THE FAITH DEVELOPMENT OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGISTS A dissertation presented to the faculty of ANTIOCH UNIVERSITY SANTA BARBARA in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PSYCHOLOGY in CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY By TIANA BLACKBURN JUNE 2017
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an interpretative phenomenological analysis of psychotherapists' lived experiences of faith
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THE FAITH DEVELOPMENT OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGISTS
A dissertation presented to the faculty of
ANTIOCH UNIVERSITY SANTA BARBARA
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of
DOCTOR OF PSYCHOLOGYin
CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
By
TIANA BLACKBURN
JUNE 2017
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THE FAITH DEVELOPMENT OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGISTS
This dissertation, by Tiana Blackburn, has been approved by the committee members signed below who recommend that it be accepted by the faculty of Antioch University
Santa Barbara in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of
This research is a phenomenological study which explores the faith development of six clinical psychologists. Thematic aspects of faith were determined using James Fowler’s Faith Development Theory and includes form of logic, perspective-taking, moral judgment, social awareness, coherence, locus of authority, and symbolic function. These aspects are seen as foundational to an understanding of participants’ stage of faith development. Note that in Faith Development Theory a religious belief system is not required in order to have the experience of faith. In terms of affiliation or non-affiliation with religion, psychologists’ beliefs included atheist, agnostic, religious, and spiritual. Faith was also viewed through a depth psychological lens to help understand the construct.Psychologists’ completed a survey of their personal perspectives on religion and spirituality in clinical practice, personal characteristics, and their demographics. They were interviewed using the Faith Development Interview from which aspects of faith were interpreted and coded. It was observed that maturity of faith varied within and between aspects. Uneven development is to be expected in any growth process. Scores within aspects were averaged and rolled up to an estimated stage score. The stages of faith for two of these clinical psychologists was interpreted as transitioning from Synthetic-Conventional (stage 3) to Individuative-Reflective (stage 4). The stages of faith for four of these clinical psychologists was interpreted as Individuative-Reflective (stage 4) with two psychologists transitioning to Conjunctive Faith (stage 5). The conclusion is that clinical psychologists do indeed have faith and here they describe their experience of it. This study is a move towards a multi-perspectival view of what it means to have faith. Future studies can provide a better understanding of faith development when they are analyzed alongside states of consciousness. It remains to be seen whether or not faith makes a qualitative difference in therapeutic outcomes. Note: The electronic version of this dissertation is available free at Ohiolink ETD Center, www.ohiolink.edu/etd.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am very thankful to Lee Weiser, PhD., as an advisor, teacher, and committee
member: her attention and support meant a great deal to me. Thanks go to Barbara
Lipinski, PhD., for a travel award to attend the 2012 Summer Research Workshop on
Spirituality and Health at Duke University, which boosted my morale; and all inspirers at
Antioch U. including our librarian Christine Forte, who provided inestimable help over the
years.
Much appreciation goes to Harold G. Koenig, MD, MHSc for adding depth and
breadth to my research skills and knowledge beyond what any university graduate
program can offer. Along with Allen Verhey, PhD. (a renowned theological ethicist now
passed), these gentlemen listened and offered helpful guidance over the course of several
days at Duke University.
I give thanks for Marc Rosenbush, a dear Buddhist friend who offered me his
couch during my pre-doc fellowship in a city where I no longer lived. I also greatly
appreciate my strongest ally, my beloved mother, who listens tirelessly even at 82 years
old … along with all of her furry creatures. I am grateful as well to Francesco Di Santis
for his critique and friendship. Most of all, I thank the psychologists who selflessly gave
generously their physical and emotional time and energy to share their soul and spiritual
autobiographies to help other searchers and seekers of knowledge…you will be in my
heart forever!
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Contents ABSTRACT ...........................................................................................................................................iv LIST OF TABLES.................................................................................................................................vii CH. 1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................1
BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................................................. 2 STATEMENT................................................................................................................................................. 4 DEFINITION OF TERMS ............................................................................................................................... 5 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY ........................................................................................................................... 11 METHODOLOGY AND THEORETICAL ORIENTATION ............................................................................... 12 RELEVANCE OF THE STUDY...................................................................................................................... 15
CH. 2 LITERATURE REVIEW.............................................................................................................18 RELIGION/SPIRITUALITY.......................................................................................................................... 20 FAITH ........................................................................................................................................................ 26
CHAPTER 3 METHOD .......................................................................................................................37 RESEARCH DESIGN AND RATIONALE ....................................................................................................... 37 ROLE OF THE RESEARCHER ..................................................................................................................... 38 METHOD.................................................................................................................................................... 39 PARTICIPANTS........................................................................................................................................... 40 INSTRUMENTATION................................................................................................................................... 41 DATA COLLECTION .................................................................................................................................. 42 DATA ANALYSIS ........................................................................................................................................ 42 VALIDITY STRATEGY................................................................................................................................ 43 RISKS/ETHICAL PROCEDURES ................................................................................................................. 45
CHAPTER 4. RESULTS......................................................................................................................47 DEMOGRAPHIC DATA OF PSYCHOLOGISTS .............................................................................................. 47 CHARACTERISTICS OF PSYCHOLOGISTS .................................................................................................. 48 PERSPECTIVES OF PSYCHOLOGISTS ......................................................................................................... 49 ASPECTS OF FAITH DEVELOPMENT .......................................................................................................... 52 SUMMARY OF RESULTS .......................................................................................................................... 103
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ...........................................................................105 REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................................113 Appendix A.........................................................................................................................................125 Appendix B.........................................................................................................................................127 Appendix C.........................................................................................................................................129 Appendix D ........................................................................................................................................130 Appendix E.........................................................................................................................................131 Appendix F.........................................................................................................................................135 Appendix G ........................................................................................................................................137
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Participant Religious/Spiritual Characteristics…………………………….48Table 2. Participant Beliefs and Religious/Spiritual Experiences…………………..48Table 3. Participant Responses Regarding Religion/Spirituality and Health ……....49Table 4. Participant Responses Regarding Religion/Spirituality in
Clinical Practice …………………………………………………………..50Table 5. Participant Responses Regarding Religion/Spirituality and Diagnosis …...51Table 6. ASPECT: Form of logic…………………………………………………... 55Table 7. ASPECT: Perspective-taking………………………………………………62Table 8. ASPECT: Form of moral judgment………………………………………..71Table 9. ASPECT: Social awareness………………………………………………..79Table 10. ASPECT: Locus of authority……………………………………………....84Table 11. ASPECT: World coherence………………………………………………..89Table 12. ASPECT: Symbolic function……………………………………………....97Table 13. Faith Stages………………………………………………………………103Table 14. Belief in God and Faith Maturity………………………………………...104
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CH. 1 INTRODUCTION
Broadly speaking, religiousness “refers to a search for significance in ways
related to the sacred,” while spirituality is “a search for the sacred” itself (Zinnbauer &
Pargament, 2005, p.36). Nevertheless, a lack of consensus prevails as to whether or not
the sacred (which Koenig calls the transcendent) should be viewed as religious or secular,
particularly during attempts to find common ground (Koenig, 2012). According to some,
blending religion and spirituality as one construct provides an unnecessarily vague
understanding considering the lack of agreement as to the nature of spirituality itself
Not Slightly Moderately Very Not 1 1 1Slightly 1Moderately 1 1
No participant was both not religious and not spiritual. All reported a degree of
spirituality with the exception of the most religious of the respondents who said she was
not spiritual. Of those who reported that they are not religious, one was an atheist. The
participant who reported he is slightly religious/slightly spiritual said that he is agnostic.
TABLE 2. Participant Beliefs and Religious/Spiritual ExperiencesYes No Undecided
Believes in God 2 2 2Believes in life after death 3 1 2Religious or spiritual experience changed their life 3 3
As seen in Table 2, participants reporting a belief in God also believed in life after
death. Of the three participants who experienced life-changing religious or spiritual
moments, none these experiences occurred in the context of psychotherapy. Belief in God
was not a criteria for religious service attendance. One participant attended every week
(Protestant); two attended religious services 1 to 2 times a year (Roman Catholic and
Buddhist); two less than once a year (Agnostic and Buddhist); and one never attended
religious services (no affiliation). Two participants have the same religious affiliations
they grew up with, all others did not.
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No participant was so religious as to feel that it was a challenge to remain faithful
to their religion while working as a psychologist. Being a psychologist reportedly caused
one participant to question his religious/spiritual beliefs. Generally, participants reported
they carried their beliefs into most aspects of their lives.
Perspectives of psychologists
TABLE 3. Participant Responses Regarding Religion/Spirituality and HealthResponse
Categories# of
RespondentsClients mention religion/spirituality
How often have your clients mentioned R/S issues such as God, prayer, medication, the Bible, etc.
Rarely or never 1Sometimes 3Often or always 2
Potential positive influences of religion/spiritualityIs the influence of religion/spirituality on health generally positive or negative?
Positive 2NegativeEqual 4No influence
Religion/spirituality helps clients to cope with and endure illness and suffering.
