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M E R A B M A M A R D A ~ V I L I
A N A L Y S I S O F C O N S C I O U S N E S S I N T H E W O R K S
O F M A R X *
Re f e r e n c e t o M a r x h a s b e c o m e in p h i lo s o p h y a f o r m o f c o m p r e h e n s io n
of a theory and of cr i t ica l se lf - ref lec t ion of the researcher . This is no
acc iden t . Marx coun ts among those few th inkers - - pe rhaps a handfu l
- - i n t he h i s to r y o f h u m a n i ty w h o h a v e o p e n e d to t h o u g h t w h o le p l a ne s
o f rea l i ty and who have de tec ted masses o f new ob jec t ive re la t ionsh ips
and connec t ions . Uncov er ing these new geo log ica l l aye rs , these
th inkers mark fo r cen tu r ie s to come how one de f ines though t , wha t i s
the pa th o f i t s deve lopment , and even wha t i t means fo r though t to be
ra t iona l . Peop le l ike Ga l i leo , E ins te in and Marx have pu t in the hands
of re sea rche rs a who le mass o f new ob jec t s c ry ing ou t fo r e luc ida t ion - -
a new ob jec t ive con t inen t tha t was no t the re fo r p rev ious though t and
which subsequen t thoug h t canno t a f fo rd to ignore.
A m o n g th e m a n y o b j e c t s i n t h e M a r x i a n r e c o n s t r u c t i o n w e f i n d
thought , both in tu i t ive and ref lec t ive , as needing thoroughly socia l
ana lys is . F r om th is recons t ruc t ion a r i se wha t we ca ll con tem pora ry
approaches to consc iousness - - i . e . , the p rob lems and approaches tha t
cou ld no t be conce ived p r io r to Marx . We see these consequences - -
somet im es in s t range and m asked fo rms - - in ou r inab i li ty to exp la in ,
f rom a t rad i t iona l en l igh tenment ra t iona l i s t v iewpoin t , movements l ike
ex is ten t ia l i sm, phenomeno logy ,
Wissenssoziologie
psychoana lys i s , and
s t ruc tu ra l i sm in the s tudy o f cu l tu re (wh ich , by the way , a l so exp la ins
why our excurs ions in to the thbugh t o f Marx a re so necessa ry ) . For , i t
was p rec i se ly Marx who in t roduced a se r ie s o f heur i s t i c dev ices tha t
sp rang the conf ines o f t r ad i t iona l ph i lo sophy - - inc lud ing the fa l lacy o f
speaking of pure cons cious ness as se lf -ac t iva t ing and crea t ive with in
the conf ines o f an agen t tha t tu rns ou t to be the human ind iv idua l . The
ob jec t s o f the inves t iga t ion o f consc iousness a re e l sewhere , wi th new
dependenc ies and pa ramete rs , wh ich a re a l l unava i lab le to in te rna l
* T rans la ted f rom Voprosyfilosofii6 1968) , pp . 13- -25 .
Studies in Soviet Thought
32 1986) , 101 - -12 0 .
© 1986 by D ReidelPublishing Company
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1 2 M E R A B M A M A R D A g V I L I
o b s e r v a t i o n a n d i n t r o s p e c t i o n . T h e s e m e t h o d s , w h i c h h a d d o m i n a t e d
e p i s t e m o l o g y f o r s o l o n g , a r e n o w t o b e s h u n t e d t o t h e s i d e.
M a r x e f f e c t e d t hi s r e v o l u t i o n a b o v e a ll in h is e c o n o m i c i n v e s ti g a ti o n s
o f a ce r t a in soc ia l fo rmat ion - - cap i t a l i sm; inves t iga t ions wh ich con-
c r e t i z e d ( a n d d e v e l o p e d i n u n f o r e s e e a b l e d i r e c t i o n s ) t h e e l e m e n t s
c o n c e r n i n g c o n s c i o u s n e s s in t h e m a t e r i a li s t c o n c e p t i o n o f h i s to r y , w h i c h
h a d h i th e r t o b e e n - - t o u s e a n e x p r e s s i o n o f L e n i n - - o n l y h y p o t h e ti c a l.
W e h a v e t o m a k e a fe w p r e li m i n a r y r e m a r k s ( b e c a u s e in M a r x w e d o
n o t f i n d a d i s t in c t e p i s t e m o l o g y , o r a c c o u n t o f m e t h o d , o r o f d i a le c t ic ,
etc.). 1
I n e c o n o m i c s , M a r x c a r r i e d o n m a i n l y m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a n d p h i l o s o -
p h i c w o r k , al th o u g h h e u s e d t h e t e r m s a n d p r o b l e m a r e a s o f e c o n o m i c s
i ts el f. T h i s p h i l o s o p h i c w o r k w a s b o t h c o n d i t i o n a n d c o n t e n t o f t h e
r e c o n s t r u c t i o n h e c a r r i e d o u t i n p o l it i c al e c o n o m y . I t w a s a l s o c o n d i t i o n
a n d c o n t e n t o f t h a t f o r m ( o r p a r a d ig m , a s o n e l i k es t o s a y t o d a y ) o f
p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y c o n s c i o u s t h o u g h t e s s e n t i a l f o r ( p o l i t i c a l - e c o n o m i c )
d i s c o v e r i e s th a t r e v o l u t i o n i z e d w h o l e b r a n c h e s o f t h is s c i e n c e a n d
e l a b o r a t e d n e w s o r t s o f t h e o r y . O b j e c t i v e l y , w e f in d i n th i s s o r t o f
t h o u g h t a w h o l e s e ri e s o f p h i l o s o p h i c h y p o t h e s e s a n d h e u r i s ti c d e v i c e s .
T h e s e a r e d e v e l o p e d i n t h e l a n g u a g e o f e c o n o m i c s b u t c o u l d a l s o b e
r e f i n e d a s g e n e r a l l y u s e f u l p h i l o s o p h i c c a t e g o r i e s . A m o n g t h e m , f o r
e x a m p l e , is t h e t h e si s o n t h e n a t u r e o f t h in g s s e n s i b le - s u p r a s e n s i b l e , o r
s o c i a l ( M a r x ) , p r o b l e m s o f o b j e c t i v a t i o n , a n d o f r e l a ti o n s o f o b j e c t if i -
a b l e , s o c i a l l y o b j e c t i v e f o r m s t o t h e s u b j e c t i v e l y a c t i v e c a p a c i t i e s o f
m a n ; t h e r e l a t io n s o f r a t io n a l k n o w l e d g e t o e c o n o m i c a c t iv i ty ; a n d t h e
q u e s t i o n a s t o h o w t h is r e a l it y c a n p r e s e n t i t se l f t o t h e d i r e c t o b s e r v e r
a n d w h y i t c a n b e m i s r e p r e s e n t e d , e tc . 2
W e h a v e s p e c i f i e d t h o s e p r o p o s i t i o n s b e c a u s e t h e y p r e s u p p o s e a
c e r ta i n t h e o r y o f c o n s c io u s n e s s . S u c h a t h e o r y c o u l d b e f o u n d i n M a r x
i n a q u i t e p r o f o u n d f o r m , a l t h o u g h i t w a s f u ll y u n d e r s t o o d o n l y la t e r,
a n d m e a n w h i l e m a n y a s p e c t s w e r e r e i n v e n t e d a n d f a l se l y a t t ri b u t e d t o
o the r s ( e .g . to phenomeno log i s t s , ex i s t en t i a l i s t s , p sychoana lys t s
e t a l . 3
O f c o u r s e , w h a t i s h i g h l i g h t e d i n t h e M a r x i a n w o r k s i s t h a t i t
c a r r ie s o u t o b j e c t i v e a n d s y s t e m - s t r u c t u r a l i n v e s t i g a ti o n o f it s o b j e c t - -
e c o n o m i c r e l a ti o n s o f a c e r ta i n s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n , w h i c h a r e n o t e x -
p l a i n e d b y t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e s u b j e c t s c a r ry i n g
t h e m . E x c l u d e d a l s o a r e al l r e f e r e n c e s to t h e s u b j e c t s ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g , t o
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CONSCIOU SNESS IN MARX 1 3
e c o n o m i c p r o c e s s e s , t o t h e i r v o l i t i o n s , m o t i v a t i o n s , e t c . W h a t i s i n v e s -
t i g a t e d i s t h e e n t i r e , s e l f - d e v e l o p i n g o r g a n i c w h o l e . T h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f
M a r x c a n b e s e e n p r e c i s e ly in t h e f a c t t h a t h e w a s a b l e to o p e n u p s u c h
a p a t h t o s c i e n c e , t h a t h e r e v e a l e d t h e h i d d e n a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l c o n s t i t u -
t i o n o f th e s u b j e c t s c a rr y i n g t h e m . E x c l u d e d a l s o a r e all r e f e r e n c e s t o
t h e s u b j e c t s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , t o e c o n o m i c p r o c e s s e s , t o t h e i r v o l i t i o n s ,
mot iva t ions , e t c . What i s inves t iga ted i s the en t i r e , s e l f -deve lop ing
o r g a n ic w h o l e . T h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f M a r x c a n b e s e e n p r e c is e l y i n t h e
f a c t t h a t h e w a s a b l e t o o p e n u p s u c h a p a t h t o s c i e n c e , t h a t h e r e v e a l e d
t h e h i d d e n a n t h r o p o l o g i s m o f p r e v i o u s p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y w h i c h c o n -
s i s t e d i n a b s t r a c t a n d u n e x a m i n e d a n t i - h i s t o r i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t
m a n , a b o u t h is n e e d s a n d i n te r e st s, a n d s o o n . M a r x m e t h o d o f
i n v e st ig a t io n o f e c o n o m i c p h e n o m e n a is o b je c t i v e a n d d o e s n o t u s e t h e
p s y c h i c p r o c e s s e s a n d c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f i n d i v id u a l s a s a p o i n t o f
d e p a r t u r e ( a l th o u g h a l l t h e v a r i o u s p r o c e s s e s a n d c o n t e n t o f c o n s c i o u s -
n e s s d o a p p e a r i n t h e i n v e s ti g a ti o n s) .
H o w e v e r , i n w h a t f o r m d o w e f i n d h e r e c o n s c i o u s n e s s , i t s p h e -
n o m e n a a n d i t s r e l a t i o n s ? I t e x i s t s a n d s o m e t h i n g i s a s s u m e d a b o u t i t .
T he re i s the in te res t ing f ac t tha t i t i s an ob jec t ive , ma te r ia l i s ti c m e th od
o f a n al y si s o f s o c ia l p h e n o m e n a t h at c o n t a i n e d t h e k e y t o u n d e r s t a n d -
i n g c o n s c i o u s n e s s a s a s p e c i a l m o d a l i t y . T h i s a p p r o a c h a l s o m a d e
p o s s i b l e d i s t i n c t i o n s a m o n g i t s v a r i o u s f u n c t i o n s , a n d a m o n g b a s i c
c o n c e p t i o n s o f it s n a t u r e , i t s f u n c t io n s a n d t h e d i v e r s i t y o f i ts f o rm .
