!may!have!been!in!the!walls!

or!roof!deposits!but!this!association!cannot!be!established.!!It!is!also!important!to!

notice!that!no!sign!of!use!wear!was!seen!on!the!fossils.!!The!crinoid!stem!was!not!

drilled,!and!none!of!the!burrows!or!the!coral!seemed!to!have!use!wear!or!evidence!

of!grinding.!!The!brachiopod!may!have!been!worked!in!order!to!remove!the!

surrounding!rock,!but!specific!impact!points!cannot!be!identified.!!!!

!

! 136!

!Figure!5.15C!Fossils!Found!at!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo.!!(A.)!Fossil!crinoid!stem!segment,!undrilled,!found!in!surface!collection!above!room!3.!!(B.)!!Possible!shrimp!burrows!both!found!in!Locus!1!surface!collection.!!(C.)!!Brachiopod!found!in!surface!collection!above!rooms!8!and!9.!!(D.)!Unknown!fossil,!probably!coral!fragment,!found!in!surface!collection!in!the!Midden!area.!!!

!Secondary(Data(

Minimum*Number*of*Individuals*

The!minimum!number!of!individuals!(MNI)!is!used!to!assess!the!accuracy!of!

NISP!in!quantifying!relative!taxonomic!abundance.!!MNI!is!a!way!to!predict!the!

minimum!number!of!individuals!that!it!would!have!taken!to!create!the!assemblage!

based!on!body!part!frequency,!side!and!count.!!However!this!MNI!count!is!

misleading!because!it!is!not!trying!to!predict!the!actual!number!of!animals!who!

1"cm

1!cm

1"cm 1"cm

A

B

C

D

! 137!

make!up!this!assemblage,!but!rather!it!is!giving!a!relative!frequency!of!taxonomic!

abundance.!!When!calculated!for!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!assemblage,!and!a!

comparison!of!NISP!and!MNI!is!done!(Table!5.4)!it!reveals!that!they!maintain!roughly!

the!same!rank!order!with!both!methods!of!quantification.!*

!Table!!5.4C!NISP!and!MNI!of!Taxa!by!Taxonomic!Abundance!from!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!

Rank! NISP! MNI!

1! Lagomorphs!(980)! Lagomorphs!(59)!

2! Rodents!(182)! Rodents!(27)!3! Artiodactyls!(139)! Birds!(10)!

4! Carnivores!(32)! Artiodactyls!(6)!5! Birds!(25)! Carnivores!(4)!

6! Reptiles!(14)! Reptiles!(4)!

!!! ! There!are!a!few!discrepancies,!the!artiodactyl,!carnivore,!and!bird!categories!

are!in!slightly!different!order,!with!the!bird!category!jumping!up!two!places!when!

using!MNI.!!Possible!explanations!for!this!include!the!fact!that!NISP!underrepresents!

small!animals!(whose!bones!break!easily),!so!that!when!MNI!is!calculated!the!

estimated!relative!taxonomic!abundance!is!increased!because!some!skeletal!

elements!are!more!likely!to!survive.!!!Also!MNI!deflates!relative!taxonomic!

abundance!in!more!common!species!because!a!wider!variety!of!elements!is!more!

common!in!a!larger!sample!size,!and!while!some!are!likely!interdependent,!it!is!

improbably!that!all!or!most!would!be!(Lyman!2008:!46C47).!!!!

! ! When!differences!between!MNI!and!NISP!are!compared!to!Madera!Quemada!

(LA!91220,!a!small!El!Paso!Phase!Pueblo),!the!estimated!relative!taxonomic!

! 138!

abundances!follow!the!same!pattern!(Table!5.5)!with!high!frequencies!of!

Lagomorphs!and!Rodents!(Miller!and!Graves!2009:!292).!!The!fact!that!there!are!only!

four!rankings!for!NISP!and!3!for!MNI!is!a!reflection!of!the!small!sample!size,!although!

because!it!has!a!similar!ranking!order!as!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!I!expect!that!it!is!

a!good!estimate!of!relative!taxonomic!abundance.!!I!also!expect!that!the!small!

sample!sizes!of!taxonomic!groups!below!the!highest!rank!group!can!explain!why!

they!maintain!the!same!rank!order!unlike!the!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!data.!!!

!Table!5.5C!NISP!and!MNI!of!Estimated!Taxonomic!Abundance!from!Madera!Quemada!(Miller!and!Graves!2009)!Rank! NISP! Rank!! MNI!

1! Lagomorphs!(206)! 1! Lagomorphs!(8)!2! Rodents!(5)! 2! Rodents!(2)!2! Artiodactyl!(5)! 2! Artiodactyl!(2)!3! Reptiles!(3)! 3! Reptiles!(1)!4! Carnivores!(1)! 3! Carnivores!(1)!4! Bird!(1)! 3! Bird!(1)!

!

Percent!contribution!of!each!major!taxonomic!category!from!Cottonwood!

Spring!Pueblo!is!presented!below!(Figure!5.16).!!A!visual!comparison!shows!the!

significant!increase!between!percent!NISP!and!MNI!in!those!groups!with!a!low!NISP.!!

This!is!the!opposite!case!with!both!lagomorphs!and!artiodactyls!where!we!see!their!

relative!taxonomic!abundance!drop!with!MNI.!!Looking!at!these!two!measures!of!

relative!taxonomic!abundance!shows!that!lagomorphs,!and!rodents!consistently!

represent!the!most!frequently!occurring!animals,!and!that!they!were!likely!targeted!

prey!groups.!!

! 139!

!

!

Figure!5.16C!Percentage!of!MNI!and!NISP!as!Relative!Taxonomic!Abundance!at!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!

!Sample*Biomass*and*Dietary*Contribution!

!

Another!way!to!estimate!the!relative!taxonomic!abundance!or!dietary!

contribution!is!to!look!at!the!sample!biomass!of!certain!species!or!groups!of!animals.!

The!weight!of!the!entire!assemblage!by!major!taxonomic!group!(Figure!5.17)!shows!

both!artiodactyl!and!lagomorphs!make!up!a!significant!part!of!the!total!weight.!!!

These!percentages!were!calculated!using!methods!described!in!Chapter!4.!

Interpreting!this!further!is!not!very!valuable!because!one!bone!from!a!deer!could!

weigh!more!than!all!the!rodent!bones!combined,!it!skews!the!importance!of!taxa!in!

favor!of!larger!animals.!!However,!it!doesn’t!skew!it!as!much!as!using!MNI!and!whole!

animal!values!to!calculate!the!biomass.!!By!using!the!sample!biomass!all!vertebrate!

classes!are!integrated!into!a!dietary!regime!(Peres!2010:!28;!Reitz!et!al.!2010;!Reitz!

and!Wing!2008:!239).!!

0.0%! 20.0%! 40.0%! 60.0%! 80.0%! 100.0%!

Lagomorphs!

Rodents!!

Ar{odactyls!!

Carnivores!!

Birds!!

Rep{les!!

MNI!

NISP!

! 140!

!

Figure!5.17C!Calculated!Sample!Biomass!by!Major!Taxonomic!Groups!

!This!estimate!of!relative!taxonomic!abundance!from!sample!biomass!is!fairly!

different!from!the!NISP!in!that!artiodactyl!becomes!the!most!represented!with!an!

estimate!of!49%!of!relative!taxonomic!abundance!and!dietary!contribution,!but!

interestingly!the!lagomorphs!maintain!a!high!ranking!with!an!expected!contribution!

of!42%!(Figure!5.18).!!!

By!combining!three!different!measures!of!relative!taxonomic!abundance,!

NISP,!MNI!and!Sample!Biomass!a!more!accurate!picture!emerges.!!Looking!at!these!

three!measures!of!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!estimated!taxonomic!abundance!

reveals!the!over!all!importance!of!three!major!groups;!rodents!(combined!mice,!rats!

Lagomorphs!323.1!g!!42%!

Rodents!!21.5!g!!3%!

Ar{odactyls!378.9!g!!49%!

Carnivores!34.1!g!!5%!

Birds!!8.4!g!!1%!

Rep{les!!1.6!g!!0%!

! 141!

and!squirrels),!artiodactyls!(deer),!and!lagomorphs!(jackrabbits!and!cottontails).!!

These!three!taxonomic!groups!have!more!in!common!than!their!representation!in!

this!assemblage;!they!all!are!associated!with!increased!populations!in!human!

modified!environments.!

!

!Figure!5.18C!Percent!Estimated!Relative!Taxonomic!Abundance!for!NISP,!MNI!and!Sample!Biomass.!!(

Rodent*Index*(

(

The!rodent!index!calculated!for!the!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!is!.16.!!On!a!

scale!of!0!(no!rodents)!to!1!(all!rodents)!this!value!is!pretty!low.!!The!NISP!of!rodent!

bones,!does!indicate!they!were!common,!but!relative!to!Artiodactyls!and!

Lagomorphs,!they!were!not!a!targeted!species.!!The!number!does!indicate!that!the!

area!was!disturbed,!and!shows!that!although!this!taxonomic!group!was!more!

0%! 10%! 20%! 30%! 40%! 50%! 60%! 70%! 80%!

Lagomorphs!

Rodents!!

Ar{odactyls!!

Carnivores!!

Birds!!

Rep{les!!

Biomass!

MNI!

NISP!

! 142!

targeted!than!any!other!mammal!besides!lagomorph!and!deer,!comparatively!they!

were!not!the!focus!of!the!subsistence!or!hunting!strategies.!!

Comparing!these!values,!Madera!Quemada!rodent!index!values!are!much!

lower!(Table!5.6).!The!absence!of!rodents!is!the!result!of!either!avoidance!of!

available!food,!ecological!conditions!or!a!preservation!bias!(Miller!and!Graves!2009).!!

Since!rodents!are!a!known!food!source!throughout!the!region!it!is!not!likely!they!

were!avoided,!also!since!everything!was!screened!through!1/8’’!mesh!it!is!unlikely!

they!were!missed!when!excavating.!!This!leaves!an!ecological!reason,!and!as!Miller!

and!Graves!(2009)!state!that!based!on!the!size!of!the!pueblo!there!would!not!have!

been!a!large!amount!of!disturbed!areas.!!This!difference!between!large!areas!of!

occupation,!activity,!and!fields!would!have!supported!large!numbers!of!rodents,!

compared!to!the!limited!amount!of!disturbed!environment!surrounding!Madera!

Quemada.!

Table!5.6C!Comparisons!of!Indices!for!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!and!Madera!Quemada!!! Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo! Madera!Quemada!NISP! 3,551! 985!Rodent!Index! 0.16! 0.02!Artiodactyl!Index! 0.11! 0.02!Lagomorph!Index! 0.38! 0.46!Diversity!Index! 1.85! 1.42!Evenness!Index! 0.53! 0.49!(

*****

! 143!

Artiodactyl*Index*(

(

! ! The!artiodactyl!index!calculated!for!the!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!

assemblage!gives!a!value!of!.11.!This!shows!that!although!the!people!of!Cottonwood!

Spring!Pueblo!had!access!to!large!game,!they!were!not!as!frequently!hunted.!

However,!recalculating!the!artiodactyl!index!using!biomass!or!meat!weight!gives!a!

value!of!.5.!!This!value!shows!that!because!of!the!relative!percent!of!meat!

artiodactyls!contributed!it!is!likely!that!they!were!a!significant!part!of!the!

subsistence!strategy.!!The!artiodactyl!index!for!Madera!Quemada!is!.024,!much!

lower!than!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!(Table!5.6).!!This!difference!is!again!explained!

by!the!increased!presence!of!large!disturbed!areas.!!Deer!populations!are!known!to!

increase!around!disturbed!areas!such!as!farm!fields!and!other!domesticated!or!

modified!environments!(Linares!1976;!Yahner!1988).!!!

!Lagomorph*Index**

(

(

! ! The!high!NISP!(71.6%),!high!MNI!(53.6%)!and!the!high!biomass!(42%)!of!

leporids!emphasize!the!fact!that!the!lagomorph!index!is!an!important!piece!of!the!

puzzle!when!assessing!the!subsistence!practices!the!people!of!Cottonwood!Spring!

Pueblo!were!utilizing!in!order!to!survive!in!an!arid!environment.!!However,!only!a!

basic!interpretation!related!to!regional!environment!will!be!discussed!in!this!

chapter.!!!

! 144!

When!calculated!for!the!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!assemblage!the!

lagomorph!index!value!is!.38.!!This!shows!that!jackrabbits!make!up!the!majority!of!

the!assemblage,!but!that!cottontails!still!represent!almost!40%,!both!were!likely!a!

prey!focus,!especially!because!cottontails!were!generally!hunted!one!at!a!time!

where!as!jackrabbits!were!usually!hunted!in!large!numbers.!!This!value,!in!a!very!

general!sense,!supports!the!environmental!reconstruction!of!a!transitional!zone!

between!mountainous!highlands!and!low!basin!grasslands!because!of!known!

environmental!preferences!of!cottontails!and!jackrabbits.!!It!can!be!confidently!said!

that!the!environment!surrounding!the!pueblo!were!made!up!of!both!open!

grasslands!and!more!closed!with!denser!ground!cover.!!

This!index!is!a!good!comparative!value!because!it!is!calculated!extensively!

across!the!American!Southwest!and!is!easy!to!find!in!comparative!assemblages.!!The!

lagomorph!index!for!Madera!Quemada!is!.46!(Table!5.6),!indicating!that!there!was!a!

relatively!equal!emphasis!on!both!rabbit!species.!This!is!similar!to!Cottonwood!

Spring!Pueblo!in!that!they!hut!both!species!with!some!regularity,!however!this!

interpretation!does!not!include!the!effect!of!a!human!modified!microenvironment!

made!up!of!farm!fields!and!other!activity!areas!where!the!hunting!may!have!taken!

place.!The!hunting!of!cottontails!at!Madera!Quemada!was!probably!not!done!in!the!

disturbed!areas!because!they!were!small;!instead!they!likely!hunted!them!while!

foraging!for!plants!in!the!regional!environment.!!Based!on!the!fact!that!Cottonwood!