Rarely or neverSometimes 2Often or always 4
Religion/spirituality gives clients a positive, hopeful state of mind.
Rarely or neverSometimes 2Often or always 4
How often have your clients received emotional or practical support from their religious community?
Rarely or never 1Sometimes 3Often or always 2
Potential negative influences of religion/spiritualityReligion/spirituality causes guilt, anxiety, or other negative emotions that lead to increased client suffering.
Rarely or neverSometimes 3Often or always 3
Religion/spirituality leads clients to refuse, delay, or stop medication.
Rarely or never 3Sometimes 2Often or always no answer
How often have your clients used religion/spirituality as a reason to avoid taking responsibility for their own health?
Rarely or never 2Sometimes 3Often or always no answer
Participants said their clients mentioned issues related to religion and/or
spirituality more often than not. As seen in Table 3, all participants agreed that
religion/spirituality influenced clients’ mental health to varying degrees. All participants
shared perceptions about the potentially positive influences of religion/spirituality. Most
believed that religion/ spirituality often helped clients to cope with and endure illness and
suffering. Most said that religion/spirituality sometimes helped prevent suicide, while two
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said it often did. Most participants believed that religion/spirituality often gave clients a
positive, hopeful state of mind. The majority of participants described the influence of
religion/spirituality as equally positive and negative, with more participants having said
that religion/ spirituality also sometimes caused guilt, anxiety, or other negative emotions
that led to increased suffering. Two participants said that religion/spirituality sometimes
led clients to stop, delay, or refuse medication.
TABLE 4. Participant Responses Regarding Religion/Spirituality in Clinical PracticeResponse
Categories# of
RespondentsAttitudes
In general, is it appropriate or inappropriate for a psychologist to inquire about a client’s religion/spirituality?
Always appropriate 1Usually appropriate 5
In general, is it appropriate or inappropriate for a psychologist to discuss religious/spiritual issues when a client brings it up?
Always appropriate 2Usually appropriate 4
When, if ever, is it appropriate for a psychologist to talk about his or her own religious beliefs or experiences with a client?
Never 1Only when asked 1Whenever 4
When, if ever, is it appropriate for a psychologist to pray with a client?
Never 2Only when asked 2Whenever 2
Overall, do you think the amount of time you spend addressing religious/spiritual issues is:
Too much 0Too little 1The right amount 5
BehaviorsHow often do you inquire about patients' religious/spiritual
issues?Never 2Sometimes 1Often or Always 3
I respectfully share my own religious ideas and experiences ... Never 4Rarely 2
I encourage clients in their own religious/spiritual beliefs and practices …
Never or rarely 1No answer 1Often 3Always 1
I try to change the subject in a tactful way… Never 3Rarely 1Sometimes 1No answer 1
I pray with the patient… Never 3Rarely 2No answer 1
As regards clinical practice, most participants believed they spent an appropriate
amount of time addressing religious/spiritual issues, as seen in Table 4. All participants
held the belief that it was appropriate to inquire about religion/spirituality and in actual
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practice several did often inquire, however some never inquired and one inquired only
sometimes. One participant reported her belief that it is never appropriate to talk about
personal religious beliefs/ experiences, whereas the majority were open to that level of
self-disclosure if it felt appropriate. However, in actual practice they rarely, or almost
never, self-disclosed. With respect to their attitude about praying with clients, a third of
participants believed it appropriate to pray when asked to by a client. However, in actual
practice, they rarely, if ever, prayed with clients. More often than not, participants were
encouraging of their clients’ religious/spiritual beliefs and practices, although one
participant reported that she may try to change the subject.
TABLE 5. Participant Responses Regarding Religion/Spirituality and DiagnosisResponse
Categories# of
RespondentsWhen client comes in for consultation Never 1
Rarely 2Sometimes 0Often 1Always 1Does not apply 1
When client presents with a minor diagnosis Never 1Rarely 1Sometimes 1Often 1Always 1Does not apply 1
When client presents with a major diagnosis Never 0Rarely 1Sometimes 1Often 2Always 1Does not apply 1
When client suffers from anxiety and/or depression Never 2Rarely 0Sometimes 2Often 1Always 1Does not apply 0
When client faces end of life issue Never 0Rarely 0Sometimes 1Often 2Always 1Does not apply 2
When client faces ethical quandary Never 1Sometimes 1Often 2Always 1Does not apply 1
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As seen in Table 5, there were a wide range of responses to religious/spiritual
discussions around particular diagnoses. During a consultation, the number of
participants who inquired about religion/spirituality was evenly divided. Whether or not
the diagnosis was minor, major, anxiety and/or depression, participants reported that they
might have some discussion around religion/spirituality with one or two exceptions.
When participants did have clients facing ethical quandaries, greater than half of
participants were willing to discuss religion/spiritual matters with them. With two
exceptions, if a client faced end of life issues it followed that participants were willing to
discuss R/S.
Aspects of faith development
Next, the six themes (called ‘aspects’ in faith development theory) are identified.
A recording of each interview was listened to twice, and transcribed a second time for
accuracy and clarity. The second listening and transcribing of interviews allowed a
greater depth of feeling and understanding of responses. Participant responses were
assigned a stage of development for each of the six aspects (themes). Excerpts from
interviews are given below in support of the coding of these aspects. QSNVivo11
software helped to organize the data. This was followed by a second manual scoring to
improve reliability. See Appendix G for tabular results to the interview questions.
The first participant (in the order that interviews were given) was assigned the
pseudonym “Sarah.” Sarah was a moderately religious Protestant who was reportedly not
spiritual and who attended religious services weekly. Although her approach to life was
based on her religious beliefs, she said her beliefs do not influence her practice. Like
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many other participants, she felt a responsibility to reduce pain and suffering in the world
but disagreed that psychology is a “calling.”
“Stefan” was not religious at all but slightly spiritual in that he “believes in [our]
humanity and a sense of nature and a sense of self and I believe in inner power…it’s
probably psychological when I say spiritual.” Stefan did not believe in life after death and
his source of strength, support, and guidance was internal. Stefan also felt a responsibility
to reduce pain and suffering in the world but disagreed that psychology is a calling.
“Terence” was a moderately religious Roman Catholic and reportedly very
spiritual. Although he was undecided if he believed in God, he did believe in life after
death. Terence’s source of strength, support, and guidance was internal. Terence strongly
agreed that he felt a sense of responsibility to reduce pain and suffering in the world. He
reported that his spiritual beliefs strongly influenced his psychology practice, which he
felt was a calling.
“Jackie” was not religious but considered herself interspiritual and Buddhist. She
believed in God and in life after death but, to a great extent, Jackie made sense of things
without relying on God. Jackie had always “loved” earth-based indigenous beliefs yet
still found aspects of Catholicism meaningful. Jackie felt strongly about her responsibility
to reduce pain and suffering in the world. She also strongly agreed that psychology was a
calling for her. She had a feminist philosophy:
A feminist kind of approach meaning that everyone deserves equal
dignity as human beings to have their basic needs met. Everybody
deserves to be attended to and treated if they are suffering. And so, the
indigenous, bringing in voices that are often shut down, ridiculed. I really
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love to … connect people and have their voices heard. In terms of my
everyday life and living, the Buddhist ethics really appeal to me … I
don’t throw away my Catholicism, either, and what was meaningful to
me about that. (Jackie)
“Derek” was raised Catholic and claimed no religious affiliation, i.e., he reported
that he was agnostic and slightly spiritual. He was undecided on whether or not he
believed in God or, likewise, life after death. He did not look to God for strength,
support, or guidance. Derek relied a great deal on his own ability to make sense of a
situation. Agnosticism influenced all dealings in Derek’s life as it represented his whole
approach to life. Derek disagreed that psychology is a calling for him. He disagreed that
he felt responsibility to reduce pain and suffering in the world.
“Gwen” was reportedly not religious at all and was moderately spiritual, i.e., “I
most closely identify with Buddhism.” She did not believe in God and was undecided
whether or not there is life after death. Gwen looked to herself for strength, support, and
guidance and did not rely on God to make sense of situations. Gwen agreed that she felt a
responsibility to reduce pain and suffering in the world yet disagreed that psychology is a
calling for her. While her spiritual beliefs influence her practice, her whole approach to
life was not based on religion or spirituality.
The tables that appear next represent averaged individual scores based upon
multiple questions from the Faith Development Interview (Appendix F).
Form of Logic. The first aspect indicates the characteristic patterns of mental operations
the participant employed in thinking about the object world (this aspect will be subsumed
under other aspects in a future revision of faith development theory). It is important to
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note that there are not always parallels between faith stage transitions and form of logic
(Fowler & Keen, 1978, p. 39-40).
