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An Introduction to Laboratory Automation
VICTOR CERDÄ
Department of Chemistry University of the Balearic Islands
Palma de Mallorca, Spain
GUILLERMO RAMIS
Department of Analytical Chemistry University of Valencia
Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
A WILEY-INTERSCIENCE PUBLICATION
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. NEW YORK / CHICHESTER / BRISBANE /
TORONTO / SINGAPORE
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 AUTOMATION AND CHEMISTRY 1
1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Automation of the Different Steps of
an
Analytical Control Process 2 1.3. Computer Operation Modes 4
1.4. Setting Out an Automation Problem 6
CHAPTER 2 BASIC CONCEPTS AND ELEMENTS OF ANALOG ELECTRONICS
7
2.1. Introduction 7 2.2. Simplified Representation of Circuits 8
2.3. Resistors 9
2.3.1. Introduction 9 2.3.2. Voltage Divider 9
2.4. Signals and Noise 10 2.5. Logic Levels 11 2.6. Capacitors,
RC Circuits, and Applications 13
2.6.1. Capacitors 13 2.6.2. RC Circuits 14 2.6.3.
Differentiators and Integrators 15 2.6.4. Ramp Generators 17
2.7. Diodes, LEDs, and Zeners 18 2.8. Rectification and
Filtering 20 2.9. Integrated Circuits 22 2.10. Regulators 23
2.10.1. Introduction 23 2.10.2. Three-Terminal Regulators 24
2.10.3. Four-Terminal Regulators 24
vn
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viii CONTENTS
2.11.
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15. 2.16
2.10.4. Voltage Regulation of Large Load Currents
Transistors 2.11.1. 2.11.2.
2.11.3. 2.11.4. 2.11.5.
Introduction Phototransistors and Isolation Techniques
Transistor Switching Emitter Follower Field-Effect Transistors
(FETs)
Operational Amplifiers 2.12.1. 2.12.2. 2.12.3. 2.12.4. 2.12.5.
2.12.6. 2.12.7. 2.12.8. 2.12.9.
2.12.10
2.12.11
2.12.12
Introduction The Response of an OA Inverting Amplifier
Noninverting Amplifier OA-Based Voltage Follower OA-Based Current
Sources Current-to-Voltage Conversion Summing Amplifier OA-Based
Integrators and Differentiators Voltage Regulators Based on the 723
IC Single Power Supply and Multiple OAs BIFET and BIMOS
Amplifiers
Comparators 2.13.1. 2.13.2. 2.13.3.
Introduction The Shmitt Trigger A Window Comparator
Differential Amplifiers 2.14.1. 2.14.2.
Introduction Instrumentation Amplifiers
Isolation Amplifiers Oscillators
25 26 26
28 29 31 32 35 35 37 39 41 41 42 43 44
45
46
50 51 52 52 53 54 56 56 57 61 61
CHAPTER 3 DIGITAL ELECTRONICS 65
3.1. Introduction 65
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CONTENTS IX
3.2. 3.3.
3.4.
3.5.
3.6.
3.7.
3.8.
3.9.
3.10
3.11
Bits, Bytes, Words, and Digital Signals The Binary, Octal, and
Hexadecimal Codes
Other Digital Codes
Gates 3.5.1. 3.5.2. 3.5.3. 3.5.4. 3.5.5. 3.5.6.
Introduction The AND and NAND Gates Inverters and Separators The
OR, NOR, and XOR Gates Combinations of Gates Gates of the TTL
Family
Latches 3.6.1. 3.6.2. 3.6.3.
Introduction Timing Diagrams Description of Some Common
Latches
Encoder-Decoders
Counters 3.8.1. 3.8.2. 3.8.3.
Introduction The 7490 IC Decade Counter Other Counters
Monostable Multivibrators 3.9.1. 3.9.2. 3.9.3. 3.9.4. 3.9.5.
3.9.6.
Buses 3.10.1. 3.10.2.
Introduction The 74121 Monostable Multivibrator The 74122
Monostable Multivibrator The 555 Timing Circuit Use of the 555 as a
Monostable Multivibrator Use of the 555 as an Astable
Multivibrator
Introduction Devices with a Three-State Logic
Multiplexers and Demultiplexers 3.11.1. 3.11.2.
Analog Multiplexers Digital Multiplexers
65 66
67
68 68 70 72 73 74 75
75 75 77
78
81
83 83 84 86
87 87 87 89 90
92
94
95 95 96
97 97
100
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x CONTENTS
CHAPTER 4 MICROPROCESSORS
4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4.
4.5. 4.6. 4.7. 4.8. 4.9.
4.10
4.11 4.12
Introduction Hardware, Software, and Firmware Memory
Architecture of the Intel 8085 jmP 4.4.1. 4.4.2. 4.4.3.
4.4.4. 4.4.5. 4.4.6.
Introduction The 8085 uP Parts Bus Structure and ALU Operation
Mode The Register of States Internal Registers Instruction
Register, Decoder, and Control Units
|iP Instructions uP-Based Systems The RAM Memory The ROM
Memories I/O Techniques 4.9.1. 4.9.2. 4.9.3.
Polling Interruption Direct Memory Access
I/O Devices 4.10.1. 4.10.2.
4.10.3.
4.10.4.
4.10.5.
The UART Introduction to Parallel I/O Interfaces The Intel 8355
ROM with Programmable I/O Facilities The Motorola 6522 Versatile
Interface Adapter The Complex Interface Adapters (CIAs)
The Intel SDK-85 Kit Monitor Routines
103
103 104 104 106 106 106
108 110 111
112 113 115 116 116 117 117 118 118 119 119
119
121
121
122 122 127
CHAPTER 5 TRANSDUCTION, SIGNAL CONDITIONING, DATA ACQUISITION,
AND CONTROL 131
5.1. Introduction 131
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CONTENTS XI
5.2.