Spring!Pueblo!had!such!large!areas!of!intensely!human!modified!environments!it!is!

! 145!

hypothesized!that!at!least!a!portion!of!the!cottontails!they!were!hunting!would!be!

from!this!environment.!!To!what!degree!these!hunting!strategies!differed!between!

the!two!pueblos,!and!how!they!were!being!worked!into!their!other!subsistence!

strategies!will!be!discussed!in!the!following!chapter.!!As!well!as!how!the!stable!

carbon!isotope!values!of!jackrabbits!and!cottontails!will!factor!into!the!lagomorph!

index.!!!

(

Shannon(Weaver*Heterogeneity*and*Evenness*Indices*(

(

! ! One!method!of!assessing!variety!of!the!assemblage!(diet!breadth)!and!the!

degree!of!specialization!is!to!measure!the!diversity!and!equitability!of!the!species!

(Reitz!and!Wing!2008).!!By!measuring!these!two!variables!a!discussion!of!food!habits!

and!the!evenness!with!which!species!were!utilized!at!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!is!

possible.!!

! ! The!ShannonCWeaver!heterogeneity/diversity!index!of!1.85!is!a!moderately!

low!index!number!(usually!ranges!between!1!and!3.5)!(Lyman!2008).!!!This!value!is!

interpreted!as!a!low!diversity/variety!of!species!were!used!at!Cottonwood!Spring!

Pueblo!(Lyman!2008).!!

! ! The!ShannonCWeaver!Evenness!Index!was!calculated!using!the!ShannonC

Weaver!measure!of!diversity!in!order!to!assess!the!evenness!with!which!each!

species!is!represented.!!This!value!is!expressed!on!a!0C1!scale;!the!evenness!for!

Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!is!.53.!!This!value!is!almost!directly!in!the!middle!of!the!

! 146!

possible!values!of!1,!representing!equal!numbers!of!each!species!were!taken!

advantage!of,!and!0!representing!a!strategy!with!one!or!two!targeted!species.!The!

heterogeneity!and!evenness!values!of!1.85!and!.53!(respectively)!are!difficult!to!

reliably!interpret!further!without!comparatives.!!By!comparing!Cottonwood!Springs!

Values!to!the!Madera!Quemada!values!of!1.42!and!.49!suggests!that!they!were!not!

under!dietary!stress,!although!they!did!have!a!wider!diet!breadth!(Table!5.6).!!It!also!

shows!that!the!people!of!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!had!some!specialized!hunting!

strategies!but!not!as!specialized!as!Madera!Quemada.!!( !

! 147!

CHAPTER(6:(Results(of(Stable(Carbon(Isotope(Analysis(

!!

! ! My!goal!is!to!present!results!and!interpretation!of!stable!carbon!isotope!

ratios!found!in!the!bone!collagen!of!lagomorphs!in!order!to!better!define!the!

microenvironments!the!animals!are!living.!!Collagen!stable!carbon!isotope!values!

from!leporids!have!been!used!to!record!small!changes!in!the!environment!through!

time!(Kemp!2008;!Kemp!et!al.!2013;!Munoz!et!al.!2014;!Smith!et!al.!2014).!!I!

hypothesize!that!this!same!method!can!be!used!to!record!small!changes!in!the!

environments!present!on!the!landscape!at!one!time.!!!

(

Stable(Carbon(Isotope(Values(

(

(

After!running!32!samples!(Figure!6.1)!I!find!that!the!jackrabbit!(n=19)!stable!

carbon!isotope!values!(δ13C!0/00)!at!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!range!from!C19.59!0/00!!

to!C13.07!0/00.!!!The!cottontail!values!(n=13)!range!from!C18.940/00!to!C11.420/00.!!An!

average!of!15.92!0/00!for!jackrabbits!and!14.74!0/00!for!cottontails!suggests!that!

cottontails!had!a!diet!slightly!higher!in!C4!plants.!!However,!using!the!Fisher’s!least!

significant!difference!procedure,!this!difference!is!not!statistically!significant,!

meaning!that!these!two!groups!are!likely!to!come!from!the!same!sample.!!This!

observation!can!be!linked!to!the!lagomorph!index!of!.38,!in!that!because!there!are!

significant!numbers!of!both!species!it!represents!a!mixed!environment,!which!would!

also!explain!the!similarity!of!the!stable!carbon!isotope!values.!!!!

! 148!

!

!

!!!!!!!!!!Figure!6.1C!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!δ13C!Leporid!Collagen!Values.!!

!To!better!understand!how!to!interpret!these!values!they!will!be!compared!to!

the!modern!day!sites!of!Kerr!County!Texas!grasslands!(mesic!environment),!and!!

Tularosa!Basin!desert!grass/scrubland!(C4/CAM!vegetation)!(Smith!et!al.!2014).!!The!

Texas!grassland!samples!are!expected!to!have!more!of!the!preferred!C3!plants!

available!to!them!for!a!greater!portion!of!the!year!and!the!values!seen!are!

consistent!with!this!expectation!(Smith!et!al.!2014).!!The!leporids!from!the!Tularosa!

Basin!in!New!Mexico!live!in!a!desert!grass/scrubland!where!the!preferred!C3!plants!

are!only!available!for!a!short!period!of!time!(Gibbens!et!al.!1996).!!!After!the!

preferred!C3!plants!die!out!the!leporids!then!move!on!to!C4!grasses!and!succulents!

(CAM),!using!the!C3!woody!shrubs!for!fall!back!foods!during!the!driest!parts!of!the!

year!(Brown!1947;!Turkowski!1975;!Vorhies!and!Taylor!1933).!!This!shift!from!

preferred!C3!plants!to!C4!and!then!back!again!is!why!they!fall!to!the!right!of!the!Texas!

C10.0 C12.0 C14.0 C18.0 C20.0 C16.0

Cottonwood Spring-JackrabbitCottonwood Spring-Cottontail

Scatterplot by Sample

-20

-18

-16

-14

-12

-10

responseCottonwood Spring-JackrabbitCottonwood Spring-Cottontail

Scatterplot by Sample

-20

-18

-16

-14

-12

-10

response

Cottonwood Spring-JackrabbitCottonwood Spring-Cottontail

Scatterplot by Sample

-20

-18

-16

-14

-12

-10

response

!

Cottontail (Sylvilagus*sp.)

Jackrabbit) (Lepus&sp.)

δ13C"

0/00

n=19

n=13

! 149!

grassland!samples.!Additionally!the!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblos!values!are!

compared!with!those!of!Madera!Quemada,!a!contemporary!El!Paso!Phase!Pueblo,!

these!comparisons!can!be!seen!in!Figure!6.2!

!

!Figure!6.2C!Comparative!Leporid!Stable!Carbon!Isotope!Values.!Boxes!group!samples!collected!from!the!same!area.!Mean!values!are!represented!by!a!star,!and!differentiated!by!species!with!red!(jackrabbits)!and!blue!(cottontails).!!!!!

Upon!comparison,!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!and!Madera!Quemada!Pueblo!

leporid!stable!carbon!isotope!values!are!not!significantly!different!from!each!other!

(using!Fisher’s!least!significant!difference).!!This!is!to!be!expected!because!they!date!

to!the!same!time!period!and!are!in!the!same!regional!environment.!They!are!

significantly!different!from!both!of!the!modern!populations,!which!can!be!explained!

by!differences!in!the!regional!and!local!environments.!!The!environment!in!the!

Jornada!region!during!the!El!Paso!phase!was!more!similar!to!the!modern!Tularosa!

basin!in!terms!of!what!plants!it!supported!and!is!why!the!Tularosa!basin!was!chosen!

as!a!comparative!(Havstad!et!al.!2006;!Peters!et!al.!2015).!!!

δ13C"

0/00

A.Modern)Tularosa)Basin1Jackrabbit

A.Modern)Tularosa)Basin1Cottontail

A.Texas)Graslands1Jackrabbits

A.Texas)Grasslands1Cottontails

Cottonwood)Spring1Jackrabbit

Cottonwood)Spring1Cottontail

A.Madera)Quemada1Jackrabbits

A.Madera)Quemada1Cottontails

Box1and1Whisker)Plot

125 121 117 113 19response

!

C14.0 C12.0 C10.0 C18.0 C16.0 C22.0 C26.0 C20.0

!!

!!

!!!

!

Modern!Tularosa!BasinC!Jackrabbit Modern!Tularosa!BasinC!Cottontail Modern!Texas!Grassland!Jackrabbit Modern!Texas!GrasslandC!Cottontail Cottonwood!SpringC!Jackrabbit Cottonwood!SpringC!Cottontail Madera!QuemadaC!Jackrabbit Madera!QuemadaC!Cottontail

!

!

!

!

! 150!

Using!historical!accounts!of!the!water!table,!tree!rings,!and!ice!cores!suggests!

that!the!environment!during!the!El!Paso!Phase!on!average!received!more!yearly!

precipitation!and!had!higher!water!content!in!the!soil!(D’Arrigo!et!al.!2006;!GrissinoC

Mayer!et!al.!1997).!Also!it!has!been!noted!by!Brunelle!et!al.!(2013)!that!the!woody!

plant!encroachment!over!the!last!200!years!into!a!scrubland!is!unprecedented!over!

the!last!5,500!years!and!not!related!to!drought.!!Even!in!the!drought!years!the!

leporids!wouldn’t!have!had!the!C3!levels!the!modern!population!have.!The!more!

mesic!environment!means!that!the!preferred!C3!plants!would!have!still!had!a!limited!

availability!(based!on!the!seasonal!patterns!of!rainfall),!but!that!the!increased!

moisture!in!the!ground!could!support!the!grasslands!for!a!greater!portion!of!the!

year.!!This!would!help!the!leporids!avoid!the!woody!less!desirable!C3!plants!for!

longer!than!their!modern!day!counter!parts.!The!changes!in!environment!can!explain!

why!the!archaeological!samples!are!less!negative!than!the!modernCday!samples.!!

Another!explanation!for!the!overall!C4!signatures!(less!negative)!could!be!related!to!

the!presence!of!microenvironments!such!as!occupation!areas!and!fields.!!!

! ! Taking!a!closer!look!at!the!trends!in!distribution!between!jackrabbits!and!

cottontails!(Figure!6.3)!found!in!the!same!environment!showed!a!pattern!of!elevated!

preference!for!C3!plants!is!seen!in!cottontails!(Kemp!et!al.!2013;!Smith!et!al.!2014).!!

This!probably!reflects!the!fact!that!cottontails!are!found!in!areas!with!more!ground!

cover!and!the!available!vegetation!in!these!areas!is!more!frequently!C3!(Kemp!et!al.!

2013).!!

! 151!

One!of!the!most!interesting!differences!between!the!Cottonwood!Spring!

Pueblo!data!and!all!of!the!comparatives!is!the!proportional!differences!between!

cottontail!and!jackrabbit.!!The!trend!is!that!jackrabbits!tend!to!focus!on!C4!plants!

regardless!of!the!environment!they!live!in!but!the!difference!in!observed!dietary!

preference!at!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!is!that!cottontails!have!more!C4!in!their!

diet!(Figure!6.3).!!!

!!

!Figure!6.3C!Cottontails!Preference!for!C3!Plants!Across!Environments.!!Differences!between!medians!seen!in!orange,!differences!between!mean!seen!in!yellow.!!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!(red!box)!does!not!fit!this!trend;!instead!cottontails!are!more!heavily!skewed!toward!a!C4!diet.!!!

!Interpretations(

I!propose!that!this!difference!is!indicating!separate!hunting!grounds!for!

cottontails!and!jackrabbits.!!This!is!in!line!with!what!is!known!about!preferred!

habitat!for!each!of!the!species!as!well!as!the!knowledge!that!different!hunting!

methods!are!used!for!each.!The!jackrabbit!δ13C!signatures!are!consistent!with!what!

δ13C"

0/00

A.Modern)Tularosa)Basin1Jackrabbit

A.Modern)Tularosa)Basin1Cottontail

A.Texas)Graslands1Jackrabbits

A.Texas)Grasslands1Cottontails

Cottonwood)Spring1Jackrabbit

Cottonwood)Spring1Cottontail

A.Madera)Quemada1Jackrabbits

A.Madera)Quemada1Cottontails

Box1and1Whisker)Plot

125 121 117 113 19response

!

C14.0 C12.0 C10.0 C18.0 C16.0 C22.0 C26.0 C20.0

!!

!!

!!!

!

Modern!Tularosa!BasinC!Jackrabbit Modern!Tularosa!BasinC!Cottontail Modern!Texas!Grassland!Jackrabbit Modern!Texas!GrasslandC!Cottontail Cottonwood!SpringC!Jackrabbit Cottonwood!SpringC!Cottontail Madera!QuemadaC!Jackrabbit Madera!QuemadaC!Cottontail

!!

! 152!

would!be!expected!for!those!hunted!through!rabbit!drives!out!on!the!less!modified!

regional!environment.!!They!are!more!C4!heavy!than!those!from!the!Tularosa!basin!

modern!samples,!because!they!do!not!need!to!use!the!woody!C3!plant!as!fall!back!

food.!!Also!they!are!more!C3!skewed!than!those!found!in!Madera!Quemada,!this!

reflects!the!differences!between!living!on!a!transition!zone!between!highland!and!

lowland!environments!as!opposed!to!Madera!Quemada!located!on!the!basin!floor!

(dominated!by!grass/scrublands).!!!

The!strong!C4,!δ13C!values!the!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!cottontails!show!

can!be!explained!by!the!size!of!the!human!modified!environment!surrounding!the!

pueblos!(specifically!the!farm!fields).!!Madera!Quemada!(~13!rooms)!probably!had!

some!reliance!on!horticulture,!based!on!the!recovered!remains!of!corn!and!beans!

(Miller!and!Graves!2009).!!However,!based!on!the!size!we!can!infer!that!the!fields!

were!relatively!small!compared!to!those!of!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo.!!Cottonwood!