TABLE 6. ASPECT: Form of logic
ParticipantStage 1
PreOperationalStage 2Concrete
Stage 3Early Formal
Stage 4Formal Operations
Stage 5Dialectical
Stage 6Synthetic
Sarah 3.75
Stefan 4.00
Terence 4.75
Jackie 4.75
Derek 4.00
Gwen 3.37
As seen in Table 6, Sarah and Gwen appeared to use a more inductive thinking
style (stage 3). Moments of intense joy or breakthrough experiences that had affirmed or
changed Gwen’s sense of life’s meaning reflected tacit reasoning, e.g., “joyful moments
of overwhelming emotion, being completely in awe of the world” (this response did not
appear to result from performing operations on thought itself). Along those lines,
meditation experiences created a sense of “connectedness and love” e.g., “gold glitter
pouring out of my heart” that were very important to her. When asked what it was that
she felt connected to, Gwen said “I think myself and the universe.” Times of crisis or
suffering caused her to question God’s existence. “I think my adolescence felt that way. It
felt empty. I think that was a period of real suffering for me.”
I think the important thing to say, I guess, is that they [breakthroughs] tend
to be something that’s really solitary for me. It’s not so much…being out
in this ultra-social way that I think like “wow.” It’s usually something that
I stumble upon in the course of life [where] I end up…feeling that sense of
connectedness or meaning. (Gwen)
Gwen said she started therapy to stay connected to her life. “I feel like I’m building
resiliency during times like right now where everything is good.” Gwen identified the one
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thing she would change about her life as “I would want to be less fearful” and, as such,
Gwen has been learning how to scuba dive.
I was crying under the water [at] the beauty of this place. So that’s been, I
think, really therapeutic for me and a place where I feel so connected to
the universe. It looks like kind of a cathedral when you are under-under
the water…that’s kind of like my version of church and therapy. (Gwen)
In terms of decision-making, Gwen said “I do a lot of unnecessary thinking” e.g., “I’ll
maybe worry, talk to people. And then remember, oh yeah, I have this tool…I can sit
with myself and see how I feel when I ask myself about this choice.” If it was a very
difficult problem, “I would go to therapy and talk it through. But then again, I see that as
almost myself, too, because…it’s another way of accessing that,” i.e., inner guidance.
Sarah’s responses were absent of the tension or ambiguity (stage 3) that would
have required more rigorous hypothesis testing that is typical of a formal operational
style (stage 4). Moments of joy or breakthrough that Sarah experienced “did not change
me” but “just kind of confirmed that I was kind of in the right path.” During times of
crisis and suffering, her construction of self was sustained by relationships, “I never lost
that sense of who I was…I never lost my relationship with God or my friends.” When
asked what she wants to change about herself, Sarah said “I am pretty content with where
things are now. I guess I would like to be more of an assertive person because I am not
basically very good at being assertive.” In terms of decision-making Sarah said “I like to
think things through, I like to gather information. I am very logical in that sense.” Sarah
said she turned to her husband for guidance when faced with a difficult problem, but also
to her parents “to a certain degree,” and then to other Christian friends “just for prayer
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and guidance more so…then a voice comes to me, I guess.” Sarah appeared to be
transitioning to stage 4.
Stefan and Derek had a formal operational thinking style typical of the majority of
participants in this study. Generally speaking, individuals at stage 4 analyze multi-
dimensional problems and perform operations on thought itself. These individuals are
closely identified with systems of ideas without the tension of ambiguity. Their style of
logic is frequently more deductive and dichotomizing, their thought explicit rather than
tacit, and primarily rational. For Stefan, analysis of problems had led to moments of joy,
e.g., when challenged during a tennis match at 16 years old he had the conviction that he
could beat his opponent (who until then was winning).
The joy of working that through, figuring out the problem, and then being
able to implement the needed skills was a moment of intense joy. This is
my experience of joy. Other people may experience joy through some
other venue, it doesn’t have to be how to problem solve. (Stefan)
Not even getting his Ph.D. was as meaningful as playing sports. He said “In the moments
when I am focused, in the moment when I make a great catch, those are real intense
moments of joy.” During times of crisis, Stefan said he accepted the ambiguities
presented by life, not believing that he had suffered.
I have been very blessed that suffering hasn’t been part of my life.
Certainly the biggest crisis, as I look back the most meaningful crisis, has
been the death of my father. While it was a major event, I believe that my
mother handled it, I handled it, the family handled it in ways that were
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highly functional so it didn’t blur into no meaning or disillusions, and in
that way I have just been so fortunate. (Stefan)
Except for the physical stamina that he had 20 years ago, Stefan had no desire to change
anything about himself, the reason being that to do so would unravel his entire life “and I
like where I am today.” In terms of decision-making Stefan said,
I use both my left and right brain. Remember that I was a creative thinking
teacher…I collect data and analyze it logically to gain perspective but I
also use my feelings to gain perspective, so I use both logic and emotion.
(Stefan)
When faced with a difficult problem, Stefan said “I am my own guidance. I occasionally
engage others to reflect back to me in order to help clarify my own thoughts.” Stefan
relied upon conscious logical processes with no reference made to unconscious processes,
unlike participants at stage 5.
Derek’s linear thinking suggested his form of logic was deductive in style, and it
seemed one dimensional (stage 4). Moments of intense joy or breakthrough experiences
appeared to have eluded him with the exception of one realization he had when his father
died, “My father worked his ass off his whole life. And I think, you know, when he died,
I realized that I don’t want to go that same route.” Derek gave a story of his father that he
said may possibly reflect a breakthrough experience:
Probably somewhere in my mid-20’s I gave him a hug. I had never done
that before. He had never hugged me before. At that point I decided that
every time I was going to see him I was going to hug him. And I did. And
he was very uncomfortable with it. And about 2 years later one of my
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sisters called and said, ‘What’s going on with our father? He gave me a
hug.” (Derek)
Similarly, experiences of crisis seem to have eluded Derek. “Certainly, I’ve had
suffering. [But] you know, I have had a very lucky life. Part of it has to do with my
working, that I do what I want to do in life. But profound disillusionment? Life has no
meaning? No.” Derek said that he has no answer to the question about what he would
most like to change about himself, but conceded “Maybe…have a little more patience.”
In terms of decision-making, Derek said “I would never make an important decision
without really thinking about it, and then doing a gut check” but he could offer no
examples other than to say the “gut check” means “taking a look on just how does it
feel.”
Adults are usually between stages 3 and 4 according to Streib and Keller (2013)
but Faith Development Theory expands into an additional stage called “post-operational
thinking” (Manual for Faith Development Research, 2004). Post-operational refers to
dialectical thinking. This could be seen as “polar thinking” which embraces both sides of
a polarity versus the polarized thinking seen in earlier stages where one side of things is
favored. When scores at .70 or higher are rounded up as suggested by Parker (2006),
Terence and Jackie (stage 4) appeared as transitioning into stage 5, the post-operational
stage. (By the way, these two participants were Jungian psychotherapists.) Generally
speaking, these individuals are open to multiple aspects and different perspectives; they
embrace tensions/ambiguities for their potential yield of deeper understandings; their
ideas are contained in open systems; and, they are process-oriented.
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Although Catholic, Terence said he found in Christianity “a hostility towards
life.” “[From] my early studies in Eastern religion and Eastern thought, you know, it
came to me that God has got many facets expressed in many different religious traditions.
Each religious tradition has a facet of God.” Terence appeared conscious of the historical-
temporal nature of phenomena and the depth dimension in human beings (the
unconscious). “All of my life I always paid attention to my dreams. I value my dreams,
am guided by my dreams, so dreams are the language of soul, dreams are sacred to me.”
His form of logic included a mythological perspective.
What happened to God according to Nietzsche was that he lost his soul
and became pure spirit. God’s soul died, yeah and what God is
conceptually now is just disembodied spirit. I have a whole mythology of
soul as God, as transcendence upwards and beyond, and
heaven…everything except this world. A soul-less God. (Terence)
Terence said he went through stages of depression that could “tear him down for a while”
i.e., “a crisis of faith that I have to accept” because of his willingness to hold paradox and
tension. In terms of making changes, he would like “more guts and courage” and to have
been “born with the skill to write” as it is something his soul calls him to do, and yet he
finds it painful because of “layers of meaning,” suggesting his depth in thinking.
Decision-making for Terence required contemplation and reflection, “It’s more about the
relationship with myself. I want to know where I stand and how I feel before I get input
from others.”
Jackie’s form of logic reflected an awareness of the depth dimension in human
beings, i.e., the unconscious. When she had an important decision to make, not only did
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she talk to people that she cared about and trusted for their opinions but “I try to do some
oracle kinds of things to see what will emerge out of my unconscious.” Mainly, Jackie
interacted with her dreams for guidance and said, “I think the number one thing is
probably looking at dreams.” Working with her dreams placed Jackie not only at a formal
operational stage but also dialectical in her use of the imagination. “I used to have a lot
of nightmares but I also had incredibly beautiful dreams breaking through as I moved
through the nightmares and kind of embraced more of my shadow.” At times of crisis or
suffering, Jackie relied upon contemplative reading practices. As a teenager, Jackie said,
“I contemplated being a nun but the Catholic part didn’t…one of them gave me a book,
The Gift from the Sea, and said “I think you are running away from life. Here read this.