5.3.
5.4.
5.5.
5.6.
Transducers 5.2.1. 5.2.2. 5.2.3. 5.2.4. 5.2.5.
Introduction Temperature Transducers Light Transducers Pressure
Transducers Other Transducers
Signal Conditioning 5.3.1. 5.3.2. 5.3.3.
Introduction The Wheatstone Bridge Signal-to-Frequency
Converters
A/D and D/A Converters 5.4.1. 5.4.2.
5.4.3. 5.4.4. 5.4.5.
Introduction Precision in A/D and D/A Converters D/A Converters
A/D Converters Use of Analog Multiplexers with A/D and D/A
Converters
Programming Interface Cards in BASIC 5.5.1. 5.5.2. 5.5.3.
5.5.4.
5.5.5.
Introduction Device Addresses Programming Interface Cards in
Interpreted BASIC Programming Interface Cards in Compiled BASIC
Other BASIC Instructions that Are Useful in Automation
Description of Some Commercial Interface Cards 5.6.1. 5.6.2.
5.6.3. 5.6.4.
[MUN
The MetraByte DASH-8 Card The Data Translation DT2811 Board
Series The Fischertechnik Interface A Homemade Interface for
Control of Injection Valves
ICATIONS
Introduction
131 131 132 136 139 139 140 140 140 142 144 144
144 145 148
156 156 156 157
159
166
169
170 171
174 177
179
183
183
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Xll CONTENTS
6.2.
6.3.
The RS232C Serial Communication Standard 6.2.1. 6.2.2.
6.2.3. 6.2.4.
6.2.5.
6.2.6.
Introduction Specifications of the RS232C Protocol Transmission
Method Programming Serial Communications with the Commodore VIC-20
and 64 Microcomputers Programming Serial Communications with the
Amstrad CPC-6128 Microcomputer Programming Serial Communications
with the IBM PC and Compatible Personal Computers
The IEEE488 Interface 6.3.1. 6.3.2. 6.3.3. 6.3.4. 6.3.5.
6.3.6.
6.3.7.
Introduction Controllers, Listeners, and Talkers Device
Addresses The IEEE488 Bus Interface Functions Programming of
IEEE488 Commercial Cards Assembly Language Subroutines of the CEC
PC< = >488 Card
CHAPTER 7 INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS FOR LABORATORY
AUTOMATION
7.1. 7.2. 7.3. 7.4. 7.5. 7.6. 7.7. 7.8.
Introduction The Keithley 175 Multimeter Potentiometers
Spectrophotometers Spectrofluorimeters Automatic Balances Burettes
and Dosifiers Samp lers
183 183
184 187
188
192
197 205 205 206 207 208 210
211
213
227
227 228 234 237 240 244 247 250
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CONTENTS xiii
7.8.1. The Crison MicroSAMPLER 2040 250 7.8.2. A Homemade
Sampler Based on a
Fischertechnik Kit 252
CHAPTER 8 AUTOMATION OF ANALYTICAL METHODS 255
8.1. Introduction 255 8.2. Automation of Potentiometrie
Titrimetry 256
8.2.1. Introduction 256 8.2.2. Automation of Potentiometrie
Titrations Using a Commodore VIC-20 Microcomputer 256
8.2.3. Automation of Potentiometrie Titrations Using an IBM PC
257
8.2.4. Automatic Determination of Boric Acid 259
8.2.5. An Automatic System for Ion-Selective Potentiometry
261
8.2.6. Automatic Potentiometrie Titrimetry with Electrogenerated
Reagents 262
8.3. Automation of Potentiometrie Stripping Analysis 263 8.3.1.
Introduction 263 8.3.2. Automatic System for PSA Based
on a VIC-20 Microcomputer 264 8.3.3. Automatic System for
PSA
with Galvanostatic Oxidation Option Based on an IBM PC 269
8.4. An Automatic System for Conductimetric Titrimetry 271
8.5. Automation of Spectrophotometric Methods 272 8.5.1.
Automation of Photometrie
Titrations 272 8.5.2. An Automatic System for
Spectrophotometric-Potentiometric Titrations 273
8.5.3. Data Acquisition System for Spectrophotometric-Kinetic
Methods 274
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xiv CONTENTS
8.6. Automation of Fluorimetric Methods 276 8.7. Automation of
Calorimetric Methods 280
8.7.1. A System for Automatic Thermometric Titrations 280
8.7.2. Automation of a Batch Calorimeter 282 8.8. Automation of
Flow Injection Analysis
(FIA) 283 8.8.1. Introduction 283 8.8.2. An Automatic FIA System
for the
Simultaneous Determination of Nitrates and Nitrites in Waters
284
CHAPTER 9 LABORATORY ROBOTICS
9.1. 9.2.
9.3.
9.4.
9.5.
9.6.
Introduction Motors 9.2.1. 9.2.2. 9.2.3. 9.2.4. 9.2.5.
Introduction Synchronous Motors Direct Current Motors Servo
Motors Stepper Motors
Position Detectors 9.3.1. 9.3.2. 9.3.3. 9.3.4. 9.3.5. 9.3.6.
Introduction Mechanical Switch Closures Noncontact Position
Detectors Potentiometers Shaft Encoders Tachometers
Articulated Arms 9.4.1. 9.4.2.
Introduction Features of Articulated Arms
The Training Program of the Fischertechnik Prototype Robot
Laboratory Unit Operations
289
289 290 290 291 291 291 292 294 294 295 296 296 297 298 299 299
300
304 304
RECOMMENDED BIBLIOGRAPHY 307
INDEX 311