Spring!Pueblo,!with!an!estimated!200!rooms!at!the!main!pueblo!as!well!as!4!other!

identified!structures!down!in!the!draw,!would!have!had!a!much!bigger!impact!on!the!

landscape!creating!a!large!microenvironment!made!up!of!the!occupation!areas!in!

addition!to!the!large!fields!needed!to!support!such!a!population!(Kemrer!2008,!

2011;!Lekson!and!Rorex!1987;!Walker!et!al.!2012).!!!

The!cottontails!hunted!in!the!fields!of!Madera!Quemada!would!pattern!

similarly!to!those!found!in!the!less!modified!regional!environment!because!the!fields!

would!not!have!been!large!enough!to!support!a!continual!population.!!The!

! 153!

cottontails!would!have!been!attracted!by!the!fields!of!corn!and!other!edible!C4!

plants!like!amaranth!and!purslane,!but!only!as!a!secondary!opportunity!to!the!

surrounding!environment.!In!this!case!the!lagomorph!index!of!Madera!Quemada!

(.46)!seems!to!be!an!indication!of!the!small!size!of!the!pueblo,!rather!than!the!

elevation!or!heavy!reliance!on!garden!hunting!(Dean!2007b;!Szuter!1984).!!The!

heavy!representation!of!C4!in!the!cottontails!and!the!jackrabbits!is!probably!related!

to!increased!rainfall!in!the!desert!grass/scrubland!environment.!!A!blend!of!solitary!

and!communal!hunting!strategies!was!likely!used!at!Madera!Quemada!using!the!

index!and!known!hunting!method!for!each!species.!!The!species!are!nearly!equal!in!

representation!and!because!of!the!method!in!which!they!were!hunted!it!seems!that!

solitary!hunting!while!doing!other!things!like!gathering!wild!plants!was!the!main!

hunting!strategy.!!This!is!because!it!would!take!many!more!hunting!events!to!match!

the!number!of!jackrabbits!taken!with!only!a!few!rabbit!drives.!!

Although!both!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!and!Madera!Quemada!likely!had!

similar!types!of!resources!available!to!them!in!the!area,!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!

represents!a!very!different!situation.!!The!heavier!C4!plant!signatures!found!in!the!

cottontail!rabbits!suggest!that!they!were!being!hunted!in!an!environment!with!lots!

of!preferred!C4!!plants.!!This!supports!the!hypothesis!that!the!cottontail!rabbits!were!

living!and!hunted!in!the!microenvironment!created!by!cornfields!and!activity!areas!

where!corn!and!wild!resources!such!as!amaranth!and!purslane!were!grown.!Such!a!

large!microenvironment!created!by!the!people!of!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!not!

! 154!

only!created!the!bait!to!attract!a!prey!resource!but!also!created!a!healthy,!

renewable,!local!resource!to!take!advantage.!!!!

Bringing!the!lagomorph!index!for!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!of!.38!back!into!

the!picture,!Dean’s!(2001)!model!of!lagomorph!frequencies!predict!that!Cottonwood!

Spring!Pueblo!will!fall!into!the!.25C.30!range.!!!The!predicted!value!was!calculated!

using!a!number!of!factors,!altitude,!location!on!an!ethereal!(non!permanent)!

watercourse,!and!size!settlement.!The!frequency!with!which!cottontails!were!hunted!

(more!than!expected),!suggest!that!additional!factors!are!at!play.!A!mixed!diet!and!

high!variation!suggest!that!individual!cottontails!may!have!been!hunted!

opportunistically!whether!they!were!found!in!the!less!modified!regional!

environment!or!in!the!heavily!modified!garden!and!occupation!areas!(DeNiro!and!

Epstein!1978;!Phillips!and!Gregg!2003).!!!

!Figure!6.4C!Stable!Carbon!Isotope!Values!for!Cottontails.!!!

<recovered>.Modern Tularosa Basin-Cotton

<recovered>.Texas Grasslands-Cottontails

Cottonwood Spring-Cottontail

<recovered>.Madera Quemada-Cottontails

Scatterplot by Sample

-25

-22

-19

-16

-13

-10

response

!

! ! ! ! ! !

! !! !! ! !

!

! !!! !

! !! !! ! !! !!!! !

!! !! !!! !

C22.0 C25.0 C19.0 C16.0 C13.0 C10.0

Madera&Quemada

Cottonwood'Spring'

Texas&Grassland

Tularosa(Basin

δ13C"

0/00

! 155!

!! ! The!widely!distributed!values!of!Madera!Quemada!compared!to!the!same!

spread!but!more!fluid!distribution!of!the!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!values!can!be!

interpreted!as!a!more!regular!and!consistent!hunting!pattern.!!The!distribution!

values!are!affected!by!the!increased!hunting!of!cottontails!in!the!preferred!C4!(corn)!

environment,!but!the!pattern!is!consistent!with!the!modern!samples!in!that!it!seems!

to!represent!a!more!consistent!variation.!!!

The!cottontail!and!jackrabbit!stable!carbon!isotope!values!along!with!the!

environmental!reconstruction!and!ethnographic!evidence!of!hunting!methods!gives!

more!weight!to!the!lagomorph!index!and!the!possible!interpretation!that!can!be!

made!from!it.!!For!example!the!overall!diet!of!both!species!provides!evidence!of!the!

highest!proportions!of!preferred!C3!plants!available!as!well!as!the!highest!

proportions!of!preferred!C4!plants!in!the!environment!(Figure!6.5).!!In!this!

application!distinctive!carbon!isotope!signatures!of!δ13C!in!various!food!sources!(C3!

or!C4/CAM)!can!be!used!to!determine!their!relative!contribution!to!the!lagomorphs!

diet!(Phillips!and!Gregg!2003).!!If!this!information!is!combined!with!the!estimates!of!

jackrabbit!to!cottontail!it!can!act!as!a!reliable!measure!of!the!environment.!!The!

lagomorph!index!is!a!strong!measure!of!solitary!versus!group!hunting!strategies,!but!

does!not!measure!under!what!circumstances!these!strategies!are!applied.!!By!

incorporating!expected!stable!carbon!isotope!values!for!different!environments!this!

can!reliably!be!measured.!!

! 156!

!

!!Figure!6.5C!Estimated!C4!Plant!Contribution!to!Total!Diet.!!These!numbers!are!a!rough!estimates!calculated!using!a!formula!for!2!sources!(C3,!and!C4)!method!designed!by!Phillips!and!Gregg!(2003).!Estimates!of!highest!possible!C4!plant!contributions!to!the!diet!indicated!in!green,!lowest!possible!indicated!in!red.!!! !

Although!researchers!have!tried!to!use!the!lagomorph!index!as!a!measure!of!

the!commitment!to!farming!and!other!subsistence!strategies!related!to!innovation,!

it!is!a!poor!measure.!!However,!by!looking!at!the!distribution!pattern!and!range!of!

values!when!compared!to!expected!values!it!is!possible!to!determine!the!focus!of!

these!various!hunting!strategies!that!can!then!be!related!back!to!known!information!

about!the!settlement!size!and!cultural!adaptions.!!!!

! !

Tularosa B

asinT

exas Grassland

Cottonw

ood Spring

Madera Q

uemada

Scatterplot by S

ample

-20 10 40 70

100

130

response

Tularosa(Basin

Texas&Grassland

Cottonwood'Spring

Madera&Quemada

%"C4!Diet

C20% 100% 130% 70% 40% 10%

!

!

!

!

Highest!percentage!of!C4!!plants!in!diet

!

!

!

!

Lowest!%!of!C4!plants!in!diet

! 157!

CHAPTER(7:(Discussion(

(

(

! ! The!purpose!of!this!chapter!is!to!discuss!how!the!results!of!the!

zooarchaeological!analysis!and!the!stable!carbon!isotopes!of!the!leporids!support!or!

fail!to!support!my!hypothesis!that!prey!animals!were!hunted!in!the!intentionally!

modified!environment!surrounding!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo.!!I!found!that!this!

assemblage!was!dominated!by!mammals!(~98%),!followed!by!birds!(~2%),!and!finally!

reptiles!(~.5%).!!This!estimated!relative!taxonomic!abundance!is!in!line!with!what!is!

expected!based!on!estimated!relative!taxonomic!abundance!found!in!other!Jornada!

El!Paso!Phase!Pueblos!(Miller!and!Graves!2009).!!!

By!combining!three!different!measures!of!relative!taxonomic!abundance,!

NISP,!MNI!and!Sample!Biomass!a!more!accurate!picture!emerges.!!Looking!at!these!

three!measures!of!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!estimated!taxonomic!abundance!

reveals!the!over!all!importance!of!three!major!groups;!rodents!(combined!mice,!rats!

and!squirrels),!artiodactyls!(deer),!and!lagomorphs!(jackrabbits!and!cottontails).!!

When!compared!to!Madera!Quemada!the!differences!in!ratios!of!

lagomorphs,!deer,!and!rodents!are!interesting!to!note.!!The!Madera!Quemada!

assemblage!is!heavily!dominated!by!lagomorphs!with!93%!where!as!Cottonwood!

Spring!Pueblo!only!has!71!%!(Table!7.1).!!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!also!had!a!much!

higher!percentage!of!artiodactyl!and!rodents!remains.!!The!high!frequency!of!both!

these!mammal!categories!supports!the!hypothesis!that!garden!hunting!was!a!major!

! 158!

part!of!the!subsistence!strategy!employed!by!the!people!of!Cottonwood!Spring!

Pueblo.!!This!is!because!both!taxonomic!groups!have!been!associated!with!higher!

populations!in!and!around!intensely!human!modified!microenvironments!as!well!as!

linked!to!horticultural!subsistence!practices!through!ethnographies!(Beaglehole!

1936;!Cushing!1920;!Dean!2001;!Linares!1976;!Lupo!and!Schmitt!2002;!Pelikan!and!

Nesvadbova!1979;!Powell!1977;!Shaffer!1992b;!Szuter!1991).!!!

!Table!7.1C!Relative!Taxonomic!Abundance!Compared!Between!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!and!Madera!Quemada!!! Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo! Madera!Quemada!Lagomorphs! 71.6%! 93.2%!Rodents! 13.2%! 2.3%!Artiodactyl! 10.1%! 2.3%!Carnivore! 2.3%! 0.5%!Bird! 1.8%! 0.5%!Reptile! 1.0%! 1.4%!

!

This!difference!between!Madera!Quemada!and!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!

supports!the!hypothesis!that!the!people!of!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!were!hunting!

in!an!intentionally!created!microenvironment!made!up!of!occupation!areas,!farm!

fields,!and!the!domesticated!environment!surrounding!the!pueblo.!The!larger!

disturbed!areas!and!farm!fields!of!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!supported!higher!

levels!of!rodent!populations!than!Madera!Quemada.!The!rodent!indexes!for!

Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!and!Madera!Quemada!of!.16!and!.02!(respectively)!

support!this!view.!!Also!the!artiodactyl!indexes!of!.11!and!.02!support!the!idea!that!

! 159!

large!disturbed!areas!created!more!edge!zones!that!attracted!the!deer!providing!

access!to!large!game!(Linares!1976;!Yahner!1988;!Yen!1989).!!

!

Figure!7.1C!Major!Taxonomic!Categories!Common!to!Regional!Environment!Surrounding!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo.!Taxonomic!categories!noted!in!red!are!known!to!live!in!human!modified!environments!often!with!higher!populations.!Animals!shown!in!yellow!are!attracted!to!human!environments!but!tend!to!stick!to!the!margins.!Animals!in!purple!tend!to!avoid!human!modified!environments,!and!are!very!shy.!!

The!relative!taxonomic!abundance!of!the!whole!assemblage!also!supports!

the!gardenChunting!hypothesis.!!Using!Linares’!(1976)!definitions!of!animal!behavior!

the!species!present!in!the!regional!environment!were!categorized!as!either!animals!

!

Higher!Populations!live!in!human!modified!environments! Attracted!to!human!modified!environments!but!live!in!marginal!environment Avoid!human!modified!environments !

!

!

Jackrabbit

Quail

Deer

Skunk

Coyote

Grey!Fox

Bighorn!Sheep

Seed!Birds

Ground!Squirrel!

Mice

Cottontail

Mountain!Lion

Bob!Cat

Prong!Horn

Turkeys

Small!Lizards

Wood!Rat

Red!Fox

Turtles!and!

Tortoises

Snakes

Badger Road Runner

! 160!

that!avoid!disturbed!areas!(purple),!those!that!live!around!the!margin!(yellow),!and!

those!that!are!attracted!to!intensely!modified!environments!(red)!(Figure!7.1).!!

Often!the!populations!of!these!types!of!animals!(red!and!yellow)!were!

increased!when!associated!with!human!modified!environments!because!of!the!food!

resources!created!by!fields!and!refuse.!!When!looked!at!together,!the!animals!that!

are!associated!with!garden!hunting!make!up!99%!of!the!assemblage!(Table!7.2).!!

While!it!is!highly!unlikely!that!they!were!all!hunted!in!the!gardens,!the!low!

representation!of!the!shy!animals!that!avoid!human!disturbances!is!evidence!they!

weren’t!focusing!their!efforts!in!relatively!unmodified!environments.!!They!focused!

on!the!types!of!animals!that!are!attracted!to!intensely!modified!environments.!!

Table!7.2C!Relative!Taxonomic!Abundance!of!Garden!Hunted!Animals!Squirrels! 2.92%!

40.64%!

Pocket!Gophers!and!Mice! 9.21%!Cotton!Rat! 0.15%!Quail! 0.82%!Perching!Birds! 0.15%!Pigeons,!Doves! 0.15%!Desert!Cottontail! 27.25%!Blacktail!Jackrabbit! 44.31%!

58.91%!

Deer!and!Pronghorn!Antelope! 10.40%!Dogs!and!Foxes! 2.40%!Western!Ornate!Box!Turtle! 0.90%!Wild!Turkey!&!Domestic!Turkey! 0.22%!Bird!of!Prey! 0.45%!Blacktail!Prairie!Dog! 0.07%!Lizards! 0.15%!Woodrat! 0.37%!