That was significant.” (Jackie) Coincidentally, her father gave her the same book, she
said.
Moments of breakthrough and intense joy in relationships were important to
Jackie as well as experiences of joy in nature and the arts. She appeared open to reality,
embraced multiple perspectives, and was less concerned about boundaries around any
particular set of ideas, “I learned about Eastern philosophies and Native Americans and it
changed my life.” Jackie said, “I really want to always be careful about having anything
that has an ism after it.” Jackie also guarded against “idiot compassion” as opposed to
“authentic, deep, real compassion.” At times, Jackie struggled with “a little bit of social
anxiety” and “would change that and be more assertive.” When she asserted herself “I
get out of my own way…it feels very grounded…it’s a fierce compassion.” Jackie would
like “more confidence in my own voice,” and viewed herself as a quiet activist, although
“I think there are times I could have stood up for myself or others more actively.”
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Perspective-Taking. The second aspect indicated the way a participant described the
self, the other, and the relationship between self/other. It is the way a participant
constructed the interiority of another person as well as how he or she thought and felt
particularly as it related to knowledge of internal states (Manual for Faith Development
Research, 2004, p. 24).
TABLE 7. ASPECT: Perspective-taking
ParticipantStage 1Egocentric
Stage 2Concrete
Stage 3Mutual
Interpersonal
Stage 4TheoreticalSystematic
Stage 5Multi-
Perspectival
Stage 6Mutuality
Sarah 3.33
Stefan 4.33
Terence 4.00
Jackie 4.50
Derek 4.00
Gwen 3.66
As seen in Table 7, Sarah and Gwen’s mutual interpersonal style of identification
suggested their development could be located at stage 3. Generally speaking, individuals
at stage 3 have a construct of ‘self’ that is not separate from others, however they do
understand the interiority of others – they intuitively “put themselves in other’s shoes”
but others have more power to determine the self: there is a tendency to be people-
pleasers, their environment determining to a greater extent just how significant other
people are to them. Perspective-taking at this stage is governed by intuitions of rules or
laws of relationships.
Sarah’s relationships appeared central to her sense of self. Sarah’s conversation
reflected trust, sharing, and safety with family and friends, and reliance upon
interpersonal virtues. Sarah was very close to her husband. She was also close to aunts,
cousins, and “really good” friends. “My husband was a really good friend of mine
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through all the stages of my life.” “I started falling in love just a few years ago … trusting
someone, sharing something with someone, it just becomes easier.”
Gwen’s perspective-taking suggested that she may be close to transitioning from a
mutual interpersonal style to a systematic theoretical style, if not already. Her
perspective was defined by the fact of having been adopted after birth.
It’s finally 37 years into the process of feeling that my adoption was really
like a tragedy [but] is more recently something that I see through a
different lens because of…meeting her [biological mother] and seeing that
I think or I know that I am much better off for having been raised in the
family I was raised in. (Gwen)
Gwen had a “special bond” with a few teachers who were “nurturing and kind” but her
interpersonal needs were mainly met through a long-standing relationship with a therapist
that helped her develop a more systematic theoretical style of perspective-taking. That
key relationship was how she developed a construct of self where it was lacking before:
So, okay, that is absolutely…a huge one. I still am in therapy with her
now. We have been together for like 20 years and she is like a mother to
me. I think the universe kind of did bring her to me…just segued in some
way into my own spirituality. I think that was kind of one of those ‘meant
to be’ relationships that came. Soo that’s probably the most important
relationship. (Gwen)
Things were complicated with her adoptive mother. The transition in social perspective-
taking occurs when a person can make changes from being at the mercy of their
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environment to actually shaping relationships by means of greater autonomy. When
asked how the shift in perception of her mother occurred, Gwen said
I started being more loving. My mom has been consistent. But when I
decided to become more loving to her, she became more loving to me. It
was really initiated by me making a decision not to be shut down … I
think my relationship with my parents has changed … I think I have more
appreciation for them. I had a greater insight into what their dynamics
were and how that impacted me for better or worse (laughs). And I just
have more gratitude. I think I’ve grown up in that way. So, yeah… (Gwen)
Gwen viewed her parents in a nuanced way and appeared less emotional, more critical,
and conceptually mediated in regards to them – she worked out her own worldview
history while recognizing their separate and unique worldview histories, i.e., they clearly
did not determine who she was.
In the past, Terence’s relationships appeared to have been mutual interpersonal in
that significant others had the power to determine who he was: he seemed to lack a
construct of “self” apart from these relationships. Terence said he became an intimacy
junkie because his father, who was quiet and religious, was “emotionally cut-off.”
He was a man of impeccable integrity, devoted to give his life to the
family and to his wife. His wife, my mother, was a very sharp lady and
liberated way beyond her years but I’m kind of an intimacy junkie and
both of them [parents] were kind of emotionally cut off. I mean that’s why
I am an intimacy junkie. (Terence)
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One priest was admired, e.g., “a man of deep faith” who “reached me and touched me
and made me take a look at my life.” Also as regards past relationships, Terence
experienced heartbreak when a significant relationship painfully ended.
I learned a lot about the nature of love and the nature of jealousy and
heartbreak and how to get through that and how to go on and recover and
re-engage. I think over time, you know, I feel like I gained faith that I’ll
make it through events even though they may be difficult in the moment.
(Terence)
Again, as for many participants, developmental stages were not mutually exclusive and
Terence’s perspective-taking scores were interpreted as being between mutual and
interpersonal to systematic and theoretical (stage 4), i.e., a move away from being
emotional and towards being more critical with perspectives being more conceptually
mediated through his love of Nietzsche.
This German psychologist, Nietzsche, has been a passionate interest and a
love…long-time relationship for me for 27 years. It got started by James
Hillman who introduced me to him and I did my dissertation on him and
have been reading and writing about him for years, trying to look at some
of his ideas and apply those to therapy. (Terence)
Through archetypal psychology and the study of Nietzsche, Terence imagined the
interiority of others and analyzed relationships. Terence’s current relationships suggested
that he could possibly transition into multiple perspectives and openness (stage 5), i.e., a
widening of boundaries of identity and perspectives. He granted autonomy not only to his
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own perspectives but also the perspectives of others; he sounded conscious and critically
reflective; he radically affirmed others’ interiority particularly when it included suffering:
[It’s] just that I am the most optimistic person about the negative things in
life. I don’t see the negative as negative. I see the negative as opening up
to deeper greater things. It cracks us open, develops character, the
suffering transforms us. Suffering can certainly overwhelm us and we
need to take care of ourselves, you know, it’s a tough thing but uh it’s
certainly as a therapist (little laugh) that I value people’s suffering and I
don’t want to take it from them, want them to move through it in a way
that opens up the possibilities for them…so I set up the most positive
about the negative for these clients. (Terence)
Derek’s interview did not offer as much in the way of marker events to analyze
the aspect of social perspective-taking. Past and current relationships reflected a
systematic and theoretical style in that he appears to have been less emotional, more
critical, and conceptually mediated in his perspectives.
My father died…so it’s been awhile. Like I said, he was a nice guy. We
had a nice relationship for a male of that time which meant you didn’t
talk about feelings, you didn’t talk about stuff. You talked about work.
You know, that kind of thing. But a nice guy. (Derek)
Generally speaking, individuals at stage 4 recognize their similarity with others
yet have a separate and unique worldview history which they capably justify.
Nevertheless, individuals at stage 4 may tend to over-objectify and reduce or ignore
particular qualities of others. From about the age of 8, Derek’s mother fared less
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favorably in his opinion, e.g., “One of us is really nuts here. Is it me or is it her? It’s her.”
When asked to explain what “crazy bullshit” meant, Derek says “She is immature, totally
egocentric, an emotional child, lacks a lot of empathy. Am I getting clinical enough for
you?” This may be an over-objectification that reduced or ignored particular qualities of
his mother. In terms of his past relationships, he says “It is more about who I can connect
with than trust.” Derek maintained a separate and unique worldview from friends,
however,
We don’t talk a lot about in depth stuff, although sometimes we do. You
know, it’s funny I can go months without talking with friends. But most
of my friends we can just pick up where we left off. And that’s the
important thing. We can fill in the blank spaces. (Derek)
Stefan’s ability to adopt another’s perspective suggested that past relationships
reflected a systemic and theoretical style. Stefan viewed his parents as having separate
and unique worldviews/histories and he developed a sense of a separate “I” that could
analyze them. Stefan’s parental relationships were positive, and he felt emotionally and
financially supported.