T h e f a c t is th a t M a r x h a d h i s o w n w a y o f d e s c r i b i n g s o c i a l sy s t em s :
i n e a c h c a s e , h e w o u l d c o n s t r u c t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n s u c h a w a y t h a t
f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g h e h a d t o d o w i t h s y s t e m s a c t u a l i z i n g a n d f u n c -
t io n i n g t h r o u g h c o n s c i o u s n e s s ; i.e . s u c h t h a t t h e y c o n t a i n e d r e f l e c t io n a s
a n e c e s s a r y e l e m e n t ( o r , a g ai n , s u c h t h a t t h e y c o n t a i n e d t h e r e s e a r c h e r s
c o n s c i o u s n e s s a s a n e l e m e n t i n t ri n si c t o t h e a c t o f r e s e a rc h i n g ) . S y s t e m s
o f t h i s k i n d w e r e f o r h i m , b y d e f i n i t i o n , s o c i a l - e c o n o m i c s y s t e m s ;
w h e n c e i t w a s p o s s i b l e t o c o n s i d e r c o n s c i o u s n e s s a s a f u n c t i o n o r
a t t r ib u t e o f s o c i a l sy s t e m s o f a c ti v it y , d r a w i n g i ts c o n t e n t a n d s t r u c t u r e s
( o r f o r m s ) f r o m t h e d i f fe r e n t ia t e d s y s t em i c li nk s, a n d n o t r e s t r ic t e d
s i m p l y t o t h e r e f l e c t i o n o f a n o b j e c t i n t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f a s u b j e c t . T h e
c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h i s t y p e o f a n a l y s i s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s t h a t s o c i a l -
o b j e c t i v e f o r m s a n d s o c i a l t h in g s t u r n o u t t o b e a p p l i c a b l e t o i t a s t h e
e x t e n s i o n t h e r e o f t o t h e l e v e l o f h u m a n s u b j e c ti v it y . H e r e i s t h e p i v o t a l
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104 MERAB MAMARDASVILI
point, that in the investigation of consciousness it be seen as indepen-
dent of the psychologically conscious expressions of the spiritual life of
the individual, of his various forms of self-assessment and self-under-
standing, of motivational language, etc.
The consciousness that exists in subjects can in principle be studied
completely objectively, according to its objectivities , and according to
the meaningful objects that are seen as generated by the self-develop-
ment and differentiation of the system of social activity as a whole. As
we have seen, it is just here that Marx wants to do his reconstruction.
He wants to find the determinants and formative mechanisms of the
objects of knowledge that are representatives (or replacements ) for
something else. He wants to know their objective content and the role
they play in the behavior of the individual. He wants also to find the
social fabric of these mechanisms -- the real interplay between people
(even though the mechanisms of the formation of consciousness are not
directly given).
Thus, while for classical philosophy -- which was a philosophy of
self-consciousness -- consciousness had a teleological structure and
was measured uniquely by perception and representation as actualized
in the reflexive knowledge of the individual, Marx was the first to place
consciousness into the domain of scientific determinism, and to reveal
its social transformation and social mechanisms.4
Instead of being monochromatic and flat , consciousness reveals its
archeological depths; it turns out to be polychromatic, and penetrated
with determinants from simultaneously active levels -- the level of
social mechanisms, of the unconscious, of cultural systems of signs, etc.
What is more, there is the genetic side, with various causes acting at
various times according to various laws. Of course, consciousness of
these depths and diverse parameters could not be found in the self-
conscious work of the individual thinking about himself and about the
world; and the products of consciousness could not be traced back to
this individual activity. Consciousness is only one of the metamorphoses
of the extensive and diverse whole -- only the tip of the iceberg. It has
to be studied along with its hidden parts and in dependence on them.
From the structure of the Marxian analysis of consciousness flow
the elements of a whole series of theories: (1) the theoretical model of
the social conditioning of consciousness; (2) the theory of fetishism and
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C O N S C I O U S N E S S IN M A R X 1 0 5
s y m b o l i z a t i o n o f t h e s o c i a l i n c o n s c i o u s n e s s ; ( 3 ) t h e t h e o r y o f i d e o l o g y
( w e n o t e t h a t M a r x a n t i ci p a t ed h e r e w h a t la t e r b e c a m e Wissenssoz io -
logie);
( 4 ) t h e t h e o r y o f sc i e n c e a n d o f f r e e sp i r it u a l p r o d u c t i o n a s
s p e c i a l f o r m s o f t h e a c t i v i t y o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s ; ( 5 ) t h e t h e o r y o f c o n -
s c i o u sn e s s as in s t ru m e n t o f t h e i n d iv i d u al d e v e l o p m e n t o f m a n a n d o f
h i s r e spons ib i l i ty in the sp here s o f cu l tu re an d o f h i s to r i ca l ac t iv i ty .
H e r e w e w ill li m it o u r s e lv e s t o s o m e p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e c o u r s e o f
M a r x i a n t h o u g h t t h a t g e n e r a t e d t h e r i c h b r a n c h e s , h e u r i s t i c a b s t r a c t i o n s
a n d s c h e m a t a , w h i c h m a r k t h e s p e c i f ic i ty o f t h e M a r x i a n a n a l y si s o f
c o n s c i o u s n e s s .
E v e n i n th e t r e a t m e n t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s th a t M a r x p r o v i d e s w h e n
d e a li n g w i t h t h e c o m m o d i t y m o d e l i n Capi ta l , w e s e e t h e a b o v e t r a i t s
o f th e g e n e r a ll y M a r x i a n m e t h o d , w h i c h c a n b e c a l le d t h e i m p e r s o n a l
( o r r e d u c t i v e - o b j e c t i v e ) a n a l y s i s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d c u l t u r e . L e t u s
expla in .
M a r x c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e c o m m o d i t y a s a t h in g th a t i s s e n s i b l e - s u p r a -
sens ib le o r soc ia l ; i . e . i t i s such tha t , a longs ide i t s na tu ra l and s ens ib le
p r o p e r t i e s , i t e x p r e s s e s t o s e n s u o u s i n t u i t i o n w h a t i s n o t d i r e c t l y g i v e n
( w h a t o n l y p e r c e p t i o n c a n e n c o m p a s s ) , b e c a u s e o f th e s o c i a l p r o p e r t i e s
a n d r e l a ti o n s t h a t b e l o n g t o it s n a t u r a l b o d y .
I n t h e p r e s e n t i n s t a n c e i t i s v a l u e t h a t i s e x p r e s s e d i n t h e c o m m o d i t y .
T h e m a t e r ia l f o r m s o f t h e p r o d u c t s o f h u m a n a c ti v it y a l w a y s h a v e t h e
p r o p e r t y o f b e i n g s ig n s o f s o c i a l s i g ni f ic a n c e a n d a s s u c h r e g u l a t e t h e
c o n s c i o u s a c t iv i ty o f i n d iv i d u a l s a s w e l l a s t h e i r i n t e r c o u r s e . B u t i n
c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h e p r o p e r t y o f h av i n g, e .g ., v a l u e a n d , t h e r e f o r e , o f b e i n g
the s ign o f soc ia l s ign i f i cance , be longs p rec i s e ly to th ings , i . e . to the i r
c o n c r e t e b o d i l y n a tu r e . I t c o n c e a l s f r o m i n d i v i d u a ls t h e s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r
o f th e i r l a b o r i n t h e f o r m o f a s u p r a - s e n si b l e p r o p e r t y ( in t h e u n d e r -
s t and ing o f it) , anc ho red in i t a s in a f e ti sh . Th i s i s the f e t i sh i sm
u n c o v e r e d b y M a r x i n t h e p r o d u c t s o f l a b o r , p r e s e n t a s s o o n a s t h e y
a r e p r o d u c e d a s c o m m o d i t i e s . . . S o 6 . iz .2 , t .23 , s t r .82) . This i s
p r e c i se l y a f o r m o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s - - i ts s y m b o l i z in g a n d c o n n o t a t i o n a l
a c ti v it y - - t h a t M a r x r e v e a ls a n d f r o m w h i c h f o l l o w a w h o l e s e r i e s o f
t r a it s t h a t b e l o n g t o t h e s o c i a l b e i n g - c o n s c i o u s n e s s p a i r in g a n d to t h e
m e t h o d o f a n a ly z i n g it.
W h y d o e s t h e o b j e c t o c c u r i n c o n s c i o u s n e s s j u s t in th is f o r m r a t h e r
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t h a n i n a n o t h e r ? M a r x ' c o n s t a n t a n s w e r t o t hi s q u e s t i o n ( n o t o n l y i n
e c o n o m i c s b u t a l s o i n h i s s o c i a l r e s e a r c h a n d p o l i t i c a l w o r k s ) i n v o k e s
d i s t a n ti a t io n f r o m t h e m e c h a n i s m s o f i n d i v id u a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d
f r o m t h e c o r r e c t n e s s o r i n c o r r e c t n e s s o f t h e in d i v id u a l 's u n d e r s t a n d i n g .
I n o r d e r t o p e n e t r a t e i n t o t h e p r o c e s s e s g o i n g o n i n c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,
M a r x p e r f o r m s t h e f o l l o w i n g a b s t r a c t i o n : i n t h e s p a c e b e t w e e n t h e t w o
m em be rs o f the r e la t ion ob jec t (phys ica l bo dy , s ign o f soc ia l s ign if i-
c a n c e s ) - - h u m a n s u b j e c t i v i t y , w h i c h a r e o n l y s u p e r f i c i a l l y g i v e n , h e
i n s e r ts a s p e c ia l l in k , t h e w h o l e s y s t e m o f c o n t e n t f u l ( s o d e r i a t e l n y e )
s o c i a l l i n k s - - t h e l i n k s o f e x c h a n g e o f a c t i v i t i e s a m o n g p e o p l e , f o r m e d
i n t o a d i f f e r e n t i a t e d a n d h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r u c t u r e . T h e n h e s t u d i e s t h e
p r o c e s s e s a n d m e c h a n i s m s t h a t f lo w f r o m t h e f a c t o f t h e p o l y v a le n t
in te r tw in ing and l aye r ing o f r e l a t ions in th i s sys tem, acco rd ing to the
l e v el s a n d s t a g es in t o w h i c h h u m a n a c t iv i ty b l o o m s , i n c r ea s i n g i n
soc ia l fo rce .
Th e in t ro du c t ion o f th i s m ed ia t ing l ink t r ans fo rm s a l l the r e la tions , in
t h e f r a m e w o r k o f w h i c h c o n s c i o u s n e s s is s tu d ie d . T h e f o r m s a c q u i r e d
b y s e p a r a t e o b j e c t s ( a n d p e r c e i v e d b y s u b j e c t i v i t y ) a r e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n s
o f t h e s y s t e m ( o r s u b s y s t e m ) o f t h e r e l a t i o n s , d r a w i n g t h e i r l i f e f r o m
t h e ir i n t e r c o n n e c ti o n s . T h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e c o n s c io u s n e s s a n d p e r -
c e p t i o n o f t h e s u b j e c t o c c u r s i n t h e s p a c e s c r e a t e d b y o r , i f y o u li k e ,
r es t r i c t ed by these r e la t ions . I t i s ac ros s these r e la t ions tha t the s tudy o f
c o n s c i o u s n e s s m u s t f r a y i t s a c t u a l p a t h ; i . e . o n e m u s t f i n d t h e t y p e s o f
m o t i v e s , i n t e r e s t s a n d m e a n i n g s t h a t a r e s e t i n m o t i o n b y a g i v e n s o c i a l
sys tem.