0.45%!Ducks,!Geese,!Swans,!&!Waterfowl! 0.07%!

!

! 161!

The!fact!that!the!lagomorphs!are!well!represented!is!to!be!expected!given!

the!surrounding!environment!resources,!ethnographic!evidence!of!hunting!

strategies,!and!zooarchaeological!evidence!from!other!Jornada!El!Paso!Phase!

pueblos!(French!et!al.!1965;!Higgins!and!Railey!2002;!Lightfoot!et!al.!2011;!Steward!

1938).!!However!because!they!are!so!frequent!throughout!the!region!and!in!

ethnographic!literature!it!cannot!be!linked!at!this!point!to!any!one!factor!such!as!

garden!hunting.!!The!high!NISP!(71.6%),!high!MNI!(53.6%)!and!the!high!biomass!

(42%)!of!leporids!emphasize!the!fact!that!the!lagomorph!index!is!an!important!piece!

of!the!puzzle!when!assessing!the!subsistence!practices!the!people!of!Cottonwood!

Spring!Pueblo!were!utilizing!in!order!to!survive!in!an!arid!environment.!!However,!

only!a!basic!interpretation!related!to!regional!environment!and!probable!hunting!

methods!can!be!predicted!based!on!the!lagomorph!index.!!!

! ! When!the!lagomorph!index!and!the!stable!carbon!isotope!values!of!the!

leporid!bones!were!combined!they!produce!a!stronger!method!for!interpreting!the!

lagomorph!index!and!what!factors!it!is!measuring.!!The!overall!increase!in!C4!plant!in!

the!diet!of!lagomorphs!found!at!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!and!the!lagomorph!

index!indicating!higher!numbers!of!jackrabbit!supported!the!idea!that!Cottonwood!

Spring!Pueblo!had!large!amounts!of!cleared!and!domesticated!land.!!The!higher!

levels!of!C4!would!be!due!to!the!crops!of!corn,!and!the!encouraged!amaranth!and!

purslane!that!have!been!documented!as!targeted!plant!species!(Cordell!1984).!!!

! 162!

! ! The!increased!C4!signature!found!in!cottontails!relative!to!the!jackrabbits!(an!

opposite!relationship!than!is!expected),!supports!the!idea!that!they!were!being!

hunted!in!different!environments.!The!opposite!relation!of!jackrabbits!and!

cottontails!in!their!dietary!signatures!when!looking!at!modern!day!values!and!the!

archaeological!values!shows!that!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!and!the!surrounding!

environment!was!different!from!the!other!comparatives.!!Cottonwood!Spring!

Pueblo,!unlike!the!comparatives!was!expected!to!have!large!areas!of!intensively!

modified!environment!because!of!the!large!population!that!would!have!been!living!

there.!!Madera!Quemada!did!not!exhibit!the!trend!of!different!hunting!grounds!for!

each!of!the!leporids,!and!supports!the!idea!that!small!populations!did!not!need!to!

adopt!the!garden!hunting!strategy.!!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!was!able!to!support!

such!as!large!population!because!they!used!a!subsistence!strategy!that!combined!

the!benefits!of!growing!domesticated!crops!to!store,!and!changing!the!vegetative!

community!to!attract!animals!increasing!the!available!biomass!the!local!

environment!could!support.!!

! ! The!Madera!Quemada!lagomorph!index!(.46)!and!the!distribution!of!stable!

carbon!isotopes!found!in!the!lagomorph!bones!shows!that!they!were!depending!

mostly!on!foraging!on!the!landscape!for!wild!plants.!!The!near!equal!representation!

of!jackrabbits!and!cottontails!plus!the!similar!distribution!of!values!between!species!

suggest!that!they!were!doing!a!lot!of!individual!hunting!while!foraging.!!Where!as!

the!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!lagomorph!index!and!differences!in!stable!carbon!

! 163!

isotopes!indicate!they!were!doing!a!fair!amount!of!individual!hunting!of!cottontails!

while!tending!the!garden,!and!mostly!practiced!large!group!hunting!on!the!

surrounding!landscape.!!!

The!results!of!the!zooarchaeological!analysis!of!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!

helped!to!support!hypotheses!about!the!regional!environment,!general!expectations!

about!the!types!of!animals!they!were!hunting,!and!the!subsistence!strategies!that!

were!used.!!The!zooarchaeological!assemblage!and!the!isotopic!signatures!

supported!the!hypotheses!that!a!large!horticultural!village!was!able!to!thrive!in!an!

arid!environment!because!they!had!a!diversity!of!subsistence!strategies.!This!

suggests!that!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!offers!a!window!into!large!populations!

adapting!to!an!arid!environment!and!the!innovative!and!additive!strategies!they!

implement.!!These!strategies!included!hunting!animals!found!in!the!gardens!and!

around!the!pueblo!as!well!as!those!found!on!the!landscape.!!However!most!of!the!

measures!of!changing!strategies!and!environment!archaeologists!use!are!too!coarseC

grained!to!really!understand!the!adaptive!decisions!that!are!made!yearCtoCyear!and!

seasonCtoCseason!and!cannot!separate!the!additive!strategies!people!are!using.!

The!lagomorph!index!without!the!stable!carbon!isotope!values!was!unable!to!

identify!differences!in!both!leporid!and!human!behavior,!and!the!predatory!

strategies!that!were!implements!based!on!species.!!This!index!is!a!good!comparative!

value!because!it!is!calculated!extensively!across!the!southwest!and!so!the!value!is!

easy!to!find!in!comparative!assemblage.!!Although!given!the!increased!confidence!is!

! 164!

determining!what!the!lagomorph!index!was!measuring!I!think!it!is!important!to!

combine!these!values.!!I!would!like!to!see!the!joint!application!of!these!two!

measures!regularly!incorporated!in!zooarchaeological!analysis!where!the!lagomorph!

index!is!regularly!used.!!

!!

(

( (

! 165!

(

CHAPTER(8:(Conclusion(

!The!variety!of!zooarchaeological!remains!at!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo,!is!

consistent!with!the!environmental!reconstruction,!and!provided!an!estimate!of!the!

relative!taxonomic!abundance!of!various!animals!or!groups!of!animals!present!in!the!

environment.!!Using!the!zooarchaeological!assemblage!coupled!with!the!predatorC

prey!theory!it!was!shown!that!a!variety!of!predatory!behaviors!were!employed!in!

order!to!take!advantage!of!exploitable!resources!found!in!highland,!lowland,!and!

intentionally!modified!environments!and!this!combination!was!used!to!support!the!

climax!in!population!aggregation!seen!at!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo.!!

Abundance!of!targeted!species!(lagomorphs,!artiodactyls!and!rodents)!as!

well!as!the!micro!and!regional!environment!coupled!with!the!large!settlement!size,!

show!that!resource!depression!was!probably!not!an!issue.!!The!taxonomic!

abundance!also!indicated!that!the!people!of!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!were!heavily!

dependent!on!certain!kinds!of!animals!who!would!live!in!and!around!the!

microenvironment!created!by!the!village.!!However,!because!these!animals!are!

located!in!the!natural!environment!as!well,!it!cannot!be!said!that!they!were!only!

hunted!in!close!proximity!to!the!village!leaving!a!number!of!different!blends!of!

possible!subsistence!strategies!unaccounted!for.!!!The!predatorCprey!model!suggests!

that!this!environment!was!an!opportunity!to!use!a!range!of!subsistence!strategies!in!

! 166!

order!to!best!use!the!resources!and!increase!the!carrying!capacity,!but!further!

interpretation!is!difficult.!!!

While!taxonomic!abundances!and!zooarchaeological!indices!are!valuable!

tools,!they!cannot!always!be!linked!to!the!various!factors!both!natural!and!

anthropologic!that!influence!zooarchaeological!assemblages.!The!object!here!was!to!

apply!more!robust!and!objective!methodologies!for!identifying!the!contribution!of!

garden!hunted!animals!and!wild!hunted!game!to!measure!dependence!on!

horticultural!related!strategies.!!Such!a!distinction!has!proven!difficult!through!

estimated!taxonomic!abundances!and!animal!indices!such!as!the!lagomorph!and!

rodent!indexes!alone,!this!is!why!I!would!like!to!see!the!use!of!the!lagomorph!index!

more!regularly!coupled!with!stable!carbon!isotopes,!it!will!help!to!clarify!exactly!

what!factors!are!affecting!the!numbers!of!jackrabbits!and!cottontails!found!at!a!site.!!

Especially!in!an!arid!environment!where!small!mammals!like!rabbits!are!the!most!

common!source!of!prey.!!

Interpretation!of!the!lagomorph!index!coupled!with!stable!carbon!isotope!

values!has!reinforced!the!environmental!reconstruction,!and!subtleties!of!the!

environment!such!as!such!as!bordering!two!environmental!zones.!!It!has!indicated!

that!the!people!of!Cottonwood!Spring!Pueblo!were!utilizing!both!the!increased!

resources!attracted!to!the!anthropogenic!environments!and!taking!advantage!of!

animals!available!to!be!hunted!in!the!regional!environment.!Further!interpretation!

suggests!that!circumstances!under!which!the!people!of!the!Jornada!switched!to!an!

! 167!

horticulture!dependent!way!of!life!were!that!the!people!had!the!potential!to!benefit!

from!plant!resources!grown!in!the!fields!and!the!animal!resources!that!could!be!

attracted/grown!in!the!same!fields.!!This!subsistence!strategy!is!an!interesting!blend!

of!true!domestication!of!one!species!(corn!or!beans)!and!the!domestication!of!the!

environment!(increased!concentrations!of!both!wild!plants!and!animals).!!The!stable!

carbon!isotope!values!of!the!leporids!also!suggest!that!these!people!were!not!solely!

dependent!on!the!strategies!related!to!the!adoption!of!agriculture,!but!rather!

continued!to!use!the!regional!environmental!resources.!In!the!case!of!Cottonwood!

Spring!Pueblo!(and!other!large!pueblos!in!the!region)!this!included!settling!between!

two!ecological!zones!to!maximize!potential!resources.!!Following!this!trend!of!

increasing!resource!potential!by!increasing!the!number!of!different!ecological!areas!

or!habitats!in!proximity!to!the!settlement,!the!intentionally!human!modified!

environment!represented!a!third!ecosystem!to!take!advantage!of.!!!

Future!research!will!have!several!directions.!!It!will!focus!on!identifying!

temporal!differences!in!terms!of!droughtCinduced!focus!on!certain!ecosystem!

populations!or!subsistence!strategies.!!To!do!this,!better!temporal!distinctions!need!

to!be!made!between!architectural!components!and!their!associated!fauna.!!Another!

focus!will!be!to!include!other!animals!in!the!stable!carbon!isotope!data!sets.!!

Artiodactyl!values!for!example!would!indicate!whether!or!not!the!hunted!population!

was!also!being!attracted!to!and!fed!by!the!agricultural!fields,!as!opposed!to!

opportunistically!hunted!on!the!landscape!or!through!mobile!hunting!parties.!

! 168!

Additional!calculations!of!whole!diet!values!and!fractionation!that!results!in!the!

observed!stable!carbon!isotope!value!in!the!bone!collagen!through!known!

differences!in!trophic!levels,!archaeological!specimens!and!modern!specimens,!type!

of!tissue,!effects!sunlight!and!temperature!have!on!the!plant!values!will!provide!a!

much!more!accurate!representation!of!individuals!diet.!!!Refinement!of!the!

estimated!contribution!by!separation!of!the!three!sources!(C3,!C4,!and!CAM)!of!

different!stable!carbon!isotope!values!using!linear!mixing!models!will!also!help!to!

understand!the!dynamics!of!this!changing!desert!ecosystem.!!Also!the!incorporation!

of!other!stable!isotopes!such!as!Nitrogen,!Oxygen,!and!Strontium!has!potential!

applications!such!as!determining!changes!in!temperature!and!migration!patterns.!!!

! ! Stable!carbon!isotopes!is!one!of!the!increasingly!important!tools!

archaeologist!have!for!giving!meaning!to!the!archaeological!record,!however!it!is!

often!interpreted!with!the!focus!on!interpreting!the!environment.!!!!I!propose!the!

real!value!of!stable!carbon!isotopes!for!archaeologist!will!come!in!the!form!of!linking!

changes!and!variation!to!human!behaviors.!!The!lagomorph!index!coupled!with!

stable!carbon!isotope!values!has!been!an!excellent!exploration!in!the!precise!level!of!

interpretation!that!can!be!made,!both!environmental!and!anthropogenic.!!I!hope!to!

see!more!explorations!like!this!done!in!the!future.!!!

!

!!( (

! 169!

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!

!

! !

! 186!

APPENDIX(A:((

(TAXONOMIC(LIST(OF(VERTEBRATE(FAUNA(IN(SOUTHERN(NEW(MEXICO((

(

(

Code( Scientific(Name( Common(Name(

!Class(Mammalia* Mammals!

0! Unidentifiable!!!1! Indeterminate!Mammal!!2! Small!Mammal!!3! Medium!Mammal!!4! Large!Mammal!!5! Extra!Small!Mammal!!

! ! !6! Order(Didelphimorphia( Marsupials!7! Family(Didelphidae! American!Opossums!8! Didelphis*marsupialis** Common!Opossum!9! Order(Insectivora! InsectCeaters!10! Family(Soricidae( Shrews!11! Notiosorex*coues* Desert!Shrews!12! Sorex*merriami* Merriam!Shrew!13! Sorex*obscurus* Dusky!Shrew!14! Sorex*vagrans* Vagrant!Shrew!15! Notiosorex*crawfordi* Grey!Shrew!16! Order(Chiroptera* Bats!17! Family*Vespertilioninae* Vespertilionid!Bats!18! Moytis*velifer* Cave!Myotis!19! Myotis*occultus* Arizona!Myotis!20! Myotis*thysanodes* Fringed!Myotis!21! Myotis*evotis** LongCeared!Myotis!22! Myotis*californicus* California!Myotis!23! Myotis*yumanensis* Yuma!Myotis!24! Myotis*volans* LongClegged!Myotis!25! Myotis*subulatus* SmallCfooted!Myotis!26! Lasionycteris*noctivagans* SilverChaired!Bat!27! Pipistrellus*hesperus* Western!Pipistrel!28! Eptesicus*fuscus* Big!Brown!Bat!29! Lasiurus*cinereus* Hoary!Bat!30! Euderma*maculata* Spotted!Bat!31! Plecotus*townsendi* Western!BigCeared!Bat!32! Eumops*perotis** Western!Mastiff!Bat!