My mother was a warm, loving, nurturing woman who was just so
popular with everybody…and so she was the one, I think, that taught me
empathy and gentleness and love and compassion and was always there
as an anchor. But my father was a little, well, far less warm. He was a
brilliant scientist, uh, and he…had this real strong playful sense…He was
not as involved in my non-academic growth [sports]. (Stefan)
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Stefan became self-reliant at a young age. He found teachers and coaches that modeled
“wonderful male relationships”:
The other relationship that was really important…would be my little
league baseball coach who I had for at least 2 years maybe 3. And it was
seeing someone dedicated to the kids, dedicated to the game and…the
coach-y aspect, teaching a skill, having us try to do our best at the same
time not being excessively critical. The next significant relationship was
my high school choral instructor … Again, here was someone who was
just so dedicated to the students. He was always supportive of students and
kind, and so all of that impacted me in looking at what a wonderful male
relationship is…a kind man that could still be a teacher. (Stefan)
Stefan was left “rudderless” as a teenager when he needed guidance most due to his
father’s death, especially since his mother “was not equipped to do things.” This opened
the door to many new relationships that offered multiple perspectives, and he has grown
to honor separate and unique worldviews, and he did not appear to project his values and
beliefs onto others.
Over the years I really have developed into somebody who fully respects
people’s right to be who they are…to do things that are unhealthy if they
choose to. I’m very much pro people being who they are. And I may not
want them in my life…I may not like the person but I respect people’s
rights to be who they are. (Stefan)
Stefan had very deep friendships where he openly discussed “rich and meaningful things”
even when beliefs were different…he appeared very accepting of others’ perspectives,
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e.g., “My sister and I get along and all that but her way of being in the world, of dealing
with the world, is different than mine.” At the same time,
I can sit and talk for hours and hours and hours with my best friend, I can
do the same with my brother. He and I could sit and talk for hours and
hours and hours about rich and meaningful things. He, actually, is very
spiritual as is my best friend. My best friend is religious and spiritual. My
brother is not religious but he’s spiritual. (Stefan)
Jackie’s perspective-taking was mutual and interpersonal as regards past
relationships and over time she developed a more systematic and theoretical perspective.
As a child she appeared to have experienced transpersonal awareness that enabled her to
easily adopt others’ perspectives. A family member’s illness awakened her compassion:
I would have moments with him where we would sit and l would look at
him and I felt like I saw his soul. I saw…he’s not just all this behavior.
There is this profound- it would scare me because it was so intimate
(sigh). Again, one of those things that just hit me like there’s so much
more, there’s so much more than meets the eye here. (Jackie)
Jackie’s ability to empathize at a young age which, along with school stressors and
various traumatic family experiences, might have led to “dissociation,” she said. “I
daydreamed so much…the teacher could be speaking to me and I would be glazed over in
my own world.” Jackie had difficulty maintaining a construct of self, “I had, from a
young age, a lot of reflection on life and what it is to be embodied in a certain way and a
lot of questions about God.” She isolated herself, “I spent a lot of time alone, like in the
backyard, thinking. Nature became such a solace for me…nature became my home and it
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was so healing for me.” In addition to abstraction from concrete social relations, Jackie
struggled between “rebelling” against her mother who “…still held those Catholic ideas
very strongly and imposed them” at the same time Jackie desired to please her.
However, through the gift of a few excellent teachers, Jackie developed a more
systematic and theoretical perspective. She gained the ability to conceptually formulate
and analyze relationships through the development of a new self-construct:
I learned about Eastern philosophies and Native American[s] and it
changed my life. It didn’t move me from being Catholic at the time but it
deepened my contemplative practice and my sense of spirituality. It was
as if somebody was telling me who I was. I got it. I just got it. I knew the
answers. (Jackie)
Jackie formed a significant relationship with someone from another culture and
became part of an extended family in another country. “Out on my own” her life
experiences brought changes in perception. Whereas as a child she gave a lot of power to
her parents, e.g., “I just thought he [her father] walked on water when I was in early
childhood,” her relationships understandably changed upon returning to the U.S. “As the
years went on, I became more like a parent to them in a way” and Jackie said she
eventually became friends with her mother as her hospice caretaker. Besides co-workers,
friends, and family, Jackie’s list of current relationships included a spiritual mentor, a
Jungian analyst, and iconic images “from all the different religions of the world.” Jackie
critically self-reflected on her marriage,
It’s important to me because I think partnerships and love are one of the
clearest ways we can make each other better, who we can be as better
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people in this world…I have views about relationship where I don’t think
you should depend on another person to be “the be all and end all” of
everything so I have friendships, too… I have struggled a lot with having
to come to terms with not projecting a lot of romantic notions on others
and getting obsessed in that way…as if the grass is greener elsewhere,
but to really come to terms with how can I best be in a relationship
regardless of what relationship that is, and THIS is the relationship that I
am in and I am going to show up as best that I can in it. And the
challenges that come upon us in a relationship are great opportunities for
recognizing how we can leave this world in a better place. (Jackie)
Moral Judgment. The third aspect identified patterns of thinking about issues of moral
significance. Moral judgment is seen as a complex skill involving patterns of reasoning,
grounds of moral justification, the boundaries of social inclusion and exclusion, and
social perspective taking (Manual for Faith Development Research, 2004, p. 24).
TABLE 8. ASPECT: Form of moral judgmentStage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5 Stage 6
Participant Pre-moral Reciprocity Interpersonal Law & Order Multi-Perspectival
Universal
Sarah 4.25
Stefan 4.50
Terence 5.00
Jackie 5.00
Derek 4.00
Gwen 4.25
In terms of moral judgment, Sarah thought an action could be right and wrong at
the same time, depending on context. As such, Sarah showed principled moral reasoning
that was oriented towards individuals rather than at a group perspective. This form of
moral judgment also includes reflexive moral relativism but was based upon her embrace
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of cultural diversity. Sarah placed importance on “the hurt of why somebody did it, the
reasoning behind it.” In the end, she said, it is a person’s motivation that matters. When
defining sin Sarah said, “Just anything that’s not done with the right intention,”
suggesting there are no absolute values shared by everyone (in terms of behavior). In
regards to the presence of evil in the world, “I think it goes back to the fact that we do
have free will…that we are not kind of meant to all act the same.” In terms of conflict or
disagreements and their resolution, Sarah emphasized the values of her religion.
I think to me it goes back down to really anything outside of that
salvation piece within my own religious belief, kind of up to where God
wants you to live and that relationship between you and God. (Sarah)
When further probed about the disagreement people may have over salvation,
Sarah said, “I don’t have the right to change somebody else’s beliefs…I believe in that
‘relationship’ and so I feel like if and when God wants that to happen, it will happen.”
Respecting another’s right to believe in what they will still does not truly integrate
multiple perspectives as seen at higher stages of development. As such, it was interpreted
that Sarah reflected conventional moral judgment.
More than half of the participants emphasized rights and duties in terms of
maintaining the social system (stage 4), as seen in Table 8. Generally speaking,
individuals at stage 4 rationally defend the values of social institutions over the rights or
needs of individuals. Derek’s form of moral judgment suggested a law and social order
style. Derek agreed that actions can be right or wrong based on the outcome of the action.
“The outcome has to be balanced, again, with morality. Was it moral to drop the A-
bombs? No. Was it a pragmatic outcome? That you can defend.” In other words, the atom
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bomb achieved its societal goal. When asked to define sin, Derek said “It is an immoral
act. Who defines what’s moral? The jihadists aren’t doing something immoral by
chopping people’s heads off. Sin is cultural,” reflecting the reflexive moral relativism of
an individual at stage 4. When asked to explain the presence of evil in the world, Derek
said that “evil is too broad a concept.”
I don’t use the term evil. A lot of people do. I don’t use that word. I don’t
think there is some free-floating entity out there labeled evil. I don’t. I
really have to come to that from a psychological perspective of
biological, genetics, and environment. (Derek)
When asked how people can resolve conflicts when they disagree about an issue, Derek
said “Damned if I know.” From a pragmatic viewpoint,
It’s not going to happen through politics because politics is amoral. It’s
not going to happen through religion because religion is self-serving.
That means the only way it can come about is through some greater
raising of individual consciousness. And…we are one step out of the
jungle…in our development as a species. (Derek)
Gwen’s form of moral judgment suggested a law and social order style in that she
did judge certain actions as being right or wrong, although she said somewhat tacitly that
it is not something she often thought about. “I think wrong for sure is defined by harm to
me. So, harm to yourself, or harm to another person, or harm to the earth.” When asked to
define sin, Gwen expressed her discomfort with using the word and said “I can
understand that there are things that, as human beings, are not positive for us to engage
in.” Also, “I don’t consider myself a Buddhist but it resonates with me, the way they talk
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about concepts of living…” yet she would not elaborate further. Mainly, the presence of
pathology explained the presence of evil in our world.
I think it’s the result of pathology. The psychologist in me really thinks
that, because of suffering, people start to act out in ways that are really
hurtful and then it just becomes a cycle. So I don’t think someone is ever
possessed by the devil or something, I think it’s just through their own
traumas. (Gwen)
When asked how conflicts can be resolved if people disagree about an issue, Gwen
answered “I think by respecting each other’s wishes and just acting in accordance with
your own beliefs,” which reflected principled moral reasoning. The example she
provided was on abortion, “If someone does not believe in abortion then they shouldn’t
have an abortion. I don’t know why they feel they have a right to tell other people how to
live.” That people should be allowed autonomy to follow their own beliefs reflects
multiple perspectives. “You are your own person and you can do whatever you want …
[there’s] not enough respect for other people’s belief in this world.” This perspective is
critical of the social order and argues for the rights of individuals, a perspective closer to
stage 5.