P u s h i n g t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e c o m m o d i t y a n d o f e c o n o m i c f o r m s i n
g e n e r a l a l o n g t h is p a t h , M a r x r a d i ca l ly c h a n g e s t h e w h o l e s y s t e m o f t h e
c a u s a l i t y o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . M e c h a n i c a l c a u s a l i t y - - a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l l y
i m p o r t e d b y t h e p r e v i o u s r a t i o n a l i s m i n t o t h e s o c i a l e x p e r i e n c e o f
c o n s c i o u s n e s s - - s i m p l y w i l l n o t w o r k s i n c e i t i s b a s e d o n t h e p r e -
s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s a c t u a ll y c a p a b l e i n e v e r y i n s ta n c e o f
kno w ing h i s r ea l in te res t s and h i s r ea l s ta tus , and tha t the ob jec t s he
p e r c e i v e s c a u s e h i s s u b j e c t i v e i m a g e s ( a c c o r d i n g to t h e l a w o f a s s o -
c i a ti o n , u n d e r s t o o d b y t h e t h in k i n g i n d iv i d u a l) . D r o p p i n g t h is p r e s u p -
p o s i t i o n , M a r x d e r i v e s t h e f o r m a t i o n o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s n o t f r o m t h e
i m m e d i a t e c o n t e n t~ o f s e p a r a t e o b j e c t s , b r o u g h t f r o m s e n s a t io n i n t o
c o n s c i o u s n e s s , b u t f r o m t h e r e l a t i o n s a r i s i n g a m o n g t h e o b j e c t s i n t h e
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s y s t e m , a n d f r o m t h e i r p l a c e a n d d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a m o n g t h e s e r e l a ti o n s .
S e p a r a t e o b je c t s n o w a p p e a r a s d e p o s i ts o r s e d i m e n t a t io n s o f t h e
s y s t e m , i n w h i c h w i d e r l in k s a n d r e l a t i o n s p e e k o u t , as i t w e r e . T h e i r
f o r m c a n b e d e t e c t e d v i a a n a l y s i s a s s o o n a s t h e y a r i s e f r o m t h e
r e l a t io n s i n th i s s t r u c tu r e . P e r c e p t i o n t h e r e o f in c o n s c i o u s n e s s - - w h i c h
w e w ill e x a m i n e m o r e c a r e f u ll y b e l o w - - is m a r k e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e
r e l a t io n s a n d b o n d s a r e v o i d e d o f t h e i r p r i m i t iv e c o n t e n t . T h e f o r m
s e r v e s t o r e p r e s e n t ( o r r e p l a c e ) t h e m i n c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d i n d i v i d u a l
t h o u g h t i s n o t a b l e t o g r a s p t h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v i t y . W h e n c e i t i s u n d e r -
s t a n d a b l e t h a t r e l a ti v e t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s o n e c a n f i n d o n l y c a u s a t i o n
i n d u c e d i n th e i s o la t e d m e m b e r s o f th e s y s t e m b y t h e s y s t e m in g e n e ra l ;
i t is a m a t t e r o f s y s t e m s c a u s a l i ty a n d o f n o o t h e r s o rt . M a r x ' c o n -
t e n t i o n t h a t s o c ia l c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s c o n d i t i o n e d b y s o c i a l b e i n g a n d t h a t
t h e c o n t e n t s o f id e o l og i c al , l eg a l a n d o t h e r s u p e r s tr u c t u r a l p h e n o m e n a
a n d d i r e c t l y i n f l u e n c e d b y e c o n o m i c r e l a ti o n s , et c. h a v e t o b e s e e n i n
t h e l i g h t o f t h e s e a b s t r a c t i o n s a n d i d e a l i z a t i o n s w h i c h u n d e r l i e t h e
M a r x i a n s c h e m a t a o f t h e c a u s a l l i n k b e t w e e n s o c i a l b e i n g a n d s o c i a l
c o n s c i o u s n e s s . I t s u f fi c e s t o c l e a n s e t h e m a n d t o b e n d t hi s s c h e m a i n a n
a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l d i r e c t i o n t o m a k e i t s e n s e l e s s ( a s h a p p e n s , e . g . , a m o n g
e c o n o m i c m a t e r ia l is t s ) . P r e c i s e ly i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e r e v e l a t i o n o f
s y s t e m i c c a u s a l i t y a n d o f t h e f i r s t f o r m s o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s o f
c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a p p e a r i n M a r x t h e f i rs t e l e m e n t s o f h is m a t e r i a l is t
a p p r o a c h - - n a m e l y , t h e e x t e n s i o n t o t h e li fe o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e
p r i n c i p l e s o f s o c i a l d e t e r m i n i s m - - w h i c h m a k e s i t p o s s i b l e t o u n d e r -
s t a n d m o r e c o m p l e x a n d r e la t iv e ly a u t o n o m o u s f o r m s a n d b r a n c h e s o f
c o n s c i o u s n e s s .
U s i n g t h e s c h e m a o f s y s t e m i c c a u s a li ty M a r x a c t u a l ly d e t e c t s t h e
e f f e c ts o f t h e a c t i o n o f th e s y s t e m s i m u l t a n e o u s l y o n s u b j e c t a n d o n
o b j e c t , a n d m a k e s a n i n t e r e s t i n g d i s c o v e r y - - r e l a t i v e t o t h e s e s i m u l -
t a n e o u s l y s e i z e d ( o r g r a s p e d ) e f f e c t s i t i s s e n s e l e s s t o d i s t i n g u i s h o b j e c t
f r o m c o n s c i o u s n e s s o r r e a l f r o m p e r c e i v e d . I t is d if f ic u l t n o t t o d r a w
a t t e n t i o n t o t h e f a c t t h a t M a r x a l w a y s g o e s t o t h o s e p o i n t s , w h e r e
r e l a t io n s i n v o l v e e x a c t l y w h a t t h e y i n f a c t r e p r e s e n t
S o g . ,
t . 23 , s t r .83) .
T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r ly t h e c a s e w h e n M a r x t u r n s t o a n a l y z e th e m i r a c l e s
a n d g h o s ts o f t h e c o m m o d i t y w o r l d w h i c h c a n n o t a t a ll b e d e r i v e d
f r o m t h e a c t s o f t h e t h i n k i n g i n d i v i d u a l . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h e
p h e n o m e n a M a r x t r e a ts a s c o n s c io u s n e s s: c o m m o d i t y f o r m , v a l u e
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1 0 8 M E R A B M A M A R D A ~ )V IL I
fo rm" , " l abor va lue" , "p r i ce o f cap i t a l , "pe rcen tage" , "va lue o f l and" .
T h e s e a r e j u s t f u ll y r e a l a n d o b j e c t i v e r e la t io n s O n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
r e l a t i v e t o t h e o b j e c t s w h i c h a r e a n a l y z e d a s p r o p e r l y e c o n o m i c ( e . g . ,
t h e m o n e y - f o r m o f v al u e ), it is d if fi c u lt t o s a y w h e t h e r t h e y a r e o b j e c t s
o r c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a n d t h i s l e a d s m a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s o n
apital
as t ray:
i s w h a t i s g o in g o n o b j e c t i v e o r s u b j e c t iv e f o r M a r x ? 5
T h e s im p l e f a c t o f th e m a t t e r i s t h a t M a r x r e v ea l s th e p h e n o m e n o -
l o g ic a l n a t u r e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s ( it s q u a s i - o b j e c t i v e c h a r a c t e r ) a n d
i n t r o d u c e s a n a b s t r a c t i o n t h a t m a k e s i t p o s s i b l e t o a n a l y z e c o n s c i o u s -
n e s s o b j e c t i v e l y a s a t ra n s f o r m a t i o n o f o b j e c t s i n to q u a s i - o b j e c t i v e
f o r m s , d e r i v e d f r o m p r o c e s s e s o c c u r r i n g i n th e i n te r n a l w o r l d o f t h e
s u b j e c t, I t i s t h e t r e m e n d o u s c o n t r i b u t i o n o f M a r x t o h a v e f i rs t g i v e n t o
t h e w o r d " p h e n o m e n o n " i ts c o n t e m p o r a r y s ig n if ic a nc e . B e f o r e all
s u b s e q u e n t p h e n o m e n o l o g i s t s , h e c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h a t t o " g o
b e y o n d t h e p h e n o m e n o n " m e a n s t o e x pl a in t h e s o ci a l s y s te m o f c o m -
m u n i c a t i o n t h a t s u p p l i e s t h e p h e n o m e n a t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s . 6 T h e s e a r c h
f o r a n d e s t a b l i sh m e n t o f t h e id e n t i t y o f t h e a p p a r e n t a n d t h e a c t u a l ( o f
c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d o b j e c t ) i n f a c t s o l v e s o t h e r , n o n - p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l
p rob lems : f i r s t , t he who le wor ld o f the s e l f - consc ious , r e f l ex ive soc ia l
e x p e r i e n c e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d i t s i d e o l o g i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n a r e s y s -
t e m a t i c a l l y r e d u c e d ; a n d , s e c o n d l y , w h a t r e m a i n s a f t e r t h e r e d u c t i o n
e x p o s e s t h e o b j e c t i v i ty o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a s w e l l a s t h e i d e n t i ti e s o f
s p e c i a l o b j e c t s t o t h e f o r m s g e n e r a t e d b y s y s t e m a t i c r e l a t i o n s , a n d c a n ,
t h e r e f o r e , o n t h e b a s i s o f a n a ly s i s o f t h e f o r m e r e s t a b li s h a n a l y si s o f t h e
l a t te r a s t h e y a r e g i v e n ' i n t h e s y s t e m a n d g e n e r a t e d b y it. 7 W h e t h e r o n e
i s t a lk i n g a b o u t p e o p l e ' s b e l i e f i n th e s u p e r n a t u r a l p r o p e r t i e s o f o b j e c t s ,
i n g o d s , o r i n th e " y e l l o w a l g o r it h m s " a b o u t t h e v a l u e o f l a b o r - - M a r x '
g r e a t p r i n c i p l e i s t o j u d g e p r o c e s s e s i n c o n s c i o u s n e s s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e
s p e c i f i c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w h i c h r e a l r e l a t i o n s u n d e r g o , i n o r d e r t o t a k e
o n c e r t a i n o b j e c t i v e fo r m s (e .g . th e s e n s i b l e - s u p r a s e n s ib l e v a l u e o f t h e
c o m m o d i t y ) . A s a r e su l t, M a r x c a ll s f o r j u d g i n g o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s
th rough wha t i t pos i t s a s d i s t inc t f rom i t s e l f , i n i t s t ak ing on the ro le o f
p e r c e p t i o n , w h e n i t s i m p l y n o t e s w h a t g o e s o n , e t c . H e t h e n c a l l s f o r
s e e in g c o n s c i o u s n e s s o r i n t r o d u c i n g i t a s c o n d i t i o n o f t h e m o v e m e n t
a n d f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e s e t r a n s f o r m e d o b j e c t s .