! 187!

33! Antrozous*pallidus* Pallid!Bat!34! Tadarida*molossa* Big!Freetail!Bat!35! Tadarida*brasiliensis* Mexican!Freetail!Bat!36! Order*Carnivora* FleshCeaters!37! Family(Ursidae( Bears!38! Ursus*horribilis* Grizzly!Bear!39! Ursus*americanus** Black!Bear!40! Family(Procyonidae( Raccoons,!Coatis!41! Procyon*lotor* Raccoon!42! Family*Bassariscidae* Ringtails!43! Bassariscus*astutus* Ringtail!Cat!44! Family(Mustelidae( Weasels,!Skunks!45! Mustela*frenata* Longtail!Weasel!46! Mustela*nigripes* BlackCfooted!Ferret!47! Lutra*canadensis* River!Otter!48! Taxidea*taxus* Badger!49! Spilogale*putorius* Spotted!Skunk!50! Mephitis*mephitis* Striped!Skunk!51! Mephitis*macuoura* Hooded!Skunk!52! Conepatus*leuconotus* Hognose!Skunk!53! Family(Canidae( Dogs,!Wolves,!Foxes!54! Canis*latrans* Coyote!55! Canis*lupus* Gray!Wolf!56! Vulpes*macrotis* Kit!Fox!57! Vulpes*fulva* Red!Fox!58! Urocyon*cinereoargenteus* Gray!Fox!59! Family(Felidae( Cats!60! Felis*concolor* Mountain!Lion!61! Felis*onca** Jaguar!62! Lynx*rufus* Bobcat!63! Order*Rodentia* Gnawing!Mammals!64! Family*Sciuridae* Squirrels!65! Cynomys*ludovicianus* Blacktail!Prairie!Dog!66! Cynomys*gunnisoni* Whitetail!Prairie!Dog!67! Citellus*variegatus* Rock!Squirrel!68! Citellus*mexicanus* Mexican!Ground!Squirrel!69! Citellus*lateralis** GoldenCmantled!Squirrel!70! Citellus*tridecemlineatus* ThirteenClined!Ground!Squirrel!71! Citellus*spilosoma* Spotted!Ground!Squirrel!72! Ammospermophilus* Whitetail!Antelope!Squirrel!

! 188!

leucurus*73! Eutamias*minimus* Least!Chipmunk!74! Eutamias*cinereicollis* Grayneck!Chipmunk!75! Tamiasciurus*hudsonicus* Red!Squirrel!76! Family*Geomyidae* Pocket!Gophers!77! Thomomys*bottae* Valley!Pocket!Gopher!78! Thomomys*baileyi* Bailey!Pocket!Gopher!79! Thomomys*umbrinus** Pygmy!Pocket!Gopher!80! Geomys*bursarius* Plains!Pocket!Gopher!81! Cratogeomys*castanops* Mexican!Pocket!Gopher!

82! Family(Heteromyidae(Pocket!Mice,!Kangaroo!Mice,!and!Kangaroo!Rats!

83! Perognathus*merriami* Merriam!Pocket!Mouse!84! Perognathus*flavus** Silky!Pocket!Mouse!85! Perognathus*apache* Apache!Pocket!Mouse!86! Perognathus*penicillatus* Desert!Pocket!Mouse!87! Perognathus*intermedius* Rock!Pocket!Mouse!88! Perognathus*nelsoni* Nelson!Pocket!Mouse!89! Perognathus*hispidus** Hispid!Pocket!Mouse!90! Dipodomys*spectabilis** Bannertail!Kangaroo!Rat!91! Dipodomys*ordi* Ord!Kangaroo!Rat!92! Dipodomys*merriami* Merriam!Kangaroo!Rat!93! Family(Castoridae( Beaver!94! Castor*canadensis* Beaver!95! Family*Cricetidae* Mice,!Rats!Lemmings,!Voles!96! Reithrodontomys*montanus* Plains!Harvest!Mouse!97! Reithrodontomys*megalotis* Western!Harvest!Mouse!98! Peromyscus*eremicus* Cactus!Mouse!99! Peromyscus*leucopus* WhiteCfooted!Mouse!100! Peromyscus*maniculatus* Deer!Mouse!101! Peromyscus*boylei* Brush!Mouse!102! Peromyscus*truei* Pinion!Mouse!103! Peromyscus*difficilis* Rock!Mouse!104! Peromyscus*pectoralis* WhiteCankled!Mouse!105! Baiomys*taylori* Pygmy!Mouse!106! Onychomys*leucogaster* Northern!Grasshopper!Mouse!107! Onychomys*torridus* Southern!Grasshopper!Mouse!108! Neotoma*albigula* Whitethroat!Woodrat!109! Neotoma*micropus* Southern!Plains!Woodrat!110! Neotoma*mexicana* Mexican!Woodrat!

! 189!

111! Sigmodon*hispidus* Hispid!Cotton!Rat!112! Sigmodon*minimus** Least!Cotton!Rat!113! Microtus*mexicanus* Mexican!Vole!114! Microtus*lingicaudus* Longtail!Vole!115! Ondatra*zibethica* Muskrat!116! Family(Erethizontidae* Porcupine!117! Erethizon*dorsatum* Porcupine!118! Order*Lagomorpha* Rabbits,!Hares,!Pikas!119! Family*Leporidae* Rabbits,!Hares!120! Lepus*californicus** Blacktail!Jackrabbit!121! Sylvilagus*floridanus* Eastern!Cottontail!122! Sylvilagus*auduboni* Desert!Cottontail!123! Order*Artiodactyla* EvenCtoed!Hoofed!Mammals!124! Family*Tayassuidae* Peccaries!125! Pecari*angulatus* Peccary!(Javelina)!126! Family(Cervidae( Deer!127! Cervus*canadensis* Elk!(Wapiti)!128! Odocoileus*virginianus* Whitetail!Deer!129! Odocoileus*hemionus* Mule!Deer!130! Family*Antilocapridae* Pronghorn!131! Antilocarpa*americana* Pronghorn!132! Family*Bovidae* Bison,!Goats,!Muskox,!Sheep!133! Bison*bison* Bison!134! Ovis*canadensis** Bighorn!Sheep!

! ! !500! Homo*sapiens*sapiens* Human!501! Canis*familiaris* Domesticated!dog!

!

!

! !

! 190!

Code( Scientific(Name( Common(Name(

!Class(Aves( Birds!

135! Unidentifiable!Ave!!136! Small!Ave!!137! Medium!Ave!!138! Large!Ave!!139! Order(Gaviiformes! Loons!&!Huarts!

140! Family(Gaviidae! Loons,!Divers!141! Gavia*adamsii* YellowCbilled!Loon!142! Gavia*immer** Common!Loon!143! Gavia*pacifica* Pacific!Loon!144! Gavia*stellata* RedCthroated!Loon!145! Order(Podicipediformes( Grebes!146! Family*Podicipedidae* Grebes!147! Podiceps*auritus* Horned!Grebe!148! Podiceps*nigricollis* Eared!Grebe!149! Podilymbus*podiceps* PiedCbilled!Grebe!150! Aechmophorus*clarkii* Clark's!Grebe!151! Aechmophorus*occidentalis* Western!Grebe!152! Order(Pelecaniformes( Pelicans,!Ibis!&!Herons!153! Family(Pelecanidae( Pelicans!154! Pelecanus*erythrorhynchos* American!White!Pelicans!155! Pelecanus*occidentalis* Brown!Pelican!156! Fregata*magnificens* Magnificent!Frigatebird!157! Family(Ardenidae( Bitterns,!Egrets!&!Herons!158! Botaurus*lentiginosus** American!Bitten!159! Ixobrychus*exilis* Least!Bittern!160! Ardea*herodias* Great!Blue!Heron!161! Ardea*alba* Great!Egret!162! Bubulcus*ibis* Cattle!Egret!163! Butorides*virescens* Green!Heron!164! Egretta*caerulea* Little!Blue!Heron!165! Egretta*thula* Snowy!Egret!166! Egretta*tricolor* Tricolored!Heron!167! Eudocimus*albus* White!Ibis!168! Mycteria*americana* Wood!Stork!169! Nycticoraz*nycticorax* BlackCcrowned!NightCHeron!170! Nyctanassa*violacea* YellowCcrowned!NightCHeron!171! Plegadis*chihi* WhiteCfaced!Ibis!172! Platalea*ajaja* Roseate!Spoonbill!

! 191!

173! Order(Suliformes( Cormorants!174! Family*Phalacrocoracidae( Cormorants!&!Shags!175! Phalacrocoraz*auritus* DoubleCcrested!Cormorant!176! Phalacrocorax*brasilianus* Neotropic!Cormorant!177! Family(Anhingidae(( Darters!&!Anhingas!178! Anhinga*anhinga* Anhinga!179! Order*Anseriformes* Ducks,!Geese,!Swans,!Screamers!!180! Family(Anatidae( Ducks,!Geese,!Swans!181! Anser*albifrons* Greater!WhiteCfronted!Goose!182! Branta*bernicla* Brant!Goose!183! Branta*canadensis* Canada!Goose!184! Chen*caerulescens* Snow!Goose!185! Chen*rossii* Ross's!Goose!186! Cygnus*buccinator* Trumpeter!Swan!187! Cygnus*columbianus* Tundra!Swan!188! Cygnus*olor* Mute!Swan!189! Aix*sopnsa* Wood!Duck!190! Anas*acuta* Northern!Pintail!191! Anas*americana* American!Wigeon!192! Anas*clypeata* Northern!Shoveler!!193! Anas*cyanoptera* Cinnamon!Teal!194! Anas*crecca* GreenCwinged!Teal!195! Anas*discors* BlueCwinged!Teal!196! Anas*platyrhynchos* Mallard!197! Anas*strepera* Gadwall!198! Aythya*americana* Redhead!199! Aythya*collaris* RingCnecked!Duck!200! Aythya*valisineria* Canvasback!201! Aythya*marila* Greater!Scaup!202! Aythya*affinis* Lesser!Scaup!203! Clangula*hyemalis* LongCtailed!Duck!204! Dendrocygna*autumnalis* BlackCbellied!WhistlingCDuck!205! Dendrocygna*bicolor* Fulvous!WhistlingCDuck!206! Melanitta*fusca* WhiteCwinged!Scoter!207! Melanitta*nigra* Black!Scoter!208! Melanitta*perspicillata* Surf!Scoter!209! Bucephala*clangula* Common!Goldeneye!210! Bucephala*islandica* Barrow's!Goldeneye!211! Bucephala*albeola** Bufflehead!212! Lophodytes*cucullatus* Hooded!Merganser!

! 192!

213! Mergus*merganser* Common!merganser!214! Mergus*serrator* RedCbreasted!Merganser!215! Oxyura*jamaicensis* Ruddy!Duck!216! Order(Accipitriformes( Hawks!217! Family(Cathartes*( New!World!Vultures!218! Cathartes*aura* Turkey!Vulture!219! Family(Accipitridae( Eagles,!Hawks!&!Kites!220! Circus*cyaneus* Northern!Harrier!221! Elanus*leucurus* WhiteCtailed!Kite!222! Elanoides*forficatus* SwallowCtailed!Kite!223! Ictinia*mississippiensis* Mississippi!Kite!224! Accipiter*striatus* SharpCshinned!Hawk!225! Accipiter*cooperii* Cooper's!Hawk!226! Accipiter*gentillis* Northern!Goshawk!227! Buteo*albonotatus* ZoneCtailed!Hawk!228! Buteo*jamaicensis* RedCtailed!Hawk!229! Buteo*lagopus* RoughClegged!Hawk!230! Buteo*lineatus* RedCshouldered!Hawk!231! Buteo*nitidus* Gray!Hawk!232! Buteo*platypterus* BroadCwinged!Hawk!233! Buteo*regalis** Ferruginous!Hawk!234! Buteo*swainsoni* Swainson's!Hawk!235! Buteogallus*anthracinus* Common!BlackCHawk!236! Parabuto*unicinctus* Harris'!Hawk!237! Aquila*chrysaetos* Golden!Eagle!238! Haliaeetus*leucocephalus* Bald!Eagle!239! Pandion*haliaetus* Osprey!240! Caracara*cheriway* Crested!Caracara!241! Falco*femoralis* Aplomado!Falcon!242! Falco*columbarius* Merlin!243! Falco*sparverius* American!Kestrel!244! Falco*mexicanus* Prairie!Falcon!245! Falco*peregrinus** Peregrine!Falcon!246! Order(Galliformes( Fowls,!Gallinaceous!Birds!247! Family*Odontophoridae* New!World!Quails!248! Callipepla*gambelii* Gambel's!Quail!249! Callipepla*squamata* Scaled!Quail!250! Colinus*virginianus* Northern!Bobwhite!251! Cyrtonyx*montezumae* Montezuma!Quail!252! Phasianus*colchicus* RingCnecked!Pheasant!

! 193!