Stefan’s form of moral judgment suggested both a law and social order style in its
reflexive moral relativism as well as principled moral reasoning and also multiple
perspectives, e.g., “All outcomes are right.”
One can’t take a wrong action given the data at hand. People make the
best decisions based on the data that they have at any given point in time.
Even future actions are not right or wrong. Things may not work out the
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way that you want them to, in that way it could be wrong. But all
outcomes are all right. (Stefan)
Stefan did not use the word “sin” but said “I cannot do sin other than violating the
rights of others or non-acceptance of others.” His explanation for the presence of evil in
the world was biological.
We all have the belief system that we have to be part of the group. That is a
functional survival system, you know, we plan, we do community just like
we see animals that herd. If someone is ostracized or pushed out of the
group then what develops in them is great fear. And then evil becomes one
of the behaviors that someone can do when they are in great fear to try and
control the world around them. That would be, for me, kind of a biological
explanation of evil. (Stefan)
Stefan did not see how religious conflicts could be resolved except through mutual
acceptance, e.g., “I have the right to my religious beliefs and you have the right to yours
even if I believe your beliefs are bad.”
In other words, Jews don’t believe that Christ is the son of God, but can
they accept that Christians do, and say that it’s okay? In the same way that
Christians believe in Christ and the Jews don’t, to be able to say they have
a right to believe differently. Our religious beliefs are for us and not
necessarily for everyone. (Stefan)
Terence’s form of moral judgment showed that he recognized multiple
perspectives as well as the maintenance of the social order. Terence distinguished
between gross actions and subtle actions when determining whether an action is right or
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wrong. “Soul decisions are more subtle in that the appropriate response is in the
moment.” In terms of what makes an action right, Terence said “Right action would be
that it increases the health of a person, the situation, or the thing. The wrong action would
increase the illness or the destruction of a situation.” When asked to define sin, Terence
said, “I like the Greek definition of it, missing the mark,” and he said “a sin is not being
honest with myself and others.” When asked to explain the presence of evil in the world,
Terence said,
I don’t know if there is an evil entity out there floating around infecting
people but I think people who are consciously, consciously, trying to
inflict harm and death to people, those are evil people. Being aware that
you are hurting others and intentionally doing that, to me that’s the most
evil. People accidently hurt people, or you know, can’t help it, or hurt, too,
and slash back…it’s different than consciously intending to do it.
(Terence)
In terms of conflict or disagreements and their resolution, Terence emphasized multiple
perspectives to maintain social order.
I see a lot, a lot of couples. They fight as if there’s just one truth, like I
have the truth and you’re wrong about this, this is the way it should be. So
I say, “You have your truth and you have your truth and since you guys
are living together you’re going to have to figure out some middle ground
where you can value each other’s truths or compromise.” So there are
many truths. (Terence)
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Jackie’s form of moral judgment suggested principled moral reasoning and
multiple perspectives (stage 5). In regards to what makes an action right or wrong, Jackie
said “I do hold that there are right actions, that one can live a life on the basis of right
action. In terms of sticking to a law or rule just because it’s a law or rule, I think there is
relativity.” If Jackie were to define sin, it is “undermining others or oneself I suppose.”
Jackie defined undermining as,
…intentionally undermining the efforts of others that strive for equality
and love and mastery. And also undermining those efforts with in oneself,
self-sabotage. It comes back to intention. Intentional harm is evil. If it’s
not intentional, then what are you going to do? But intentional harm, that’s
evil. (Jackie)
When asked how conflicts can be resolved if people disagreed about an issue, Jackie
reflected a principled and universal form of moral judgement:
Well, Ken Jones talks about that in The New Social Face of Buddhism, ‘a
higher third’ and that when there’s conflict, if we can get out of our own
way, our own ego and attachment to things, I think a lot can happen.
When people can come to together and say, here’s a conflict, it’s here ok?
Let’s look at this together. Restorative justice practices nurture…foster
that way of ‘being with’ so that all voices are heard. Even with anger, even
with mistrust, even with non-forgiveness, it’s out on the table. But it’s out
on the table as a shared conflict. Not like you have this conflict and I
don’t. When anyone has a conflict, I think it’s our shared conflict…it’s in
our field. (Jackie)
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Jackie called this higher third “hovering compassion.” “It’s an imaginal umbrella of ‘let’s
hold this with compassion.’ ” Jackie’s perspective is worth echoing.
We can have a strong voice, we can have anger in there, and not even
necessarily want to associate with that person, if you will, on an ongoing
basis, but let’s look at this together from a place of non-reactivity and
compassion while also using some logic, some abstract thinking. Get out
of our own concrete narrow heads and egos because it keeps us confined. I
think that if we can expand to take on different perspectives, even if we
don’t agree with them, even for a moment to just try them on or hear, even
get angry and share that, I think that’s a way to work with conflict, to see
where we get caught individually and collectively in a narrow
understanding of something because then we are going to suffer and make
others suffer. (Jackie)
Generally speaking, individuals at stage 5 uphold the rights of the individual over any
claim of the social order. These individuals are able to hold competing claims in tension
and to reason dialectically thus removing the tension of integrating multiple perspectives
(Note again that Terence and Jackie were Jungian psychotherapists).
Bounds of Social Awareness. The fourth aspect identified a participant’s group
identification: how they constructed the group they identify with, and how they related to
the group. This aspect answered the question of how wide or inclusive is the social world
to which a person will respond (Manual for Faith Development Research, 2004, p. 24).
Sarah Yes XStefan No XTerence Undecided XJackie Yes XDerek Undecided XGwen No X
As seen in Table 14, there does not appear to be a direct relationship between
faith development and belief in God. The next section, Chapter 5, discusses results in
more detail.
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CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The following discussion is a dialogue between results and the reviewed
literature, i.e., how the results of this study have been understood through the existing
literature, and also what light is shed on the literature itself through these results. The
core question of this study was “What is the faith development of clinical psychologists?”
In other words, what can we learn about the lived experience of faith from the
conversations shared by six clinical psychologists? The questions asked in the Faith
Development Interview reflect mostly a conscious process: maturity in terms of how
clinical psychologists think and reason; their ability to adopt another person’s
perspective; the way in which they reason about moral issues and make decisions; how
and where they set limits around their community; where they find authorities for their
faith and how they relate to them; their way of holding things together and forming a
single, workable worldview; and, their way of understanding and responding to symbols
(Underweiser, 2004).
Results showed that, certainly, these clinical psychologists do have faith
regardless of their religious affiliation or non-affiliation. Clinical psychologists
interviewed for this study displayed a range of maturity as regards faith. See Table 13.
From atheist and agnostic to the most religious, there is evidence of faith according to
Faith Development Theory and this is in accord with what Dr. Allan Verhey, Professor of
Theological Ethics at Duke University has said, “Everyone has faith in something.”
Critically speaking, Dr. Verhey said that “faith is too general a term” for this researcher
to measure and he emphasized that “faith exists as hope and love…hope as some form of
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optimism other than wishful thinking” (personal communication, 2012). That being said,
results revealed optimism in the face of death, loss of relationships, parental
disappointments, and illness among participants who all reported a degree of spirituality
with the exception of one religious participant (see Table 1). The stages of faith for two
of these clinical psychologists was interpreted as transitioning from Synthetic-
Conventional (stage 3) to Individuative-Reflective (stage 4). The stages of faith for four
of these clinical psychologists was interpreted as Individuative-Reflective (stage 4) with
two psychologists transitioning to Conjunctive Faith (stage 5). These transitions are
expected. It was notable that those psychologists transitioning into Conjunctive Faith
were Jungian psychotherapists. In the stage of Conjunctive Faith, one is able to live with
paradoxes and accept polarities; one is able to see multiple perspectives and even enjoy
them. The vehicles for growth at this stage are symbol and story, metaphor and myth.
These are re-embraced with greater meaning as an adult. Individuals at this stage have
developed a receptive faith, one that waits and allows the Self to grow.
Hood, Hill and Spilka (2009) observed three facts about religious and spiritual
identification. One, most people identify as both. This was true in the present study. Two,
a significant minority “use spirituality as a means of at least partly refuting or even
ridiculing religion” (p. 376). That was true for at least one participant. Three,
religiousness and spirituality overlap considerably in the U.S. with the exception of
scientists and psychologists in particular (Beit-Hallahmi as cited in Hood et al., 2009). If
it were not for the overlap of religion and spirituality in the two Jungian psychotherapists,
this study would have more clearly confirmed Beit-Hallahmi’s observations. As seen in
Table 14, approximately one-third of participants believed in God. The faith development
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of those who believed in God was at stages 3 and stage 5, respectively, signifying that
mere belief in God is not strongly related to maturity in faith. Of the six participants, their
belief in God or lack thereof was evenly distributed irrespective of faith development.