L e t u s g o b a c k t o t h e c o m m o d i t y , t h a t " s e n s i b l e -s u p r a s e n s b l e
t h in g " . W h a t i s t h e c a s e ? T h e c o u r s e o f th e M a r x i a n i n v e s ti g a t io n s h o w s
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1 0 9
t h a t b e t w e e n t h e r e a l r e l a t i o n o r t h i n g a s t h e y a r e a n d h o w t h e y a r e
p r e s e n t i n c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h e r e i s a f i e l d n o t c o v e r e d b y i n d i v i d u a l
p e r c e p t i o n a n d c o m p l e t e d b y t h e s o c i a l m e c h a n i s m w h i c h p r o v i d e s t h e
i n d i v id u a l w i th s o m e s o r t o f p e r c e p t i o n o f re a li ty , e it h e r e x t e r n a l o r
i n te r n a l. T h e r e f o r e , t o a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n a s to t h e o b j e c t i v e f o r m s
t h a t a r e n o t d i f f e r e n t f r o m c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d w h e n c e t h e y c o m e , i s t h e
s a m e a s a n s w e r i n g t h e q u e s t i o n a s t o w h i c h a g e n t p r e s e n t s ( o r
s u b j e c t s ) t h i n g s t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s ( t h e m o v e m e n t o c c u r r i n g o u t s i d e o f
consc iousnes s i t s e l f ) . Marx as sumes tha t r ea l i ty i s pe rce ived in a ce r t a in
f o r m - - i n th e f o r m o f c o n s ta n t a n d i r re d u c i b l e o b j e c t s o f k n o w l e d g e ,
p r o p e r t i e s , o b j e c t i v e m e a n i n g s , i n t e n t i o n s , j u s t a s t h e e y e p e r c e i v e s n o t
t h e s u b j e c ti v e i m p r e s s i o n s o n t h e re t in a , b u t th e o b j e c t i v e f o r m o f
t h i n g s t h a t a r e o u t s i d e t h e e y e
S o d .
t . 23 , s t r . 82 ) . The charac te r o f
p e o p l e ' s a c t i v i t y i s r e - r e f l e c t e d i n t h e i r c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n t h e f o r m o f a
ce r t a in s e t o f s ign i f i can t ob jec t s . P rec i s e ly th i s r evo lu t ion in consc ious -
nes s s e t s the s t age fo r the r ep resen ta t iv i ty o f r ea l s t ruc tu res . In the case
o f t h e c o m m o d i t y , f o r e x a m p l e , th e p r o p e r s o c i a l r e l a ti o n s h i p o f p e o p l e
o f c o m m o n l a b o r ( v a l u e ) i s p r e s e n t e d b y c o n s c i o u s n e s s a s o c c u r i n g
ou t s ide the soc ia l re l a t ions o f th ings , a s consc io usn es s o f the supra -
sens ib le p roper t i e s o f these th ings (o r , in o the r cases , o f the soc ia l
r e la t i o n s o f g o d s , r e l a ti o n s o f p h y s ic a l s y m b o l s o f n e e d , o f s y m b o l s o f
soc ia l s t a tuses and ro les , and so on ) .
W e l~ no w t h e im p o r t a n c e t h a t M a r x a t t r ib u t e d t o th e p h e n o m e n a o f
p r o j e c t i o n a n d o b j e c t i v a t i o n . W e s h o u l d r e c a l l , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e
p r o j e c t i o n h e h a d i n m i n d is n o t t h e p r o d u c t o f c o n sc i o u sn e s s ; b u t c o n -
s c i o u s n e s s i s t h e r e v e r s e a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e p r o j e c t i o n a n d o b j e c t i v a t i o n
t h a t a r e g o i n g o n i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e i n d iv i d u a l, t h e y a r e e l a b o r a t e d i n
t h e s o c i a l s y s t e m ( a s i t s o b j e c t i v e a t t a c h m e n t t o t h e s o c i a l f o r m o f t h e
e x c h a n g e o f a ct iv i ty , m e d i a t e d b y t h in g s) , a n d t h a t a r e n o w c i t e d b y
i n d i v i d u a l s w h o t h e r e b y d e v e l o p i n t h e m s e l v e s t h e i n t e r n a l m e a s u r e o f
consc iousnes s . I t i s he re no t a s sumed tha t consc iousnes s i s a t a l l
ob jec t i f i ed . Som eth ing e l s e is ob jec t i f i ed . M arx v e ry de f in i t e ly s t r ikes
t h e m o d e l o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h a t p r e v a i l e d d u r i n g t h e e n l ig h t e n m e n t a n d
t r ad i t iona l r a t iona l i sm, acco rd ing to wh ich man es tab l i shes ex te rna l ,
o b j e c t i f ie d p r o d u c t s , m o d e l l e d o n o n e o r a n o t h e r o f h i s p s y c h o l o g i c a l
p r o p e r t i e s o r s t a t e s . M a r x e l i m i n a t e s s u c h a r g u m e n t a t i o n f r o m t h e
e x p l a n at io n o f t h e i n c a r n at e p r o d u c t s o f c o n s c i o u s n e ss , a n d f r o m t h e
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e x p l a n a ti o n o f th e t r a n s la t io n a n d p r o j e c t i o n o f th e p r o p e r t i e s o f h u m a n
a c t i v i t y . H e i s c l e a r e n o u g h a b o u t t h e b a s i c d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n h i s a n d
t h e t ra d i ti o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e p r o b l e m o f h o w c o n s c i o u s n e s s an d
l a n g u a g e t h a t e x i st f o r o t h e r p e o p l e a r e p r i m a r y in r e l a ti o n s h i p to
c o n s c i o u s n e s s f o r m e
S o r . ,
t .3 , s t r .29 ) . I t is a l so c lea r to h im tha t m an
i s n o t b o r n a s a F i c h t e a n p h i l o s o p h e r : I a m I , a n d t h a t it i s o n l y
t h r ou g h t h e h u m a n b e i n g P a u l t h at th e h u m a n b e i n g P e t e r b e gi n s t o
r e l a t e to h i m s e l f a s a h u m a n b e i n g S o 6 . , t .23 , s t r .62) .
V e r y i m p o r t a n t i n t h i s c o n t e x t i s w h a t o c c u r s b e f o r e t h i s t r a n s f o r m a -
t i o n a n d s e r v e s a s i t s m a i n s p r i n g , b e c a u s e p r e c i s e l y h e r e i s c o n s t i t u t e d
t h e s t r u c t u r e t h a t i s t h e d i s c o u r s e o f t h e o t h e r i n t h e m e g a p h o n e o f
consc iousnes s ; i . e . i t s soc ia l de te rmin i sm and mechan i sm ta lk ing
t h r o u g h c o n s c i o u s n e s s . O f c o u r s e , t h e a c t i v i t y o f p e o p l e i s r e f l e c t e d
w i t h i n t h e s u b j e c t b u t o n l y a f t e r i t u n d e r g o e s a w h o l e s e r i e s o f s p e c i f i c
t r an s f o rm a t i o n s . W e h a v e a l r e a d y n o t e d t h a t th e o b j e c t i v e f o r m d r a w s
i ts p r im a r y c o n t e n t a n d l i fe f r o m t h e c o m p l e x o f re a l re l a t io n s a n d t h e i r
d i f f e ren t i a t ion in a de f in i t e sys tem o f in te rac t ion . B u t , in the ir co un te r -
p o s i t i o n t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s , i t i s g i v e n a s a l r e a d y p r e s e n t a n d f o r m e d
( l im i t e d a n d f u r t h e r u n d i f fe r e n t i a ta b l e ) . A s f i g u r es o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d
a s c o n s c i o u s c o n t e n t , t h e o b j e c t i v e f o r m i s c a l le d f o r t h b y t h e f a c t t h a t
r e a l r e la t i o n s a r e o b j e c t i v e l y o m i t t e d a n d s u b s t i t u t e d b y c e r t a i n t r a n s -
f o r m a t i o n s ( p r i o r t o a n d i n d e p e n d e n t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s ) . H e r e i s w h a t
h a p p e n s : t h e k n i t ti n g o f t h e i s o l a t e d o b j e c t i v e f o r m w i t h h u m a n a c t iv i ty
w h i c h a s s u c h i s f in i te a n d n o t f u r t h e r r e d u c i b l e ; t h e c o n f u s i o n o f t h e
s o c i a l m e a n i n g s w i t h p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e b o d y l e a d s t o a n a t u r a l -
i za t ion o f m ean ingfu l s igns ( f e t i sh i sm an d sy m bol iza t ion o f the soc ia l );
t h e i n v e r s i o n w h e r e t h e m o v e m e n t f r o m p r o d u c t i o n r e l a t i o n s i n t h e
e x c h a n g e o f a c ti v it y f o r t h e t h in g m e a n t t u r n s a r o u n d i n s u c h a w a y th a t
t h e m e a n t t h i n g b e c o m e s a g e n e r a t o r o f a c t i v i t y a n d t h e f o r m o f
c o m m u n i c a t i o n , w h i c h ha p r a c t i c e is e x a c t l y t h e c a s e ; 8 t h e c o n d e n s a t i o n ,
w h e r e c o n s c i o u s n e s s ' u lt im a t e o b j e c t is e n d o w e d w i t h u n d i ff e r e n ti a te d
un i ty and w i th a l l l inks o f a l l r e l a t ions o f the who le , w i th a l l i t s ac tua l ly
d i f f e r e n t d e fi n i ti o n s ( w h i t h e r c o m e s t h e o n e a n d t h e o t h e r , c a u s i n g w h a t
p s y c h o l o g y k n o w s a s t h e a m b i v a l e n c e o f m a n y f o r m s o f k n o w l e d g e ,
etc.),
A l l t h is i s e a s y t o f o l l o w i n M a r x ' a n a l y si s o f t h e c o m m o d i t y . O n l y a t
t h e o u t c o m e d o w e h a v e t h e b o n d r e a li ty - c o n sc i o u sn e s s , w h e r e s o m e
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c o n c e p t u a l f o r m s r e p r e s e n t r e a l i t y , p u t t i n g a s i d e t h e a c t u a l s t r u c t u r e o f
t h e i r r e l a t i o n s . T h e y a l s o a r e c o n s c i o u s n e s s a s a c t u a l i z e d b y i n d i v i d u a l s
in the i r soc ia l ac t iv i ty . M arx de f ines such fo rm s as soc ia l ly me an ingfu l
a n d , t h e r e f o r e , o b j e c t i v e c o n c e p t u a l f o r m s f o r p r o d u c t i v e r e l a ti o n s o f a
g i v e n h i s to r i c a ll y d e f i n e d s o c ia l m o d e o f p r o d u c t i o n . . . S o d . , t .23,
s t r. 8 6 ). T h e y a r e g e n e r a t e d b y th e s e r e l a ti o n s a s m e a n s a n d a s fo r m s o f
s p e c if i c r e a l iz a t i o n a n d m o v e m e n t i n t h e a c t iv i ty o f m a s s e s o f i n d iv i d -
ua l s. H er e occ ur s the ana lys is o f a spec ia l abs t r ac t ion : soc ia l con -
sc iousnes s . The l inkage o f th i s consc iousnes s w i th be ing i s a sys temic ,
o r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l , c a u s a l b o n d . 9 B e c a u s e i t is o n l y t h r o u g h s t r u c t u r e d
l in k s , f o r m e d i n t h e tr a n s f o r m a t i o n s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , t h a t re a l it y
d e f i n e s c o n s c i o u s n e s s , i t i s p r e s e n t e d i n c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n o n e f o r m o r
a n o t h e r a s c o n t e n t , s e n s e , a n d m e a n i n g , a n d h i d e s a t t h e s a m e t i m e
b o t h i ts e l f a n d t h e t r a n s f o r m a t o r y m e c h a n i s m . T h i s s o m e t h i n g e l im i -
n a t e d b y th e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s c a n n o t b e t h e c a u s e (i n t h e m e c h a n i s t i c
s ense o f ac t ion o r g ivennes s ) , bu t i t i s exac t ly th i s someth ing tha t
d e f i n e s t h e f i g u r e s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e d e f i n i t i o n i s o f a s t a g e o n
w h i c h t h is s o m e t h i n g d e f i n e s t h e f ig u r e s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s b y p r o x y ,
t h r o u g h w e l l - t r a i n e d p u p p e t s w h i c h r e c i t e t h e c o n d e n s e d t e x t . O n t h e
s t a g e i s i n d e p e n d e n t r e a li ty , s e e n a n d h e a r d - - b u t t h e s e a r e j u s t
t h e a t ri c a l e f f e c ts , b e c a u s e t h e p u p p e t e e r i s b e h i n d t h e s c r e e n .