253! Dendragapus*obscurus* Blue!Grouse!254! Tympanuchus*pallidicinctus* Lesser!PrairieCChicken!255! Meleagris*gallopavo* Wild!Turkey!&!Domestic!Turkey!256! Order(Gruiformes* Cranes!and!Rails!257! Gallinula*chloropus* Common!Moorhen!258! Fulica*american** American!Coot!259! Rallus*limicola* Virginia!Rail!!260! Porzana*carolina* Sora!261! Coturnicops*noveboracensis* Yellow!Rail!262! Laterallus*jamaicensis* Black!Rail!263! Porphyrula*martinica* Purple!Gallinule!264! Grus*canadensis* Sandhill!Crane!265! Grus*grus* Common!Crane!266! Grus*americana** Whooping!Crane!267! Order*Charadriformes( Shore!Birds,!Gulls,!Alcids!and!Plovers!268! Pluvialis*squatarola* BlackCbellied!Plover!269! Pluvialis*dominicus* American!GoldenCplover!270! Pluvialis*fulva* Pacific!GoldenCplover!271! Charadrius*alexandrinus* Snowy!Plover!272! Charadrius*semipalmatus* Semipalmated!Plover!273! Charadrius*melodus* Piping!Plover!274! Chraradrius*vociferus* Killdeer!275! Charadrius*montanus** Mountain!Plover!276! Haematopus*palliatus* American!Oystercatcher!277! Himantopus*mexicanus** BlackCnecked!Stilt!278! Recurvirostra*americana* American!Avocet!279! Tringa*melanoleuca* Greater!Yellowlegs!280! Tringa*flavipes* Lesser!Yellowlegs!281! Tringa*solitaria* Solitary!Sandpiper!282! Catoptrophorus*semipalmatus* Willet!283! Actitis*macularia* Spotted!Sandpiper!284! Bartramia*longicauda* Upland!Sandpiper!285! Numenius*phaeopus* Whimbrel!286! Numenius*americana* LongCbilled!Curlew!287! Limosa*haemastica* Hudsonian!Godwit!288! Limosa*fedoa* Marbled!Godwit!289! Arenaria*interpres* Ruddy!Turnstone!290! Calidris*canutus* Red!Knot!291! Calidris*alba* Sanderling!292! Calidris*pusilla* Semiplamated!Sandpiper!

! 194!

293! Calidris*mauri* Western!Sandpiper!294! Calidris*minutilla** Least!Sandpiper!295! Calidris*fuscicollis* WhiteCrumped!Sandpiper!296! Calidris*bairdii* Baird's!Sandpiper!297! Calidris*melanotus** Pectoral!Sandpiper!298! Calidris*alpinna** Dunlin!299! Calidris*himantopus* Stilt!Sandpiper!300! Philomachus*pugnax* Ruff!301! Limnodromus*griseus* ShortCbilled!Dowitcher!302! Limnodromus*scolopaceus* LongCbilled!Dowitcher!303! Gallinago*gallinago* Common!Snipe!304! Scolopax*minor* American!Woodcock!305! Phalaropus*tricolor* Wilson's!Phalarope!306! Pharloaropus*lobatus* RedCnecked!Phalarope!307! Pharlaropus*fulicaria* Red!Phalarope!308! Stercorarius*pomarinus* Pomarine!Jaeger!309! Stercorarius*parasiticus* Parasitic!Jaeger!310! Stercorarius*longicanudus* LongCtailed!Jaeger!311! Larus*atricilla* Laughing!Gull!312! Larus*pipixcan* Franklin's!Gull!313! Larus*minutus* Little!Gull!314! Larus*philadelphia** Bonaparte's!Gull!315! Larus*heermanni* Heerman's!Gull!316! Larus*canus* Mew!Gull!317! Larus*delwarensis** RingCbilled!Gull!318! Larus*califorincus* California!Gull!319! Larus*argentatus* Herring!Gull!320! Larus*thayeri* Thayer's!Gull!321! Larus*occidentalis* Western!Gull!322! Larus*glaucescens* GlaucousCwinged!Gull!323! Larus*hyperboreus** Glaucous!Gull!324! Rissa*tridactyla* BlackClegged!kittiwake!325! Xema*sabini* Sabine's!Gull!326! Sterna*caspia* Caspian!Tern!327! Sterna*hirundo* Common!Tern!328! Sterna*paradisaea* Artic!Tern!329! Sterna*forsteri* Forester's!Tern!330! Sterna*antillarum* Least!Tern!331! Childonias*niger* Black!Tern!332! Rhynchops*niger* Black!Skimmer!

! 195!

333! Synthliboramphus*antiquus* Ancient!Murrelet!334! Family*Columbidae* Pigeons,!Doves!335! Patagioenas*fasciata* BandCtailed!Pigeon!336! Zenaida*macroura* Mourning!Dove!337! Columbina*inca** Inca!Dove!338! Family(Cuculidae( Cuckoos,!Roadrunners,!Anis!339! Coccyzus*erythropthalmus* BlackCbilled!Cuckoo!340! Geococcyx*californianus* Greater!Roadrunner!341! Family(Tytonidae( Barn!Owls!342! Tyto*alba* Barn!Owl!343! Family(Strigidae( Typical!Owls!344! Megascops*kennicottii* Western!ScreechCOwl!345! Bubo*virginianus* Great!Horned!Owl!346! Micrathene*whitneyi* Elf!Owl!347! Athene*cunicularia* Burrowing!Owl!348! Strix*occidentalis* Spotted!Owl!349! Asio*otus* LongCeared!Owl!350! Aegolius*acadicus* Northern!SawCwhet!Owl!351! Family(Alcedinidae( Kingfishers!352! Megaceryle*alcyon* Belted!Kingfisher!353! Family(Picidae( Woodpeckers!354! Sphyrapicus*thyroideus* Williamson's!Sapsucker!355! Sphyrapicus*nuchalis* RedCnaped!Sapsucker!356! Picoides*scalaris* LadderCbacked!Woodpecker!357! Picoides*pubescens* Downy!Woodpecker!358! Picoides*villosus* Hairy!Woodpecker!359! Colaptes*auratus* Northern!Flicker!360! Family(Corvidae( Jays,!Magpies,!Crows!361! Gymnorhinus*cyanocephalus** Pinyon!Jay!362! Cyanocitta*stelleri** Steller's!Jay!363! Aphelocoma*californica* Western!ScrubCJay!364! Nucifraga*columbiana* Clark's!Nutcracker!365! Corvus*brachyrhynchos** American!Crow!366! Corvus*cryptoleucus** Chihuahuan!Raven!367! Corvus*corax* Common!Raven!368! Order(Psittaciformes(

!369! Family(Psittacidae( Macaws!(Captive!Introduced)!370! Ara*macao* Scarlet!Macaw!(Captive!Introduced)!371! Ara*militaris** Military!Macaw!(Captive!Introduced)!372! Rhynchopsitta*pachyrhyncha* ThickCBilled!Parrot!(Captive!Introduced)!

! 196!

! ! !503! Order(Caprimulgiformes(!504! Family*Caprimulgidae* Nightjars!

505! Phalaenoptilus*nuttallii* Common!Poorwill!506! Caprimulgus*vociferus* WhipCpoorCwill!507! Chordeiles*minor* Common!Nighthawk!508! Chordeiles*acutipennis* Lesser!Nighthawk!509! Order*Apodiformes* Swifts,!Hummingbirds!510! Family*Apodidae* Swifts!511! Cypseloides*streubel* Black!Swift!512! Aeronautes*saxatalis* WhiteCthroated!Swift!513! Family*trochilidae* Hummingbirds!514! Calothorax*lucifer* Lucifer!Hummingbird!515! Amazilia*violiceps* VioletCcrowned!Hummingbird!516! Cynathus*latirostris* BroadCbilled!Hummingbird!517! Hylocharis*leucotis* WhiteCeared!Hummingbird!518! Lampornis*clemenciae* BlueCthroated!Hummingbird!519! Eigemes*fulgens* Magnificent!Hummingbird!520! Calypte*anna* Anna's!Hummingbird!521! Calypte*costae* Costa's!Hummingbird!522! Archilochus*alexandri* BlackCchinned!Hummingbird!523! Archilochus*colubris* RubyCthroated!Hummingbird!524! Stellula*calliope* Calliope!Hummingbird!525! Selasphorus*platycercus** BroadCtailed!Hummingbird!526! Selasphorus*rufus* Rufous!Hummingbird!527! Order*Trogoniformes* Trogons!528! Family*Trogonidae* Trogons!529! Trogon*elegans* Elegant!Trogon!530! Order*Passeriformes* Perching!Birds!531! Family*Tyrannidae* Tyrant!Flycatchers,!Tyrans!gobeCmouches!532! Contopus*cooperi* OliveCsided!Flycatcher!533! Contopus*sordidulus* Western!WoodCPewee!534! Empidonax*occidentalis* Cordilleran!Flycatcher!535! Empidonax*traillii* Willow!Flycatcher!536! Empidonax*minimus* Least!Flycatcher!537! Empidonax*hammondii* Hammond's!Flycatcher!538! Empidonax*oberholseri* Dusky!Flycatcher!539! Empidonax*wrightii* Gray!Flycatcher!540! Sayoris*nigricans* Black!Phoebe!541! Sayornis*phoebe* Eastern!Phoebe!

! 197!

542! Sayornis*saya* Say's!Phoebe!543! Pyrocephalus*rubinus* Vermilion!Flycatcher!544! Myiarchus*tuberculifer* DuskyCcapped!Flycatcher!545! Myiarchus*cinerascens* AshCthroated!Flycatcher!546! Tyrannus*tyrannus* Eastern!Kingbird!547! Tyrannus*vociferans* Cassin's!Kingbird!548! Tyrannus*verticalis* Western!Kingbird!549! Family*Laniidae* Rafinesque!550! Lanius*ludovicianus* Loggerhead!Shrike!551! Vireo*vicinior* Grey!Vireo!552! Vireo*olivaceus* RedCeyed!Vireo!553! Vireo*gilvus* Warbling!Vireo!554! Vireo*bellii* Bell's!Vireo!555! Vireo*plumbeus* Plumbeous!Vireo!556! Vireo*cassinii* Cassin's!Vireo!557! Vireo*solitarius* BlueCheaded!Vireo!558! Family*Corvidae* Crows,!Jays,!and!Magpies!559! Cyanocitta*stelleri* Stellar's!Jay!560! Cyanocitta*cristata* Blue!Jay!561! Aphelocoma*californica* Western!ScrubCJay!562! Gymnorhinus*cyanocephalus* Pinyon!Jay!563! Nucifraga*columbiana* Clark's!Nutcracker!564! Corvus*corax* Common!Raven!565! Corvus*cryptoleucus* Chihuahuan!Raven!566! Family*Alaudidae* Larks!567! Eremophila*alpestris* Horned!Lark!568! Family*Hirundinidae* Swallows!569! Progne*subis* Purple!Martin!570! Stelgidopteryx*serripennis* Northern!RoughCwinged!Swallow!571! Riparia*riparia* Bank!Swallow!572! Tachycineta*thalassina* VioletCgreen!Swallow!573! Tachycineta*bicolor* Tree!Swallow!574! Petrochelidon*pyrrhonota* Cliff!Swallow!575! Petrochelidon*fulva* Cave!Swallow!576! Hirundo*rustica* Barn!Swallow!577! Family*Paridae* Chickadees,!Titmice,!Tits!578! Baeolophus*ridgwayi* Juniper!Titmouse!579! Family*Remizidae* OlpheCGalliard!580! Auriparus*flaviceps* Verdin!581! Family*Aegithalidae* Bushtits!

! 198!

582! Psaltriparus*minimus* American!Bushtit!583! Family*Sittidae* Nuthatches!584! Sitta*canadensis* RedCbreasted!Nuthatch!585! Sitta*carolinensis* WhiteCbreasted!Nuthatch!586! Family*Certhiidae* Creepers!587! Certhia*americana* Brown!Creeper!588! Family(Troglodytidae* Wrens!589! Thryomanes*bewickii* Bewick's!Wren!590! Troglodytes*aedon* House!Wren!591! Troglodytes*troglodytes* Winter!Wren!592! Cistothorus*palustris* Marsh!Wren!

593!Campylorhynchus*brunneicapillus* Cactus!Wren!

594! Salpinctes*obsoletus* Rock!Wren!595! Catherpes*mexicanus* Canyon!Wren!596! Family*Cinclidae* Dippers!!597! Cinclus*mexicanus* American!Dipper!598! Regulus*satrapa* GoldenCcrowned!Kinglet!599! Regulus*calendula* RubyCcrowned!Kinglet!!600! Family*Polioptillidae* Gnatcatchers!601! Polioptila*melanura* BlackCtailed!Gnatcatcher!602! Polioptila*caerulea* BlueCgray!Gnatcatcher!603! Family*Turdidae* Solitaires!604! Myadestes*townsendi* Townsend's!Solitaire!605! Sialia*currucoides* Mountain!Bluebird!606! Sialia*mexicana* Western!Bluebird!607! Turdus*migratorius* American!Robin!608! Turdus*rufopalliatus* RufousCbacked!Robin!609! Catharus*ustulatus* Swainson's!Thrush!610! Catharus*guttatus* Hermit!Thrush!611! Family*Mimidae* Mockingbirds,!Thrashers!612! Mimus*polyglottos* Northern!Mockingbird!613! Toxostoma*curvirostre* CurveCbilled!Thrasher!614! Toxostoma*crissale* Crissal!Thrasher!615! Oreoscoptes*montanus* Sage!Thrasher!616! Family*Motacillidae* Pipits,!Wagtails!617! Anthus*spragueii* Sprague's!Pipit!618! Anthus*rubescens* American!Pipit!619! Family*Ptilogonatidae* SilkyCFlycatchers!620! Phainopepla*nitens* Phainopepla!

! 199!