To be truly phenomenological one needs to “enlarge our thought in order to
comprehend the phenomenon rather than force the phenomenon to fit our pre-conceived
theoretical categories” (Schelling as cited by Mahmoud, 2016). This requires seeing
through the data to themes not categorically identified by faith development theory. In
this study “connectedness” was an emerging theme for all participants whether atheist,
agnostic, religious, spiritual, male, or female. Corresponding to the theme of
connectedness was the possibility of alienation, e.g., being an outlier. The striving for
connectedness may suggest a pre-existing alienation. In any case, all participants spoke of
the importance of connectedness. It was difficult to place the concept of connectedness
within the aspects of Faith Development Theory. Connectedness might have been
embedded within the aspect of social-awareness, however, bounds of social awareness
concern how inclusive a person’s social circle is as regards groups, institutions, or causes
that one identifies with. It was suggested in the Manual for Faith Development Research
that a larger social presence, i.e., the more perspectives integrated, indicates a greater
degree of faith development. For example, who is the person willing to include in his or
her thinking and who remains alien? (Fowler, Streib & Keller, 2004). Although questions
within the aspect of the bounds of social awareness elicited answers about like-
mindedness and hinted at out-groups, this aspect did not appear to speak to the depth of
the kinship, similitude, closeness, alliance, friendship, affinity, or bonds with others that
echo connection. Likewise, the idea of connection may coincide with the aspect of world
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coherence, nevertheless responses to “What happens to us after death” within that aspect
bore little discussion relative to connection here and now.
Alternatively, Hommerich and Tiefenbach (2017) have proposed a measure of
social affiliation. Social affiliation was defined as being a respected and valued member
of society as a means to subjective well-being. Social affiliation is not related to an
individuals’ direct environments as queried in the Faith Development Interview but
concerns one’s relation to society as a whole. The community dimension in Faith
Development Theory is measured as social capital in terms of trust, personal networks
and norms, however social affiliation is a societal dimension of being and feeling a part
of the “here and now” of the social whole (Hommerich & Tiefenbach, 2017).
Unsurprisingly, the value of connectedness seen as social affiliation was very important
to the clinical psychologists in this study, as stated above, and should perhaps be
addressed in future revisions of Faith Development Theory.
The idea of being someone who breaks faith or defects, who rejects, or is seen as
rebellious, appeared as a fairly common response for four out of six participants. Being a
rebel is one thread leading to a mature faith in contrast to being faithful, obedient or loyal
(or even conformable) to a set of beliefs, especially since some of the greatest mystics or
theologians reflect this divine rebel characteristic: Martin Luther, St. Francis of Assisi,
Sri Aurobindo, Teresa of Avila, Krishnamurti, St. John of the Cross, Osho, etc. As
regards mystics such as these, Ford-Grabowsky criticized Fowler’s theory because it
lacked the mystical aspect, which is also seen as intuitive and feminine. To Ford-
Grabowsky in the late 1980’s, whose view was strictly Christian, the fact that Fowler’s
theory included all religions seemed offensive to her. As it turns out, Ford-Grabowski’s
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publication Sacred Voices (2002) reflects a multi-perspectival worldview that is inclusive
of the mystical within many religious traditions. As seen through the lens of Faith
Development Theory, Ford-Grabowsky’s social perspective-taking appears to have
transitioned (or matured) from stage 4 to stage 5, something that could only be observed
through the passage of time, and it perhaps lends some credence to Fowler’s theory of
faith development.
Also regarding mystics, William James said that “faith-state and mystical state are
practically convertible terms” (as cited in Lyman, 1904, p. 505.) Lyman (1904) wrote a
fine article on faith and mysticism that bears discussion as it feels curiously appropriate
to this study. The long-standing argument seems to be between rationalism and faith
and/or mysticism. Note that Fowler attempted to bridge these concepts, and was followed
by Ken Wilber who added state-stages of consciousness alongside structure-stages of
psychological development when he framed integral consciousness (Wilber, 2000).
Starting from the position of rationalism, Lyman asked the question whether faith and
mysticism are contrary principles yielding different results, or if understood rightly, they
are compatible and yield the soundest spiritual life and the fullest experience of God.
This comparison would be useful in future studies. Faith, Lyman said, is experiential and
therefore empirical. Using the concept of faith in any other way introduces dogmatism,
he said, which relates it to a system of doctrine. “Thus faith, as a distinct principle of life,
is truly empirical” (Lyman, 1904, p. 506). Since “science makes its appeal to experience,
and refuses to speculate beyond the realm of possible experience” (p. 506) it would
appear that the study faith (and separately, mysticism) as lived experience provides
empirical evidence when approached through Faith Development Theory.
110
The fascinating idea of “Thirdness” was discussed in the literature review as it
relates to Fowler’s concept of triads and the “relational enterprise” (Fowler, 1976, p. 18).
According to Fowler, shared beliefs and values contained in the relational enterprise
comprise Thirdness. This triadic faith, or Thirdness, was embedded in the idea of central
meaning but not directly interpreted and coded. In future studies, participants should
explicitly describe any practices they use that facilitate a consciousness of Thirdness.
Whether the practice of Thirdness is spiritual (e.g., meditation) or soul-related (e.g.,
active imagination), the resulting unity of opposites would reflect a consciously shared
central value between psychotherapist and client. In this way, psychotherapists could
support the development of mature faith as described in the later stages of the theory.
Other important themes emerged among participants at various stages that
reflected values such as charity, compassion, and helping others. These values were
expressed here with conviction in such a way as to conclude that they are aspects of faith.
However, they were not explicitly addressed in faith development theory other than at
Stage 6’s Universalizing Faith … even though participants expressed these values at all
stages of faith development. And while the faith development interview asks questions
related to empathy under the aspect of perspective-taking, compassion is not the same as
empathy. Compassion is when the feelings and thoughts within empathy include the
desire to help (http://greatergood.berkeley.edu/topic/compassion/definition). Notably, the
values of charity, compassion, and helping others that were expressed by these
psychologists is important, and clients need to be aware of them irrespective of whether
or not their psychologist has a religious affiliation.
111
The limitations that were accepted during this dissertation are as follows: small
sample size; the challenge of interpretation using Faith Development Theory (as opposed
to another approach); the researcher’s limited experience at this type of coding (note that
interpretations are limited by the researcher’s own stage of development); and, the need
of additional experienced raters. Although these limitations and weaknesses were present,
they did not significantly impact the validity of these findings. This is because small
sample sizes are preferable in this type of study; also, Faith Development Theory is
continually evolving and its challenges are similarly faced by every researcher; and,
inevitably, one’s own stage of development provides nuance as to how phenomenon is
viewed and interpreted even with careful bracketing of personal views.
The following recommendations are made. Future researchers could develop a
measure of spiritual evolution through state-stages of consciousness (Wilber, 2011) to be
used alongside the structural-stages of Faith Development Theory in order to examine
correlations. For example, Hood (2009) identified a correlation between mysticism and
religiousness through an association with spirituality using the M-Scale. Hood reports
that “mystical experience is commonly reported by individuals who identify themselves
as spiritual rather than religious, and by those who identify themselves as equally
religious and spiritual” (p. 378). The M-Scale examines mystical experience through
traits of introversion and extroversion. A comparison of M-Scale results with faith
development could show evidence of a correlation between faith development and
mystical states, if one exists. The reason for this type of research among clinical
psychologists is to further understand factors that contribute to case conceptualization,
the therapeutic alliance, and/or therapeutic outcomes.
112
In conclusion, this qualitative study provided a deeper understanding of the lived
experience of faith among clinical psychologists via conversations around aspects related
to faith development. Fowler’s theory leads one to appreciate various stages of faith, i.e.,
1) the blending of fantasy and reality (Intuitive-Projective); 2) story-telling (Mythic-
Literal); 3) the development of a belief system within an expanding social network …
and how the individual is positioned as regards authority (Synthetic-Conventional); 4) the
difficult stage when critical examination of beliefs begin (Individuative-Reflective); 5)
the stage when the limits of logic are realized and the individual starts to accept the
paradoxes of life (Conjunctive Faith); and 6) the full ability to live in service of others
without self-regard (Universalizing Faith). This study was a move towards the multi-
perspectival view of what it means to have faith. The results of this research revealed that
Jungian psychotherapy could be useful for clinical psychologists who are interested in
faith development because, coincidentally, psychotherapists at the higher stages of faith
development in this study were also Jungian psychotherapists.
113
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Wilber, K. (2000). Integral Psychology: Consciousness, Spirit, Psychology, Therapy.Boston & London: Shambhala.