I n t h e s a m e s e n s e i n w h i c h M a r x s p o k e a b o u t c h a ra c t er is ti c e c o -
n o m i c m a s k s i b i d . s t r. 9 5 ), h e e x p l a in e d m a s k s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,
r e p r e s e n t e d b y f i g u r e s a n d a c t u a l i z e d b y t h e m i n t h e i r a c t i v i t y . T h e t e x t
i s w r i t t e n b y s o c i e t y b u t i t i s e n c o d e d i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l s . T h e p r o d u c t s
o f th e t r a n s f o rm a t i o n , t h e n e w r e la t io n s ( e v e n th o s e a m o n g p r o d u c t s ,
r e l a t ions o f con sc iou snes s , i .e . s t age r e la t ions and no t r ea l r e l a t ions )
a re a l so a l anguage tha t expres ses the soc ia l in consc iousnes s , i . e . the
a c t u a l s o c i a l r e a l i t y . T h i s i s w h a t h a s t o b e d e c i p h e r e d . M a r x a c t u a l l y
r e g a r d s t h e f o r m a t i o n o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s a s a s o c ia l p h e n o m e n o n t h a t is
im pre s sed on sub jec t s , i .e . in sc r ibed in to the ind iv idua l s. Th i s i s ho w
h e u n d e r s t o o d t h e s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n i n g o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a n d n o t o t h e r -
w i s e . C o n s c i o u s n e s s c o d e s a n d i n i ts o w n m a t e r i a l re a l iz e s r e - p r e s e n -
t a t io n o f i ts o b j e c t w h i c h i t s el f is g e n e r a t e d b y o p e r a t i o n o f th e s o c i a l
m e c h a n i s m . A n a l y s i s o f t h is r e - p r e s e n t a t i o n r e q u i r e s n o r e f e r e n c e t o
t h e p s y c h i c n a t u r e o f t h e s u b j e c t o r t o p r e v i o u s a s s o c i a t i o n s o f th e
s u b j e c t , o r t o h i s h a b i ts , i n c li n a ti o n s , o r t h e t h o u s a n d s o f d e t a il s
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w h e r e b y c o n s c i o u s n e s s p a s se s a n d is t r an s f o r m e d . N o n e o f th is i s a b l e
to exp la in w ha t i s go ing on in the t r ans fo rm at ion o f r e l a t ions .
e fore a
m a n b e c a m e c o n s c i o u s o f , e . g . , v a l u e a s a s u p r a s e n s i b l e p r o p e r t y o f a
p h y s ic a l b o d y , o f t h e p r o d u c t o f la b o r , t h o s e t ra n s f o r m a t i o n s - -
kn i tt ing , m ix ing , inv er s ion , r edu c t ion , e t c . , wh ich con s t i tu te the t r ans -
f o r m a t o r y p l a y o f t h e s o c i a l m e c h a n i s m p u t t i n g i n t h e p l a c e o f r e a l i t y
t h e q u a s i - o b j e c t i v e f o r m s - - a l r e a d y t o o k p l a c e . B e c a u s e a ll o f t h is
h a p p e n s a m a n k n o w n s v a lu e a s s u c h a p r o p e r t y .
I f, a s M a r x s h o w s , w e f i n d i n t h e i n d iv i d u a l o b j e c t i v e c o n c e p t u a l
f o r m s , e x p r e s s e d a n d d e s c r i b e d i n s o c i a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s ( i d e a s , o b j e c -
t i v e m e a n i n g s , s y m b o l s , e t c . ) , t h e n t h e s e a r e t h e v e r y s a m e f o r m s i n
which the sub jec t f ixes and exper iences h i s soc ia l l i f e , be ing ob l iv ious to
t h e i r r e a l p a t h a n d g e n e s i s . T h e s e f o r m s , w i t h w h i c h a m a n r e c o r d s t h a t
w h i c h i m p e l l s a n d m o v e s h i m , d o n o t g o f u r t h e r t h a n t h e o b j e c t i v e l y
a p p a r e n t m o t i v e s a n d s e n s e o f h is c o n s c i o u s m o t i v a t i o n s a n d s p i r it u a l
a c t s ( s i m i l a r t h i n g s h a p p e n w h e n c o n s c i o u s n e s s r e c o r d s i t s p s y c h i c
e x p e r i e n c e ) .
A l l t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l t h i n k s , e x p r e s s e s , w i s h e s a n d - e x p e r i e n c e s - -
t h e w h o l e p s y c h o l o g i c a l ( a n d , i n o t h e r s y s te m s , a n i m i st ic , m y t h o l o g ic a l ,
c o s m o l o g i c a l , e t c ) la n g u a g e o f m o t i v a t i o n s , f o r m u l a t i n g h i s s o c i a l n e e d s
a n d d e s i r e s , r e m a i n s a t t h e l e v e l o f t h i s a b s t r a c t i o n o n l y t o t h e e x t e n t
a n d i n t h e fo r m a l lo w e d b y t h e p r o c e s s e s a n d m e c h a n i sm s o f t h e s y s te m
o f s o c i a l ac t iv i ty . I t s f o r m s a r e r e g a r d e d a s c r y st a ll i za t io n s o f p r o d u c t s
o f t h e p l a y o f t h e la t te r . L i n k a g e s a n d d e p e n d e n c i e s a c t i n g in t h e
s t r u c tu r e a n d r e a l ly s p ea k in g , h a v e to b e u n d e r s t o o d b e f o r e t h e f o r m s
c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d . I n s h o r t, t h e m o r e o b v i o u s a n d c l o s er t h e s t ru c t u re ,
t h e h a r d e r i t i s t o d e t e c t i t , a n d t h i s i s o n e m o r e r e a s o n f o r t h e
f r u i tl e s s n e s s o f v a r i o u s d i r e c t f o r m s o f k n o w l e d g e f o u n d i n t h e i d e a l is t
p h i l o s o p h y o f c u l tu r e .
H o w e v e r , t h e f o r m s i n w h i c h s o m e t h i n g i s p r e s e n t t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,
a n d w h i c h a r e e x p e r i e n c e d a n d r e c o r d e d b y i t i n te r m s o f m o t i v e s,
m e a n i n g , c o n c e p t u a l i n t e r e s t , e t c . - - a l t h o u g h t h e y a r e n o t f o r m s o f
r e al it y o r o f t h e m e c h a n i s m , t h e c o n c e p t u a l r e d u c t i o n o f w h i c h i s
i m p r i n t e d i n c o n s c i o u s n e s s - - c o u l d n o t b e c a l l e d m e r e l y u n c l e a r ,
a r b i t r a r y o r s u b j e c t i v e . T h e s e a r e r io t m y s t e r i o u s d e l u s i o n s , o c c u r i n g o n
t h e p a t h t o w a r d t r u t h , s h r o u d e d i n m y s t e r y a n d t h e r e f o r e o p p o s e d t o
s c i e n c e , b u t t h e y l i e a l o n g t h e s a m e v e c t o r ( a s i f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f
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kn ow ledg e is a c l ea r ing up o f m ean ing , an d as i f t ru th i s the
t e l e o l o g i c a l s e n s e a n d d r i v i n g f o r c e b e h i n d t h i s u n c l e a r m o v e m e n t o f
t h o u g h t) . T h is c o u n t e r p o s i t i o n o f f o r m s a n d s c i e n c e p r o v e s t o b e
i m p o s s i b l e s i n c e i n t o t a l i n d e p e n d e n c e f r o m i t c e r t a i n f o r m s p l a y a f u l l y
d e f i n e d g e n e t i c a n d f u n c t i o n a l r o l e , a n d a r e c o n s t a n t l y r e p r o d u c e d b y
the soc ia l r e l a t ions themse lves . As such , they pos ses s a ce r t a in s t ab i l i ty ,
s t r u c t u r e d - n e s s , a n d e x i s t a s i r r e d u c i b l e t o a n y k n o w l e d g e a n d a s
u n a v o i d a b l e . M a r x s a id , e .g ., th a t t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e r e a l n a t u r e o f th e
p r o d u c t s a s o f c o m m o d i t i e s n e v e r d i ss i p at e s t h e p h y s ic a l a p p e a r a n c e
o f t h e s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r o f l a b o r
Soc . ,
t . 23 , s t r .84 ) , tha t fo r pe op le
i n v o l v e d in th e r e l a ti o n s o f c o m m o d i t y p r o d u c t i o n , t h e p e c u l i a r it i e s o f
t h e l a t t e r - -
b e f o r e a s w e l l a s a f t e r t h e d i s c o v e r y i n q u e s t i o n - -
s e e m t o
have un ive r sa l s ign i f i cance , ju s t a s the p roper t i e s o f a i r - - i t s phys ica l
f o r m - - c o n t i n u e t o ex i st e v e n a f te r s c ie n c e h a s b r o k e n i t d o w n i n to i ts
c o m p o n e n t e le m e n t s
i b i d ,
s t r .84 , m y i ta lics ,
M . M . ) .