621! Family*Bombycillidae* Waxwings!622! Bombycilla*cedrorum* Cedar!Waxwing!623! Family*Parulidae* New!World!Warblers!624! Vermivora*celata* OrangeCcrowned!Warbler!625! Vermivora*virginiae* Virginia's!Warbler!626! Vermivora*ruficapilla* Nashville!Warbler!627! Vermivora*luciae* Lucy's!Warbler!628! Dendrocia*petechia* Yellow!Warbler!629! Dendroica*coronata* YellowCrumped!Warbler!630! Dendroica*nigrescens* BlackCthroated!Gray!Warbler!631! Dendroica*townsendi** Townsend's!Warbler!632! Mniotilta*varia* BlackCandCwhite!Warbler!633! Setophaga*ruticilla* American!Redstart!634! Seiurus*noveboracensis* Northern!Waterthrush!635! Oporornis*tolmiei* MacGillivary's!Warbler!636! Geothlypis*trichas* Common!Yellowthroat!637! Wilsonia*pusilla* Wilson's!Warbler!638! Wilsonia*citrina* Hooded!Warbler!639! Icteria*virens* YellowCbreasted!Chat!640! Family*Thraupidae* Tanagers!641! Piranga*flava* Hepatic!Tanager!642! Piranga*rubra* Summer!Tanager!643! Piranga*ludoviciana* Western!Tanager!644! Family*Cardinalidae* Cardinals,!Grosbeaks,!Saltators!645! Cardinalis*sinuatus* Pyrrhuloxia!646! Cardinalis*cardinalis* Northern!Cardinal!647! Pheucticus*melanocephalus* BlackCheaded!Grosbeak!648! Pheucticus*ludovicianus* RoseCbreasted!Grosbeak!649! Guiraca*caerulea* Blue!Grosbeak!650! Passerina*amoena* Lazuli!Bunting!651! Passerina*versicolor* Varied!Bunting!652! Passerina*ciris* Painted!Bunting!653! Family*Emberixidae* Finches,!Sparrows,!Towhees,!Buntings!654! Pipilo*maculatus* Spotted!Towhee!655! Pipilo*chlorurus* GreenCtailed!Towhee!656! Pipilo*fuscus* Canyon!Towhee!657! Aimophila*ruficeps* RufousCcrowned!Sparrow!658! Aimophila*cassinii* Cassin's!Sparrow!659! Amphispiza*belli* Sage!Sparrow!660! Amphispiza*bilineata* BlackCthroated!Sparrow!

! 200!

661! Spizella*atrogularis* BlackCchinned!Sparrow!662! Spizella*breweri* Brewer's!Sparrow!663! Spizella*pallida* ClayCcolored!Sparrow!664! Spizella*passerina* Chipping!Sparrow!665! Ammodramus*savannarum* Grasshopper!Sparrow!666! Passerculus*sandwichensis* Savannah!Sparrow!667! Pooecetes*gramineus* Vesper!Sparrow!668! Calamospiza*melanocorys* Lark!Bunting!669! Chondestes*grammacus* Lark!Sparrow!670! Zonotrichia*albicollis* WhiteCthroated!Sparrow!671! Zonotrichia*leucophrys* WhiteCcrowned!Sparrow!672! Passerella*iliaca* Fox!Sparrow!673! Melospiza*melodia* Song!Sparrow!674! Melospiza*lincolnii* Lincoln's!Sparrow!675! Melospiza*georgiana* Swamp!Sparrow!676! Junco*hyemalis* DarkCeyed!Junco!677! Calcarius*mccownii* McCown's!Longspur!678! Calcarius*ornatus* ChestnutCcollared!Longspur!

679! Family*Icterids*Meadowlarks,!Blackbirds,!Grackles,!and!Oriole!

680! Sturnella*neglecta* Western!Meadowlark!681! Sturnella*magna* Eastern!Meadowlark!682! Molothrus*ater* BrownCheaded!Cowbird!683! Molothrus*aeneus* Bronzed!Cowbird!

684!Xanthocephalus*xanthocephalus* YellowCheaded!Blackbird!

685! Agelaius*phoeniceus* RedCwinged!Blackbird!686! Euphagus*cyanocephalus* Brewer's!Blackbird!687! Quiscalus*mexicanus* GreatCtailed!Grackle!688! Icterus*bullockii* Bullock's!Oriole!689! Icterus*cucullatus* Hooded!Oriole!690! Icterus*spurius* Orchard!Oriole!691! Icterus*parisorum** Scott's!Oriole!692! Family*Fringillidae* Finches!693! Carpodacus*cassinii* Cassin's!Finch!694! Carpodacus*mexicanus* House!Finch!695! Lozia*curvirostra* Red!Crossbill!696! Carduelis*pinus* Pine!Siskin!697! Carduelis*psaltria** Lesser!Goldfinch!698! Carduelis*tristis* American!Goldfinch!

! 201!

Code( Scientific(Name( Common(Name(

373! Class!Reptilia! Reptiles!374! Unidentifiable!Reptile!

!375! Small!Reptile!!376! Medium!Reptile!!377! Large!Reptile!!378! Order(Testudines! Turtles!

379! Family(Emydidae( Box!&!Water!Turtles!380! Chrysemys*picta* Painted!turtle!381! Trachemys*gaigeae* Big!Bend!Slider!382! Terrapene*ornata* Ornate!Box!Turtle!383! Family(Kinosternidae( Mud!&!Musk!Turtles!384! Kinosternon*flavescens* Yellow!Mud!Turtle!385! Kinosternon*sonoriense* Sonoran!Mud!Turtle!386! Family(Trionychidae! SoftCshell!Turtles!387! Apalone*spinifera* Spiny!SoftCshell!Turtle!388! Family(Testudinidae( Tortoise!389! Gopherus*flavomarginatus* Bolson!Tortoise!390! Order(Squamata( Lizards!and!Snakes!

391! Family(Crotaphytidae(Collared!Lizards!&!Leopard!Lizards!

392! Crotaphytus*collaris* Collared!lizard!393! Gambelia*wislizenii* Leopard!Lizard!394! Family(Phrynosomatidae( North!American!Spiny!Lizards!395! Cophosaurus*texanus* Greater!Earless!Lizard!396! Holbrookia*maculata* Lesser!Earless!Lizard!397! Phrynosoma*cornutum* Texas!Horned!Lizard!398! Phrynosoma*douglasii* Pygmy!ShortChorned!Lizard!399! Phrynosoma*modestum* Roundtail!Horned!Lizard!400! Sceloporus*magister* Desert!Spiny!Lizard!401! Sceloporus*poinsettii* Crevice!Spiny!Lizard!

402! Sceloporus*unulatus*Eastern!Fence!Lizard!(Prairie!Lizard)!

403! Urosaurus*ornatus* Tree!Lizard!404! Uta*stansburiana** SideCblotched!Lizard!405! Family*Teiidae( Whiptails!406! Cenemidophorus*exsanguis* Chihuahuan!Spotted!Whiptail!407! Cenemidophorus*inornatus* Little!Striped!Whiptail!408! Cenemidophorus*neomexicanus* New!Mexico!Whiptail!409! Cenemidophorus*tesselatus* Checkered!Whiptail!

! 202!

410! Cenemidophorus*tigris* Western!Whiptail!411! Cenemidophorus*uniparens* Desert!Grassland!Whiptail!412! Family(Scincidae( Skinks!413! Eumeces*multivirgatus* ManyClined!Skink!414! Eumeces*obsoletus* Great!Plains!Skink!415! Family*Eublepharidae( Geckos!416! Coleonyx*brevis* Texas!Banded!Gecko!417! Family(Anguidae( Alligator!Lizard!418! Elgaria*kingii* Madrean!Alligator!Lizard!419! Family*Helodermatidae* Venomous!Lizards!420! Heloderma*suspectum* Gila!Monster!421! Family!Leptotyphlopidae* Blind!Snakes!422! Leptotyphlops*dulcis* Texas!Blind!Snake!423! Leptotyphlops*humilis* Western!Blind!Snake!424! Family*Colubridae* Colubrid!Snakes!425! Arizona*elegans* Glossy!Snake!426! Bogertophis*subocularis* TransCPecos!Rat!Snake!427! Diadophis*punctatus* Ringneck!Snake!428! Elaphe*guttata*emoryi* Great!Plains!Rat!(Corn)!Snake!429! Gyalopion*canum* Chihuahuan!HookCNosed!Snake!430! Heterodon*nasicus* Western!Hognose!Snake!431! Hypsiglena*torquata* Night!Snake!432! Lampropeltis*getula*splendida* Desert!Kingsnake!

433!Lampropeltis*triangulum*celaenops* New!Mexico!Milk!Snake!

434! Masticophis*flagellum* Coachwhip!435! Masticophis*taeniatus* Desert!Striped!Whipsnake!436! Pituophis*catenifer* Gopher!Snake!(Bullsnake)!437! Rhinocheilus*lecontei* LongCNosed!Snake!438! Salvadora*deserticola** Big!Bend!PatchCnose!Snake!439! Salvadora*grahamiae* Mountain!PatchCnose!Snake!440! Salvadora*hexalepis* Western!PatchCnose!Snake!441! Sonora*semiannulata* Ground!Snake!442! Tantilla*atriceps* Mexican!BlackCheaded!Snake!

443! Tantilla*hobartsmithi*Southwestern!BlackCheaded!Snake!

444! Tantilla*nigriceps* Plains!BlackCheaded!Snake!445! Tantilla*wilcoxi* Chihuahuan!BlackCheaded!Snake!446! Thamnophis*crytopsis* BlackCNecked!Garter!Snake!447! Thamnophis*marcianus* Checkered!Garter!Snake!

! 203!

448! Thamnophis*sirtalis*dorsalis* New!Mexico!Garter!Snake!449! Trimorphodon*biscutatus* Western!Lyre!Snake!450! Family*Viperidae* Vipers!

451! Crotalus*atrox*Western!Diamondback!Rattlesnake!

452! Crotalus*lepidus* Rock!Rattlesnake!453! Crotalus*molossus* BlackCTailed!Rattlesnake!454! Cortalus*oreganus* Arizona!Black!Rattlesnake!455! Crotalus*viridis* Prairie!(Western)!Rattlesnake!456! Sistrurus*catenatus* Massasauga!(Pygmy!Rattlesnake)!

!

Code( Scientific(Name( Common(Name(

457! Class*Amphibia* Amphibians!458! Unidentifiable!Amphibian!

!459! Small!Amphibian!!460! Medium!Amphibian!!!461! Large!Amphibian!!462! Order(Caudata( Salamanders!

463! Family(Ambystomatidae! Mole!Salamanders!464! Ambystoma*tigrinum* Tiger!Salamander!465! Order!Anura( Frogs!and!Toads!466! Family*Ranidae! True!Frogs!467! Lithobates*berlandieri* Rio!Grande!Leopard!Frog!468! Lithobates*blairi* Plains!Leopard!Frog!469! Lithobates*pipiens* Northern!Leopard!Frog!470! Family*Hylidae* Tree!Frogs!471! Hyla*arenicolor* Canyon!Treefrog!472! Family(Bufonidae( Toads!473! Anaxyrus*cognatus* Great!Plains!Toad!474! Anaxyrus*debilis* Green!Toad!475! Anaxyrus*punctatus* RedCspotted!Toad!476! Anaxyrus*speciosus* Texas!Toad!

477! Anaxyrus*woodhousii*Southwestern!Woodhouse's!Toad!

478! Family*Pelobatidae( Spadefoots!479! Scaphiopus*couchii* Couch's!Spadefoot!480! Spea*bombifrons* Plains!Spadefoot!481! Spea*hammondii* Western!Spadefoot!482! Spea*multiplicata* New!Mexican!Spadefoot!

! 204!

! * !Code( Scientific(Name( Common(Name(

483! Fish*!484! Unidentifiable*Fish*!485! Small!Fish!!486! Medium!Fish!!487! Large!Fish!!!488! Class!Osteichthyes! Bony!Fish!

489! Class!Chondrichthyes!! Cartilaginous!Fish!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

! 205!

APPENDIX(B:((

ELEMENT(VALUE(LIST(

(

(

Indeterminate(Fragments:(

!0! Not!applicable!

!1! Indeterminate!

!2! Indeterminate!fragment!

!3! Long!Bone!Fragment!

!4! Plate!or!Blade!fragment!

!5! Cancellous!tissue!

!6! Tooth!Fragment!

!7! Cranial!Fragment!

! ! !Cranial(ComplexH(Mammals(and(general(

!90! Antler!

!91! Horn!Core!

!92! Horn!Sheath!

! ! !!

100! Cranial!Complex!

!101! Cranial!vault,!antler!or!horn!core!

!102! Cranial!vault,!antler!or!horn!core!missing!

!103! Anterior!1/2!of!vault!

!104! Posterior!1/2!of!vault!

! ! !!

110! Occipital!Region!

!111! Occipital!

!112! Basioccipital!

!113! Occipital!Condyle!

!114! Sphenoid!

!115! Basispenoid!

!116! Presphenoid!

!117! Alispenoid!

!118! Pterygoid!

!119! Hyoid!

!120! Vomer!

!121! Squamosal!

!122! Parietal!

!123! Frontal!+!Parietal!

!124! Parietal!+!Occipital!

! 206!

! ! !!

130! Temporal!Region!

!131! Temporal!

!132! Zygomatic!

!133! Petrous!Temporal!

!134! Auditory!Bulla!!

!135! Mastoid!process!

!136! Frontal!

!137! Orbital!Region!

!138! Malar!

!139! Lacrimal!

!140! Maxillary!region!

!141! Maxilla!

!142! Maxilla!(dentition!only)!

!143! Premaxilla!

!144! Premaxilla!(dentition!only)!

!145! Rostrum!

!146! Ethmoid!

!147! Palatine!

!148! Nasal!

! ! !!

160! Mandible!

!161! Ascending!ramus!

!162! Coronoid!process!

!163! Mandibular!condyle!

!164! Horizontal!ramus!

!165! Horizontal!ramus!(dentition!only)!

!166! Symphysis!

!167! Symphysis!(dentition!only)!

! ! !!

170! Tooth!(Indeterminate)!

!171! Deciduous!incisor!

!172! Deciduous!incisor,!upper!

!173! Deciduous!incisor,!lower!

! ! !!

174! Permanent!incisor!

!175! Permanent!incisor,!upper!

!176! Permanent!incisor,!lower!

! ! !!

180! Deciduous!canine!

! 207!

!181! Canine!

!182! Canine,!upper!

!183! Canine,!lower!

!184! Deciduous!premolar!!

!185! Deciduous!premolar,!upper!

!186! Deciduous!premolar,!lower!

!187! Permanent!premolar!

!188! Permanent!premolar,!upper!

!189! Permanent!premolar,!lower!