I n e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l te r m s t h is m e a n s t h a t n o p u r e c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,
s u c h a s p r o p o s e d b y c l a s si c al p h i l o s o p h y , c a n r e a l ly b e e s t a b l i s h e d , t h a t
a w h o l e s e r i e s o f o b j e c t i v e c o g n i t i v e f o r m s c a n n o t b e p e r c e i v e d a s a
c o n s c i o u s l y c o n t r o l l e d c o n s t i t u t io n o f t h e o b j e c t b y m a n . S u g g e s ti n g
c e r t a in e x c e n t ri c it ie s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d a n a ly z i n g i t i n a r o u n d -
a b o u t w a y , th r o u g h o b j e c t iv e a c ti v it y (s o t h a t c o n s c i o u s n e s s b e c o m e s
v i s ib l e i n i ts a s p e c t s a n d a s o n e o f i ts m e t a m o r p h o s e s ) , M a r x b r o k e w i t h
t h e t e l e o l o g i c a l m a t r i x w h i c h w a s c o m m o n l y u s e d i n h i s t i m e a n d h a d a
c e r t a i n u s e f u l n e s s f o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f c o g n i t i v e p h e n o m e n a ( m a i n l y
t h o s e o f s c i e n c e ) . C e r t a i n c o g n i t i v e f o r m s t u r n o u t t o b e i n v a r i a n t
r e la t iv e t o a n y o t h e r ( s ay , t h e m o r e d e v e l o p e d ) f o r m s o f k n o w l e d g e a n d
c o u l d n o t b e s u p e r c e d e d b y t h e l a t t e r . M a r x c l e a r l y f o r m u l a t e d t h e
p r i n c i p l e o f th e i r r e d u c i b i l it y o f b e i n g ( i n cl u d in g t h e b e i n g o f k n o w l -
e d g e ) t o k n o w l e d g e . I n t h i s s e n s e , k n o w l e d g e w a s , i f w e c a n s p e a k t h is
w a y , e x is te n ti a li ze d i n M a r x i s m lo n g b e f o r e t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a n y
f o r m s o f e x i s te n t ia l is m o r p h e n o m e n o l o g y . T h e p e c u l i a r i ty in t h e
u n d e r s t a n d in g o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t t o M a r x i sm . B o t h
M a r x a n d L e n i n , i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e e n l i g h t e n m e n t p r e j u d i c e s i n t h e
p r o p a g a n d a a n d i d e o l o g ic a l w o r k o f t h e P a r t y , c o n s ta n t l y c a l le d a t t en -
t i o n t o t h e f a c t th a t s o c i a ll y c a u s e d i d e a s , r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s a n d i ll u si o n s,
m u s t b e s u b j e c t e d n o t o n l y t o t h e o r e t i c a l c r i t i q u e ( i . e . , r e p l a c e d w i t h
k n o w l e d g e ) b u t a l s o t o p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e i n c h a n g i n g r e a l i t y , t o t h e
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e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e c l as se s a n d s o c ia l m o v e m e n t s , a n d t o c h a n g e s o f t h e
re la t ions an d s t ru c tu res o f soc ia l sys tems .
H o w e v e r , t h i s i s o n l y o n e o f t h e p r a c t i c a l e x t e n s i o n s o f a m o r e
g e n e r a l M a r x i a n p r o c e d u r e . M a r x a t t e n d s n o t t o p e r c e p t i v e c o n s c i o u s -
n e s s w h i c h d e v e l o p s i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f a b s t r a c t i o n b y t h e e p i s t e m o -
log ica l sub jec t ( acco rd ing to the t e l eo logy o f s e l f - consc iousnes s , e t c . ) ,
b u t t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n v o l v e d i n s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s , t h e r e a l l y a c t i v e l i n k
o f t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t a n d f u n c t i o n in g , a n d t h e r e f o r e s e e n a c c o r d i n g
t h e i r r o l e a n d p l a c e w i t h i n t h e m . M a r x p a r t s c o m p a n y a t t h i s p o i n t w i t h
the t r ad i t iona l ob je c t - su b jec t r e l a t ionsh ip , show ing tha t the r e la t ion -
sh ip o f soc ia l ideas and r e la t ions to soc ia l be ing i s no t a r e l a t ion o f the
t h o u g h t o f t h e s u b j e c t t o t h e o b j e c t h e i s i n v e s t i g a t i n g a n d t h a t ,
c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e c o u n t e r p o s i t i o n o f m a t e r i a l a n d s p ir it u a l a t t h a t
l e v e l o f f e r s l it tl e t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d c h a n g e o f
c u l t u r e s a n d o f s y s te m s o f h u m a n s p i ri tu a l - p ra c t ic a l m a s t e r y o f t h e
w o r l d a r o u n d t h e m . I t i s i n t h e w o r k s o f M a r x t h a t f o r t h e f ir s t t i m e
c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d c u l t u r a l f o r m s e n t e r n e w , n o n - c l a s s i c a l c o - o r d i n a t e s
of ana lys is .
I n M a r x , i n w h o m s c ie n c e fo u n d t h e w a y o f se a rc h in g o u t a n d
d i s c o v e r i n g t h e s o c i al d e t e r m i n a n t s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d c u l tu r e , t h e s e
n e w s c h e m a t a o f a n a l y s i s p r o v i d e v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g a c c e s s t o m u c h m o r e
com plex fo rm s , e.g . the r a t iona l i za t ions o f ind i r ec t ly f e t i sh ized fo rm s o f
c o n s c i o u s n e s s w h i c h , d u r i n g i d e o l o g i c a l c o n f r o n t a t i o n , p e n e t r a t e i d e o l -
o g y , s c i e n c e , p h i l o s o p h y a n d c u l t u r e i n g e n e r a l - - e v e n t a k i n g o n
i n d e p e n d e n t f o r m a n d s u p p o r t i n g t h e i n t e r e s ts o f t h e e x p lo i t e rs .
O f a l l o f t h e f o r m s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , M a r x p a i d m o s t a t t e n t i o n t o t h e
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s t h a t s e e m e d l o g i c a l l y c o n s i s t e n t b u t p r o v e d t o b e
t o t a l l y o t h e r . H e p r i n c i p a l l y s h o w e d t h a t m a n a s a r e f l e c t i v e a n d
i n t e n t io n a l l y o r i e n t e d b e i n g i s n o t m a s t e r o f h i s o w n i d e o l o g i c a l h o u s e .
T h i s i s n o t i n t h e s e n s e t h a t a n i n d i v i d u a l i s c o n s t r a i n e d b y t h e
p r e - g i v e n c o n t e n t o f h is t h o u g h t , b u t i n th e s e n s e t h a t r e la t iv e t o t h e
v e r y m e c h a n i s m s o f t h is t h o u g h t , a n a c t i v e a n d i n d e p e n d e n t a g e n t i s a
p e r s o n w h o m a n a g e s t o a v o i d i d e a l i z i n g h i s s i t u a t i o n , m o t i v e s a n d
in teres ts .
T h e d e c i si v e d e p e n d e n c y o f su c h c o n c e p t u a l p r o c e s s e s ( as s e p a r a t e d
f rom real l i fe and exis t ing a longs ide i t ) , as Marx ident i f ies i t , i s i t s
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d e p e n d e n c e o n i m m e d i a t e c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h a t i s s p o n t a n e o u s l y a c c u m u -
la t ing in soc ia l s t ruc tu res . He has va r ious names fo r i t : consc iousnes s
in te r tw ined in the im m ed ia te l anguag e o f r ea l l if e ; sp i r i tua l -p rac t i ca l
m a s t e r y o f r e al it y ; c o n c e p t u a l f o r m s o f p r a c t i c a l a p p r o a c h e s ; o r d i -
n a r y c o n s c i o u s n e s s . B u t t h e li n k a g e o f e x t e r n a ll y a u t o n o m o u s r a t i o n a l-
i z a t i o n s o f t h e l i f e o f i d e a s w i t h t h i s t y p e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s a l w a y s
o c c u r s i n t h e s a m e w a y - - i t i s a n a l y z e d b y M a r x a l o n g t h e li n es o f t h e
l i n k a g e o f w h a t i s s a i d a n d w h a t i s n o t s a i d ( e x p r e s s e d ) a s a s p e c i a l
f o r m o f c a u s al il ty . H e c h a r a c t e r i z e s t r a n s f o r m e d c o n s c i o u s n e s s b y
i n t r o d u c i n g w h a t c a n b e c a ll e d t h e i n d i re c t p r a g m a t i c o b j e c t s o f
though t .
O n t h e w h o l e , t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t hi s c o n s c i o u s n e s s c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e
s t r u c t u r e o f t h e d i s t o r t e d f o r m s , w h i c h a s s p e c i a l f o r m s o f l in k a g e w e r e
r e v e a l e d a n d e l a b o r a t e d b y M a r x , a n d w h i c h c o n t a in i n g e n er a l th e
s t r u c t u r e o f a w h o l e s e r ie s o f in d i r ec t , s y m b o l i c - il l u s o r y e x p r e s s i o n s ,
f o u n d i n t h e m o s t d i v e r s e r ea l m s o f th e l if e o f h u m a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s
and ac t iv ity . Bu t , th i s is no t the p lace to an a lyze the s t ruc tu re o f th is
fo rm; we w i l l a s sume tha t i t i s known ( i t occu r s f r equen t ly in C a p i t a l .
L e t u s n o w l o o k a t s o m e i n d ir e c t o b j e c t s.
W h a t i s a n i n d ir e c t p r a g m a t i c o b j e c t o f t h o u g h t ? I t is a si m p l e
o b j e c t w h i c h in d i r e c t ly o r t e x tu a l ly s u p p o s e s a n i d e a b u t w h i c h i n f a c t
i n d i re c t l y a s s e r ts a n o t h e r o b j e c t , a n o t h e r o b j e c t i v i t y o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,
w h i c h i s n o t d i r e c t l y e x p r e s s e d a s a n a n a l y ti c o b j e c t o f t h o u g h t . T h e
f i r s t r e p l a c e s t h e s e c o n d a n d m o v e s a c c o r d i n g t o i t s o w n l o g i c . F o r
e x a m p l e , w h e n H e g e l s p e a k s o f t h e r e ig n o f r e a s o n i n h i s to r y , th is c a n
b e s e e n a s in d i r e c t a f f i r m a t i o n o f a n o t h e r b a s i c H e g e l i a n t h o u g h t , t h e
rup tu re o f the l inks o f sp i r i t and r ea l i ty , a s we l l a s the idea tha t
p e r c e p t i o n i n d e p e n d e n t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s i n i m i c a l t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s
a n d e v a d e s i t s r a t i o n a l c o n t r o l . M a r x s e e s t h e s e s e c o n d t y p e s o f
c o n c e p t u a l o b j e c t i v a t i o n s a s f l o w i n g f r o m s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s a n d r e a l i t y
i ts el f. T h e y a r e b o r n t h e r e i n t h e fo r m o f d i r e c t l a n g u a g e o f c o n s c i o u s -
n e s s a n d i n d i re c t l y e x p r e s s t h e m a t t h is le v e l, w i t h o u t g o i n g b e y o n d t h e
s e n s e t h e y c o n t a i n . W h e n c e , a r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n i s a c o n s c i o u s n e s s w h i c h
r e f l e c t s a d e f i n i t e o b j e c t i v e , s o c i a l l y n e c e s s a r y a p p e a r a n c e b u t , a t t h e
s a m e t i m e , v i e w s i t s e l f a s s o m e t h i n g i n d e p e n d e n t a n d u n c o n d i t i o n e d
rela t ive to rea l i ty .
Th i s l ink w i th r e a l i ~ can b e the ob jec t o f spec ia l s c ien t i fi c ana lys i s,
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a s h a p p e n s i n th e M a r x i a n c r i ti q u e o f G e r m a n i d e o l o g y , b u t it d o e s
n o t a p p e a r i n r a t i o n a l i z e d c o n s c i o u s n e s s i t s e l f . W h a t i s m o r e , r a t i o n a l -
i z e d c o n s c i o u s n e s s b a r s m a n f r o m a c le a r c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f h i s r e a l
s t a t u s a n d d i m i n i s h e s h i s a b i l i t y t o s e e t h e c o n t e n t t h a t i s p r e s e n t b u t
n o t r e c o g n i z e d . W h e n c e , i n t h e a n a ly s is o f d i s t o r t e d f o r m s t h a t h a v e l o s t
the s igns o f the i r o r ig ins , M arx s t a r t s f rom wh a t s ee m s s e lf - su ff i c ien t
a n d i n d e p e n d e n t , a n d a r r i v e s a t r e c o n s t r u c t e d c o n s c i o u s n e s s , t h e s e
r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s b e i n g u n d e r t a k e n w i t h th e h e l p o f o b j e c t i v it i e s o f
c o n s c i o u s n e s s , w h i c h a r e g e n e r a t e d b y t h e m e c h a n i s m s o f s o c i a l r e l a -
t ions in the sys tem.
M a r x , w h o s e e s c o n s c i o u s n e s s a s a r e a l e l e m e n t o f e x i st in g s o c ia l
s y s t e m s , d o e s n o t t a k e t h e p a t h o f t h e t e l e o l o g i z i n g o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,
and r e fuses to s ee i t a s a pu r i f i ca t ion o f r ea l mea n ing , supp l i ed by
p r a x is a n d e x i st in g in t h e d e p t h s o f th e i n d i v id u a l. W h a t i s p r e s e n t b u t
n o t r e c o g n i z e d , f o r M a r x , i s n o t t r u th o r t h e f o r m o f r e a li ty , b u t a
c o r r e l a t e o f t h e o b j e c t i v e a p p e a r a n c e , h i d d e n i n c o n s c i o u s n e s s ' a u t o n -
o m y . A s M a r x c o n s t a n tl y i n d ic a te s , t h e b a s i c d e p e n d e n c y a n d g r o w t h
p o i n t o f r a t i o n a li z e d i n d i r e c t f o r m s i n t h e c u l t u r e c o n s is t s i n t h e f a c t
t h a t d i s t o r t e d c o n s c i o u s n e s s w h i c h i s s p o n t a n e o u s l y g e n e r a t e d b y s o c i a l
s t r u c tu r e s , i s a p o s t e r i o r i a n d i n t e n ti o n a l ly d e v e l o p e d b y i d e o l o g i s ts o f
t h e r u l i n g c l a s s . D i s t o r t e d c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s t h e c o n c e p t u a l m a t e r i a l a n d
sp i r itua l ho r izon o f a s epara te ideo log ica l e s t a te tha t i s o f f ic i a l and
domina tes a soc ie ty as the c las s ideo logy . I t i s in th i s s ense tha t Marx
speak s abo u t the ideo log ica l cad res o f the ru ling c las s , d i s tingu i sh ing
t h e m f r o m t h e f r e e s p ir i tu a l p r o d u c e r s ( K . M a r x , Teor i i pr ibavo noj
stoimosti (Th eor ies o f Surp lus Va lu e ) Q . I, M. 195 4 , s t r .261) . The
c o u r s e o f t h e M a r x i a n a n a l y si s a s s u m e s t h a t t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f i n d i r e c t
f o r m s o f f e t is h i s t- p r a g m a t i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s t h e r a t i o n a li z a ti o n o f
r e a d y - m a d e s p i ri tu a l p r o d u c t s o f s o ci a l r e l a ti o n s (i.e ., p r o d u c t s t h a t a r e
o u t s i d e o f , p r i o r t o , a n d i n d e p e n d e n t o f th e a c t i o n o f r a t io n a l s c ie n t if ic
t h o u g h t ) t h r o u g h e x t e r n a l m e a n s o f k n o w l e d g e . I t u s e s r a ti o n a l
p r o c e d u r e s a s m e a n s o f r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a c q u i s i t io n o f t h e s e p r o d u c t s
b y i n d i v i d u a ls w h o a r e i n t e g r a t e d i n th i s w a y i n to t h e s o c i a l s y st e m .
B u t , i f t h e s e m e a n s a r e r a ti o n a l i n b o u r g e o i s s o c i e t y (i.e . a d e q u a t e
t o t h e j u d g e m e n t a l c a p a b i l i t i e s o f a t o m i z e d i n d i v i d u a l s ) , i n o t h e r e r a s
they migh t be those o f an imis t , my tho log ica l , r e l ig ious , e t c . cha rac te r .
T h e b a s i c r e l a t i o n s h i p r e m a i n s t h e s a m e . A s M a r x de facto show s , th i s
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is th e r e la t io n s h ip b e t w e e n t h e p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y f o rm s o f c o n -
s c i o u s n e ss . H e g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r s t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f s u c h i n d i r e c t
f o r m s o f i d e o l o g y a s e c o n d a r y p h e n o m e n o n , c o n c e al in g i n it s s y s te m -
a t iz a t io n s t h e p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v i ti e s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , c o m b i n i n g t h e m i n
a c e r t a i n f o r m a n d t u r n i n g t h e m i n t o s e e m i n g l y a u t o n o m o u s a n d
i n d e p e n d e n t e n t it ie s ( t h is s c h e m a c a n b e u s e d t o v i ew , e.g ., t h e r e l a t io n -
s h ip b e t w e e n o b j e c t i v e a p p e a r a n c e , o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d t h e s y s te m s o f
mytho logy , r e l ig ion , e t c . , on the o the r ) . Marx ' ana lys i s has be fo re i t ,
t h e r e f o r e , t h e t a s k o f (1 ) e s ta b l i sh i n g t h e p r i m a r y f o r m s o f c o n s c i o u s -
n e s s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r o b j e c t s a n d n o t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s
w h e r e t h e y a p p e a r i n i d e o l o g i c a l s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n s ( r e p r e s e n t i n g a
r e d u c t i o n o f th e l a tt e r) , a n d ( 2 ) u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e i n te r n a l c o u r s e o f th e
r a t i o n a l i z i n g j u d g e m e n t s , e v o l v i n g i t f r o m t h e c l e a r d e p e n d e n c e o f
l o g ic a l t h o u g h t o n t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f o b j e c t i v e a p p e a r a n c e a n d o f t h e
q u a s i - o b j e c t s w h i c h a r e f o r m e d i n th e s t r u c t u r e s o f th e m e c h a n i s m s o f
soc ia l sys tems .
I t t h u s a p p e a r s t h a t t h e r a t io n a l i z a ti o n t h a t p e n e t r a t e s i d e o l o g y is d e -
r ived f rom jus t a s ing le p r inc ip le . Th i s p r inc ip le sys temat ica l ly exp la ins
and makes theo re t i ca l ly pos s ib le and in te l l ig ib le fo r man tha t wh ich a l -
r ead y ex is t s a s in ten t iona l ob jec t o f con sc iou snes s , wha t th is ob jec t d i s -
s i m u l a t e s , a n d w h a t i s a l r e a d y a f f i r m e d b y i t ( b u t i t r e m a i n s u n k n o w n
j u s t a s th e c a u s e s a n d o r i g in s o f t a b o o s i n p ri m i t i v e s o c i e t ie s r e m a i n u n -
k n o w n ) . T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n i n to i d e o l o g y o f s u c h a sy s t e m a t i z a t i o n m a k e s
log ica l ly ava i l ab le and in te l l ig ib le tha t wh ich ex i s t s , bu t ex i s t s unknown
as to w hy and w hen ce . Th i s is i ts t a sk and apo lo ge t i c ro le , to wh ich i t
i s l imi ted . Thu s , fo r exam ple , such a ye l low a lgo r i thm as the va lue o f
l a b o r w h i c h is an e l e m e n t o f e v e r y d a y li fe b e c a m e i n p ra c t i c e fu n d a -
m e n t a l t o b o u r g e o i s , v u l g a r p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y . I t b e c a m e t h e l i n k f o r a
t h e o r e t i c a l d e r i v a t i o n o u t o f s o m e s y s t e m a t i c p r i n c i p l e s ( j u s t a s , l e t u s
s a y, a b a s e l e s s t a b o o c a n a c q u i r e a b a s e i n a g iv e n m y t h o l o g i c a l s y s t em ) .
B u t , i n f a c t, th e c o n t e n t o f t h e q u a s i - o b j e c t is a f o r m o f m o v e m e n t i n
t h e s y s t e m , b u t i t i s n o t a n a c t iv e , a u t o n o m o u s t h o u g h t .
M arx ve ry c lea r ly s ays in th i s r ega rd :
I t i s c l e a r w h a t i m p o r t a n c e a c c r u e s t o t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f v a l u e a n d t h e p r i c e o f l a b o r
p o w e r i n t o t h e f o r m o f w a g e l a b o r i.e . th e v a l u e a n d p r i c e o f w o r k i ts el f. I n t h i s f o r m o f
a p p e a r a n c e h i d i n g t h e t r u e r e l a t io n a n d e s t a b l is h i n g a n a p p a r e n t l y d i r e ct l y o p p o s i t e
r e l at i o n r e s i d e a ll o f t h e l eg a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s b o t h o f t h e w o r k e r a n d o f t h e c a p it a li s t
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all the my stifications of the capitalist m od e of prod uction, all the illusions of freed om it
generates, and all the apologetic evasions of vulgar political econo m y. Sog . t.23,
str.550).