! ! !!

190! Deciduous!Molar!

!191! Deciduous!molar,!upper!!

!192! Deciduous!molar,!lower!

!193! Permanent!molar!

!194! Permanent!molar,!upper!

!195! Permanent!molar,!lower!

! ! !Axial(Skeleton(Mammals(and(General(

!200! Vertebra,!general!

!201! Atlas,!C1!

!202! Axis,!C2!

!203! Cervical!vertebra,!general!

!204! C3!

!205! C4!

!206! C5!

!207! C6!

!208! C7!

! ! !!

210! Thoracic!vertebra,!general!

!211! T1!

!212! T2!

!213! T3!

!214! T4!

!215! T5!

!216! T6!

!217! T7!

!218! T8!

!219! T9!

!220! T10!

!221! T11!

! 208!

!222! T12!

!223! T13!

!224! T14!

! ! !!

230! Lumbar!vertebra,!general!

!231! L1!

!232! L2!

!233! L3!

!234! L4!

!235! L5!

!236! L6!

!237! L7!

! ! !!

238! Sacral!Vertebra!

!239! Sacrum!

!240! Caudal!vertebra,!general!

!241! Caudal!vertebra,!anterior!

!242! Caudal!vertebra,!posterior!

!243! Sternum!

!244! Manubrium!

! ! !!

245! Rib!

!246! Ossified!cartilage!

!247! Clavicle!

!248! Scapula!

! ! !!

250! Innominate!(pelvis),!single!

!251! Innominate!(pelvis),!paired!

!252! Ilium!

!253! Acetabulum!

!254! Ischium!

!255! Pubis!

!256! Ilium!+!Acetabulum!

!257! Ilium,!acetabulum!+!ischium!

!258! Acetabulum!+!ischium!

!259! Acetabulum!+!pubis!

!260! Ischium!+!pubis!

!261! Acetabulum,!ischium!+!pubis!

!262! Pubic!symphysis!

! ! !

! 209!

Post(cranial(Skeleton,(limbsH(Mammals(and(general(

!300! Humerus!

!301! Radius!

!302! Ulna!

!303! RadioCulna!

!304! Carpal,!general!

!305! Scaphoid!

!306! Lunar!

!307! Scapholunal!

!308! Pisiform!

!309! Cuneiform!

!310! Unciform!

!311! TrapezoidCmagnum!

! ! !!

315! Metacarpal,!general!

!316! Metacarpal!1!

!317! Metacarpal!2!

!318! Metacarpal!3!

!319! Metacarpal!4!

!320! Metacarpal!5!

!321! Phalange!(manus),!general!

!322! 1st!Phalange!(manus)!

!323! 2nd!Phalange!(manus)!

!324! 3rd!Phalange!(manus!

! ! !!

330! LongCbone!Indeterminate!

! ! !!

331! Femur!

!332! Patella!

!333! Tibia!

!334! Fibula!

!335! Tibiofibula!

!336! Tarsal,!general!

!337! Astragalus!(tibial!tarsus)!

!338! Calcaneus!(fibular!tarsus)!

!339! Cuneiform!

!340! Navicular!

!341! Cuboid!

!342! Naviculocuboid!

!343! Lateral!malla!

! 210!

! ! !!

350! Metatarsal,!general!

!351! Metatarsal!1!

!352! Metatarsal!2!

!353! Metatarsal!3!

!354! Metatarsal!4!

!355! Metatarsal!5!

!356! Phalange!(pedal)!general!

!357! 1st!Phalange!

!358! 2nd!Phalange!

!359! 3rd!Phalange!

!360! Sesamoid!

!361! Baculum!(os!penis)!

!362! Carpal!or!tarsal!(indeterminate)!

!363! Ossified!tendon!

!364! Vestigial!Phalange!

!365! Metapodial!

!366! Vestigial!metapodial!

!367! Phalange,!general!

!368! 1st!phalange!general!

!369! 2nd!phalange,!general!

!370! 3rd!phalange,!general!

! ! !Specialized(elementsH(Birds,(reptiles,(and(fish(

! ! !Cranial(

( (

!400! Jugal!

!401! Quadrate!

!402! Quadratojugal!

! ! !!

405! Supraoccipital!

!406! Beak!(Maxilla,!premaxilla,!and!nasal)!

!407! Sclerotic!ring!

! ! !!

410! Operculum!

!411! Suboperculum!

!412! Peroperculum!

!413! Interoperculum!

!414! Opercle!complex!

!415! Cleithrum!

! 211!

!416! Hyomandibular!

! ! !!

420! Dentary!

!421! Symphysis!

!422! Splenial!Prearticular!!

!423! Articular!

!424! Surangular!

!425! Angular!

!426! Angular/articular!

!427! Ceratohyal!

!428! Hyoid!complex!

!429! Nurocranium!

! ! !Postcranial((

!!

500! Coracoid!

!501! Furculum!

!502! Carpometacarpus!

! ! !!

505! Pollex!

!506! Digit!II,!Phalanx!I!

!507! Digit!III!

!508! Digit!II,!Phalanx!II!

!509! Specialized!wing!phalanx!

!510! Synsacrum!

! ! !!

511! Tibiotarsus!

!512! Tarsometatarsus!

! ! !!

515! Phalanx,!general!

!516! 1st!phalanx!

!517! 2nd!phalanx!!

!518! 3rd!phalanx!

!519! Ungual!phalanx,!claw!

!520! Urostyle!

!521! Pygostyle!

! ! !!

600! Basipterygium!

!601! Modified!vertebra!

!602! Trunk!vertebra!

!603! Caudal!vertebra!

! 212!

!604! Pectoral!spine!

!605! Dorsal!spine!

!606! Neural!spine!

!607! Haemal!spine!

!608! Gular!plate!

!609! Pelvis!

!610! Fused!Lumbar!

!611! Fused!Thoracic!

! ! !!

620! Carapace!

!621! Nuchal!!

!622! Nural!

!623! Pleural!

!624! Marginal!

!625! Suprapygal!

!626! Pygal!

! ! !!

630! Plastron!

!631! Epiplastron!

!632! Entoplastron!

!633! Hyoplastron!

!634! Xiphiplastron!

! ! !Nonskeletal(

!700! Eggshell!

!710! Feather!

!720! Scale!

!730! Shell,!general!

!731! Valve!

!732! Umbo!

!735! Bivalve!shell!

!736! Gastropod!shell!

! !

! 213!

APPENDIX(C:((

(VARIABLE(AND(VALUE(LIST((

(

!Site(

! !!

LA!175!!

! ! !Locus(

! !!

0! Site!Surface!Collection!

!1! Locus!1!(Plaza?!&!Room!block!100C199)!

!2! Locus!2!(Room!block!1C99)!

!3! Locus!3!(Midden)!

! ! !PD(Number(

! !

( !

Assigned!Provience!Designation!Number!(associated!with!horizontal!and!vertical!location!of!excavation!unit)!

( ! !Field(Specimen((FS)(Number(

!3! Animal!Bone!

!10! Human!Bone!

!11! Worked!Bone!or!Bone!Tool!

!13! Shell!Artifact!

!21+! Independently!assigned!FS!#!

! ! !Point(Location(

! !!

Provience!if!available!

! ! !Room/Feature(

! !!

F##! Feature!Number!

!R##! Room!Number!

!F##/R##! Feature!in!a!room!

! !Structure!

!M! Midden!

! ! !Taxon(

! !!

See!Taxonomic!List!

! ! !Certainty(

! !!

0! Not!Applicable!

! 214!

!1! Certain!

!2! Uncertain!

! ! !Element(

! !!

See!Element!Value!List!

! ! !Element(Side(

! !!

0! Not!applicable!

!1! Indeterminate!

!2! Axial!

!3! Right!

!4! Left!

! ! !Portion(

! !!

0! Not!applicable!

!1! Indeterminate!

!2! Complete!

!3! Complete!with!one!epiphysis!missing!

!4! Diaphysis!Only!

!5! Epiphysis!Only!

!6! More!than!75%!Present!

!7! 50C75%!Present!

!8! 25C50%!Present!

!9! Less!than!25%!Present!

!10! Diaphysis,!75%!cylinder!

!11! Diaphysis,!50C75%!of!cylinder!

!12! Diaphysis,!25C50%!of!cylinder!

!13! Diaphysis,!less!than!25%!of!cylinder!!

!14! Epiphysis,!more!than!75%!present!

!15! Epiphysis,!50C75%!present!

!16! Epiphysis,!25C50%!present!

!17! Epiphysis,!less!than!25%!present!!

!18! Centrum!only!

!19! Process!only!

! ! !Proximity(

! !!

0! Not!applicable!

!1! Indeterminate!

!2! Proximal!

!3! Distal!

! 215!

!4! Midshaft!

! ! !Age(

! !!

0! Not!applicable!

!1! Indeterminate!

!2! Fetal/Neonate!

!3! Juvenile!

!4! Immature,!not!further!specified!

!5! Mature,!young!

!6! Mature!

! ! !Condition( !! !!

( ! !Environmental(Alteration(Type(

!0! Not!applicable!

!1! Indeterminate!

!2! None!

!3! Pitting!(dissolution)!

!4! Erosion!(scoring!or!pitting)!

!5! Weathering!(cracked!and!flaked)!

!6! Solutional!staining!

!7! Abrasion!

!8! Root!Tracing!

! ! !Environmental(Alteration(Location(

!0! Not!Applicable!

!1! Indeterminate!

!2! (Do!Not!Use)!

!3! Discontinuous,!entire!specimen!

!4! Light,!entire!specimen!

!5! Moderate,!entire!specimen!

!6! Heavy,!entire!specimen!

!7! Proximal!2/3!

!8! Proximal!1/3!

!9! Proximal!epiphysis!or!end!only!

!10! Distal!2/3!

!11! Distal!1/3!

!12! Distal!epiphysis!or!end!only!

!13! Proximal!and!distal!ends!

!14! Medial!!

! 216!

!15! Lateral!

!16! Projecting!surfaces!

!17! Margins!only!

! ! !Animal(Alteration(Type(

!!

0! Not!Applicable!

!1! Indeterminate!

!2! None!

!3! Gnawing!present,!agent!indeterminate!

!4! Rodent!Gnawing!

!5! Carnivore!Gnawing!

!6! Rodent!and!Carnivore!Gnawing!

!7! Carnivore!bite!marks!

!8! Human!gnawing!

!9! Human!and!rodent!or!carnivore!gnawing!

! ! !Animal(Alteration(Location(

!0! Not!Applicable!

!1! Indeterminate!

!2! (Do!Not!Use)!

!3! Discontinuous,!entire!specimen!

!4! Light,!entire!specimen!

!5! Moderate,!entire!specimen!

!6! Heavy,!entire!specimen!

!7! Proximal!2/3!

!8! Proximal!1/3!

!9! Proximal!epiphysis!or!end!only!

!10! Distal!2/3!

!11! Distal!1/3!

!12! Distal!epiphysis!or!end!only!

!13! Proximal!and!distal!ends!

!14! Medial!!

!15! Lateral!

!16! Projecting!surfaces!

!17! Margins!only!

! ! !Burning(Type(

! !!

0! Not!Applicable!

!1! Indeterminate!

!2! None!

! 217!

!3! Light!(tan/brown)!

!4! Graded,!light!to!heavy!

!5! Heavy!(black)!

!6! Graded!heavy!to!calcined!

!7! Calcined!(grey/white)!

! ! !Burning(Timing(

!!

0! Not!Applicable!

!1! Indeterminate!

!2! (Do!Not!Use)!

!3! Prebreakage!

!4! Postbreakage!

! ! !Burning(Location(

!!

0! Not!Applicable!

!1! Indeterminate!

!2! (Do!Not!Use)!

!3! Discontinuous,!entire!specimen!

!4! Light,!entire!specimen!

!5! Moderate,!entire!specimen!

!6! Heavy,!entire!specimen!

!7! Proximal!2/3!

!8! Proximal!1/3!

!9! Proximal!epiphysis!or!end!only!

!10! Distal!2/3!

!11! Distal!1/3!

!12! Distal!epiphysis!or!end!only!

!13! Proximal!and!distal!ends!

!14! Medial!!

!15! Lateral!

!16! Projecting!surfaces!

!17! Margins!only!

! ! !Human(Alterations,(cut(marks(and(impacts(

!0! Not!applicable!

!1! Indeterminate!

!2! None!

!3! Organized!cuts!Proximal!!

!4! Organized!cuts!Distal!

!5! Organized!Cuts!Midshaft!

! 218!

!6! Grooved,!indeterminate!

!7! Grooved!transverse!

!8! Grooved!longitudinal!

!9! Grooved!oblique!

!10! Grooved!multiple!

!11! Grooved!and!broken!indeterminate!

!12! Grooved!and!broken!transverse!

!13! Grooved!and!broken!longitudinal!!

!14! Grooved!and!broken!!oblique!

!15! Grooved!and!broken!multiple!

!16! Impact!fracture!

!17! Spiral!fracture!

!18! Abrasion!

!19! Snap!break!

!20! Drilled!

!21! Split!

!22! Flaked!margins!

!23! Sawn!

! ! !Human(Modification(

!!

0! Not!applicable!!

!1! Indeterminate!

!2! None!

!3! Manufacturing!Debris,!indeterminate!

!4! Waste!

!5! Waste!multiple!cuts!or!grooves!

!6! Waste!some!polish!grooved!and!broken!

!7! Preform!tool!

!8! Bone!Bead!

!9! Bone!Bead!Fragment!

!10! Bone!Ring!

!11! Shell!Bead!

!12! Shell!Bead!Fragment!

!13! Shell!Bracelet!

!14! Shell!Bracelet!Fragment!

!15! Shell!Ring!

!16! Awl!fragment!

!17! Awl!fine!point!

!18! Awl!coarse!point!

!19! Pin!

! 219!

!20! Spatulate!

!21! Scraper!

!22! Shuttle!

!23! Scoop!

!24! Hoe!!

!25! Bone!needle!

!26! Gaming!piece!

!!