W e w i l l a d d o n l y t h a t w h e n M a r x s h o w s , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t t h e t h o u g h t
o f t h e c l a s s i c s o f b o u r g e o i s p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y , o c c u p i e d i n a n a l y s i s o f
i ts i n t e rn a l l i n ks , n e v e r t h e l e s s a d o p t s i ts o w n c o n c e p t s l i k e l a b o r p r ic e
( c f . a l s o s t r . 5 4 7 - - 5 4 9 ) , w h a t h e e x p l a i n s a n d d e s c r i b e s a r e n o t t h e l a w s
o f k n o w l e d g e b u t t h e m e c h a n i s m o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s th a t d e p e n d s o n t h e
c o r r e l a t i o n o f i ts p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y fo r m s . T h e f ir st e n c i r c le s a n d
c i r c u m s c r i b e s t h e s e c o n d ; t h e y i n c l u d e a n d o u t l i n e t h e w h o l e r a n g e o f
s e c o n d a r y f o r m s ( m y t h o l o g y , r e li g io n , p r a g m a t i c r a t i o n a li z a t io n s ) w h i c h
f o r m t h e f i e ld o f t h e i r p o s si b il it ie s , c o m b i n e d a n e w o n a n e w l e v el - -
t h a t o f t h e s e c o n d a r y ( m y t h o l o g i c a l , r a ti o n a l , e t c .) e l a b o r a t i o n o f t h e
c o n t e n t o f c o n s c io u s n e s s . T h i s c o n s t it u t e s t h e d e p e n d e n c e o f th e
s e c o n d a r y o n t h e p r i m a r y f o r m s . B u t t h e s e c o n d a r y f o r m s o f c o n -
s c i o u s n e s s c a n d i s t o r t a n d m a s k t h e p r i m a r y . I n a n y c a s e , t h e f o r m e r
h i d e t h e l a t te r . O n t h is p l a n e , M a r x ' o b j e c t i v e - r e d u c t i v e an a l ys i s o f
consc iousnes s - - i . e . ana lys i s o f i t a s e f f ec t o f the p lay o f r e l a t ions in
r e a l s o c i a l s y s t e m s - - i s a w a y o f d e t e c t i n g p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v i ti e s a n d o f
the me an ings o f con sc iou snes s , a s we l l a s the c las s i f ica t ion o f a l l
s e c o n d a r y f o r m s . T h e s e l a t t e r , i n s u b s e q u e n t s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n s a n d
c l a r i f i c a t i o n s , a r e m e r e l y d e v e l o p i n g w h a t i s a l r e a d y i n h e r e n t i n t h e
p r o p e r t i e s o f th e s e s p e c i a l o b j e c t s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s .
T h i s s c h e m a o f M a r x a l so s e r v e s to e x p o s e t h e a p o l o g e t i c s t an c e t h a t
b o u r g e o i s p o l it i c a l e c o n o m y t a k e s r e l a t iv e t o t h e b a s e s o f c a p it a l is t
p r o d u c t i o n ; i.e ., t h a t v u l g a r f o r m o f i d e o l o g i c a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s w h i c h h a s
p e n e t r a t e d a n d b e c o m e c o n s t a n t i n e c o n o m i c s . M a r x d o e s n o t a t a l l
r e d u c e t h i s p o s i t i o n t o t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f n a k e d s e l f- i n te r e s t o f e vi l
p e r s o n s w h o c o n s t r u c t f e s ti sh i z ed f o r m s o f co n s c i o u sn e s s . H e d o e s ,
h o w e v e r , p i c t u r e t h e m a s i d e o l o g i st s w h o a r e m e d i a t i n g so c i a l r e la -
t ions tha t a r e typ ica l o f mass soc ie ty , r°
M a r x ' a p p r o a c h l e a d s t o a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t a n d i n t e r e s t i n g p r o b l e m
t h a t o f t h e r o l e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n t h e p e r s o n a l ( a n d n o t s o c i a l l y
m e d i a t e d ) d e v e l o p m e n t o f i n d iv i d u a ls , s o c i a l g r o u p s , e t c . T h i s t h e m e
b e e o m e s v e r y i m p o r t a n t w h e n i t is a m a t t e r o f t h e v i o l at io n o f t h e
n o r m a l f u n c t i o n i n g o f s o c i a l - e c o n o m i c s y s t e m s , o r o f a s o c i a l - h i s t o r i c a l
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s i t u a t i o n , w h e r e i t i s c l e a r l y f e l t th a t c h a n g e i s n e e d e d . H e r e , t o o , t h e
w o r k o f M a r x o f f e r s g r e a t h e l p t o t h e r e s e a r c h e r .
N O T E S
W h i l e M a r x d id n o t d o a ' L o g i c ' (i n c a p it a ls ) , h e d id d o t h e logic o f Capi tal . . .
(V. I . Len in ,
So6.
t .29, s tr .301)
2 I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g a n d im p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t M a r x s im u l t a n e o u s ly c o n s t r u c t s b o th a
th e o r y o f th e o b j e c t i v e ( e c o n o m ic ) p r o c e s s a n d a t h e o r y o f i ts r e f l e c t io n in t h e h e a d s o f
i t s d i r e c t a g e n t s . H e s t u d i e s a n d c r i t i c i z e s n o t s o m u c h t h e i n d iv id u a l e r r o r s a n d
m is t a k e s o f c o n s c io u s n e s s ( a l t h o u g h h e c e r t a in ly d o e s d o t h a t ) , b u t e x p o s e s t h e
o b j e c t i v e - c o n c e p tu a l e x p r e s sio n s o f t h e r e a l p r o c e s s. H e d e r iv e s a n d d e f in e s t h e
c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e n e c e s s a r y a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e d i s t o r t e d f o r m s
(verwandel te Formen).
3 U n f o r tu n a t e ly , t h e p h i l o s o p h i c p u b l i c i s a c q u a in t e d w i th t h e m m o s t l y i n t h i s f a l s e
f o r m .
4 F o r o u r s u b s e q u e n t e x p o s i t i o n , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o c l a r i f y w h a t w e m e a n b y t h e
p h i lo s o p h y o f s e l f- c o n s c io u s n e s s t h a t w a s t y p i c a l o f t h e c l a s si c s. Be g in n in g w i th
D e s c a r t e s , i t w a s a s s u m e d th a t p h i l o s o p h y d e f in e s t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h o u g h t , r e v e a l i n g
h o w th e c o n t e n t o f c o n s c io u s n e s s ( w h e th e r i t h a s t o d o w i th th o u g h t , c o n d u c t , i n t e r e st s ,
o r f e e l in g s ) c a n b e r e p r o d u c e d a n d f i x e d s o t ha t , c o n t r o l l e d b y c o n s c io u s n e s s , i t c a n b e
u s e d a s a t e l e o lo g i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e o b j e c t , b e g in n in g w i th s o m e n a tu r a l ly
e x i s ti n g c o in c id e n c e o f th o u g h t a n d o b j e c t . I t t h u s b e g in s w i th s o m e s o r t o f t r u e s t a te
o f a f f a i r s , a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g p r i o r t o t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e s p o n t a n e o u s p r o c e s s o f
consc iousness (e .g . , the Car tes ian cogito, t h e I a m I o f c l a s si c a l G e r m a n p h i l o s o p h y ,
e tc . ) . Whether i t i s ques t ion o f wha t rea l ly ex is t s o r o f wha t a f fec ts the inves t iga t ion
th e r e o f , t h e w h o le p r o c e s s a p p e a r s a s t e le o lo g i c a l ly o r g a n i z e d a n d o c c u r r i n g w i th in t h e
c o n f in e s o f p u r e c o n s c io u s n e s s ( i. e., n o n - e m p i r i c a l c o n s c io u s n e s s , c l e a n s e d a n d
e x f o l i a t e d s e l f - c o n s c io u s n e s s ) . F o r t h e c l a s s i c s , a n y f o r m o f c o n s c io u s n e s s i s a c o m -
p a r i s o n o f t h i s t r e n d t o w a r d c o in c id e n c e w i th r e a l i t y w i th c o n s c io u s n e s s a n d , t h e r e f o r e ,
i s v iew ed in ana logy wi th it , a s an ap prox im at ion to i t , e tc .
5 W e f i n d a m o n g S o v ie t p h i l o s o p h i c w r i t in g s a s tr i k in g e x a m p le o f a n o b j e c t i v e M a r x i s t
a n a ly s is o f t h e s u b j e c t i v e f o r m s t h r o u g h a s t u d y o f p u r e ly o b j e c t i v e a p p e a r a n c e s o f t h e
e c o n o m ic s y s t e m . W e h a v e i n m in d E . V . I I ' e n k o v ' s a n a ly s i s o f t h e n a tu r e o f t h e i d e a l
(e l . ' Idea l ' in th e
Filosofskafa enciklopedifa,
t .II)
6 H e r e t o g o b e y o n d t h e p h e n o m e n o n d o e s n o t m e a n t o g r a sp , i n t h e e p i s te m o l o g i c a l
s e n s e, a n e x t e r n a l m e a s u r e l y in g b e y o n d t h e p h e n o m e n o n , a n d a s i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e
s o c i a l a c t i v it y t h a t g e n e r a t e s t h e p h e n o m e n o n . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e p o in t i s t o e x p l a in
th e m e c h a n i s m th a t g e n e r a t e s in it p h e n o m e n a a s e s s e n t i al f o r m s o f r e a l it y o r , m o r e
e x ac tl y , f o r m s . . , o f a c tu a l e x i st e n c e (K . M a r k s ,
Teoriya pribav o6n oj stoimo sti ,
6.1II, M .
1961 , s t r .460) .
7 Co n s e q u e n t ly , t h e c o n t e n t s o f c o n s c io u s n e s s a r e s im u l t a n e o u s ly g iv e n i n a n o th e r
p l a c e , i n a n o th e r f o r m th a n i n t h e c o n s c io u s n e s s o f t h e p s y c h o lo g i c al , c o g n i t i v e, re l a t in g
u n i ty o f t h e ' T ' - - t h e c o n s c io u s p h e n o m e n a o f t h e i n d iv id u a l ; n a m e ly , i n t h e s o c i a l
s y s t e m o f a c t io n . T h e p o s s ib i l it y o f m e a s u r in g c o n s c io u s n e s s a t t h e s a m e t im e a s o n e
m e a s u r e s s o m e th in g o th e r t h a n c o n s c io u s n e s s i s t h e e s s e n t ia l d e m a n d o f t h e M a r x i a n
p r o c e d u r e .
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8 M a r x i a n a n a l y s i s c o n s t a n t l y d e a l s w i t h s u c h p r a c t i c a l a p p e a r a n c e s . F o r e x a m p l e , i n
e x a m i n i n g th e d e f i n i t i o n s o f c a p i ta l w h e n c o r r e l a t e d w i t h o t h e r c a p it a l, M a r x s h o w s
t h a t t h e t h e o r e t i c a l v i e w h o l d i n g t h a t p r o f i t f o l l o w s e q u a l l y f r o m a l l f o r m s o f c a p i t a l
e x p r e s s e s a p r a c t i c a l f a c t ; t o d e p a r t f r o m i t , o n e w o u l d h a v e t o t a k e c a p i t a l a s a w h o l e
- - a m y s t e r y f o r t h e c a p i ta l is t . I n t h i s s e n s e c o m i n g t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s
osoznanie)
i s t h e
e m e r g e n c e o f o b j e c t i v e a p p e a r a n c e s ( i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t f r o m t h e v i e w p o i n t o f t h e
p r a c t i c a l f a c t c o n s c i o u s n e s s a s a c t u a l i n t e r n a l b o n d i s a m y s t e r y ) .
9 C a u s e a n d e ff e ct ar e h e t e r o g e