Wilkinson, P. J., & Coleman, P. G. (2010). Strong beliefs and coping in old age: A case-based comparison of atheism and religious faith. Ageing & Society, 30(2), 337-361.doi:10.1017/S0144686X09990353
Worthington, E. R. (2011). Integration of spirituality and religion into psychotherapy. In J. C. Norcross, G. R. VandenBos, D. K. Freedheim (Eds.), History of psychotherapy: Continuity and change (2nd ed.) (pp. 533-543). American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/12353-033
Zinnbauer, B. J., Pargament, K. I., Cole, B., Rye, M. S., Butter, E. M., Belavich, T. G., & Kadar, J. L. (1997). Religion and spirituality: Unfuzzying the fuzzy. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 36(4), 549-564. doi:10.2307/1387689
Zinnbauer, B. J., & Pargament, K. I. (2005). Religiousness and Spirituality. In R. F. Paloutzian, C. L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (pp. 21-42). New York, NY US: Guilford Press.
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Appendix A
Permission to Administer and Publish Demographic Questionnaire
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Appendix B
Permission to Administer and Publish the Faith Development Interview
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Appendix C
Participant Letter
Dear Participant,
Thank you for expressing interest in participating in a dissertation project called:
THE FAITH DEVELOPMENT OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGISTS
The purpose of this study is to deepen our understanding of the experience of faith in the context of a clinical psychology practice. We will discuss faith as a construct and explore how you may be experiencing it in your clinical practice.
Because faith is understood differently by people of various backgrounds, whether they are religious, spiritual, or not (religiousness is not a requirement to participate in this study) I am asking for you to complete the attached screening questionnaire prior to meeting for a 90-minute interview. Please return it via email or mail your responses to:
Tiana BlackburnP.O. Box xxxxxxxxxxxx CA xxxxx
Only 6 people who complete this questionnaire will be interviewed. This questionnaire will help me to select 3 psychologists who have a religious /spiritual background and 3 without any religious affiliation. To protect your privacy, the completed questionnaire will be returned to you once a selection has been made. For those participating in the subsequent interview, the questionnaire will become a part of data collection and, therefore, subject to the Informed Consent agreement.
It is my hope that the benefits to you will be an increase in self-awareness, along with a deeper understanding of the therapeutic encounter. Call (xxx) xxx-xxxxif you have additional questions.
In sincere thanks,
Tiana Blackburn, M.A.Clinical Psychology Doctoral StudentAntioch University Santa [email protected]
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Appendix D
Informed Consent
Project Title: The Faith Development of Clinical PsychologistsProject Investigator: Tiana BlackburnDissertation Chair: Dan Schwartz, Ph.D
I understand that this study is of a research nature. It may offer no direct benefit to me.
Participation in this study is voluntary. I may refuse to enter it or may withdraw at any time without creating any harmful consequences to myself. I understand also that the investigator may drop me at any time from the study.
The purpose of this study is to deepen the investigator’s understanding of the experience of faith in the context of a clinical psychology practice. Faith is understood differently by people of various backgrounds, whether they are religious, spiritual, or other. This study will explore faith as a construct in the lives of psychologists and how it may be experienced in their clinical practice.
As a participant in the study, I will be asked to take part in the following procedures:
Participation will require 10 minutes to complete a screening questionnaire which will be emailed to the participant. This will be followed by a brief conversation about the concept of faith, followed by a 90 minute semi-structured interview that will take place at a convenient location.
The risks, discomforts and inconveniences of the above procedures might be:
There are no known risks. The interview will be conducted in a comfortable place of my choosing at a time that is convenient to me.
The possible benefits of the procedure might be:
The benefits to me could be an increase in self-awareness of my own faith development. The benefits to other researchers could be a deeper understanding of the therapeutic alliance.
Information about the study was discussed with me by Tiana Blackburn. I understand that participation is voluntary and may be discontinued at any time without consequence. I understand that my responses will be coded to protect my identity and to ensure confidentiality. If I have further questions about the research and/or my rights, I can call Tiana at (xxx) xxx-xxxx or Dr. Ron Pilato at (xxx) xxx-xxxx or email [email protected]
The purpose of this study is to complete a research project at Antioch University. Data and results may be included in future publications and presentations. The confidentiality agreement will be effective in all cases of data sharing.
1. Name and mailing address of Principal Investigator(s):Tiana BlackburnP.O. Box xxxxXxxxxxx, xx, xxxxx2. Academic Department: Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology3. Departmental Status: Student4. Phone Number: (a) Work (b) Home (c) Cell xxx) xxx-xxxx5. Name of research advisor: Lee Weiser, Ph.D.6. Name & email address(es) of other researcher(s) involved in this project: N/Aa) Name of Researcher(s): Tiana Blackburnb) E-mail address(es): [email protected]. Project Title: The Faith Development of Clinical Psychologists8. Is this project federally funded: No9. Expected starting date for data collection: June, 201410. Expected completion date for data collection: May, 201511. Project Purpose(s):
This qualitative study will explore the construct of faith through semi-structured interviews with psychologists. I will examine their religious and spiritual characteristics,including their faith development, to explore their understanding of the construct of faith and their experiences of faith when working with clients
12. Describe the proposed participants- age, number, sex, race, or other special characteristics. Describe criteria for inclusion and exclusion of participants. Please provide brief justification for these criteria.
All participants will be clinical psychologists. There will be no age, ethnic, race, or gender limitations. Six participants, who have filled out and returned a demographic questionnaire, and who express their willingness to provide their perspectives on faith, will be selected for the study. The first three participants who indicate that they have no religious affiliation will be selected, and the first three participants who indicate they have an R/S or faith experience in the context of psychology will also be selected. The reason for these criteria is to have a comparison between people who have experiences of faith regardless of whether or not they have a religious affiliation.
13. Describe how the participants are to be selected and recruited.
Clinical psychologists from existing social networks will be identified through snowball sampling. Initially, I will receive contact information from “informants” belonging to various psychological associations, for example, at an SBCPA monthly salon. I will also
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provide them a business card with my contact information and ask to be referred to others whom they think might be interested. In this repetitive manner, a snowball effect is created until enough participants are enrolled in the study.
14. Describe the proposed procedures, (e.g., interview surveys, questionnaires, experiments, etc.) in the project. Any proposed experimental activities that are included in evaluation, research, development, demonstration, instruction, study, treatments, debriefing, questionnaires, and similar projects must be described. State briefly and concisely the procedures for the project.
The questionnaire is derived from the Curlin, Lawrence, Chin, & Lantos’ study of physicians’ self-report of religiosity. Curlin et al., derived their measure from Hoge's Intrinsic Religious Motivation Scale, which has been validated extensively. Permission has been granted by Dr. Curlin to adapt this questionnaire for the present study.
In addition, I will be using the 2004 Manual for Research in Faith Development by Fowler, Streib, & Keller. The Faith Development Interview (FDI) contained therein reflects recent trends in developmental psychology, cognitive development, and life-span developmental psychology which are believed to have implications for theory and research in faith development. Permission has been granted to use the FDI.
Potential participants will self-report their religious and/or spiritual characteristics using the questionnaire. Once selected, participants will be contacted via phone and/or email to arrange a meeting at a location mutually convenient. We will discuss the construct of faith for the first 30 minutes. This will be followed by the semi-structured interview using the FDI.
15. Participants in research may be exposed to the possibility of harm - physiological, psychological, and/or social - please provide the following information:
a. Identify and describe potential risks of harm to participants (including physical, emotional, financial, or social harm).
The informed consent form clearly states that participants can choose to refrain from answering any of the questions in the interview should they feel uncomfortable. In the event that stress is experienced from the process of answering these interview questions, the interview will be ended if desired, and a referral will be made to a psychotherapist or a chaplain.
b. Identify and describe the anticipated benefits of this research (including direct benefits to participants and to society-at-large or others)
This study extends existing research of religious and/or spiritual characteristics of psychologists in an in-depth way that has been identified as a gap in the literature. The benefits to participants could be a deeper understanding of their own faith development that may have a positive influence on their practice of psychotherapy. Society may benefit
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as it could enlighten our understanding of less well-known aspects of the therapeutic alliance.
c. Explain why you believe the risks are so outweighed by the benefits described above as to warrant asking participants to accept these risks. Include a discussion of why the research method you propose is superior to alternative methods that may entail less risk.
The method chosen entails minimal risk. A qualitative study is preferred because there are already many quantitative studies on the religious or spiritual characteristics of psychologists, physicians, and psychiatrists. Since there is minimal risk to answering questions on the lived experience of faith in clinical practice, it would appear that the knowledge gained would be very beneficial to a psychologist in understanding aspects of the therapeutic alliance, the strongest predictor of successful outcomes in psychotherapy.
d. Explain fully how the rights and welfare of participants at risk will be protected (e.g., screening out particularly vulnerable participants, follow-up contact with participants, list of referrals, etc.) and what provisions will be made for the case of an adverse incident occurring during the study.
The informed consent form clearly states that participants can choose to refrain from answering any of the questions in the interview should they feel uncomfortable. Should stress arise from answering the questions, mindfulness (on breath, on posture) would be initiated. The interview will be ended, if desired, and a referral to a psychotherapist or chaplain provided.
16. Explain how participants' privacy is addressed by your proposed research. Specify any steps taken to safeguard the anonymity of participants and/or confidentiality of their responses. Indicate what personal identifying information will be kept, and procedures for storage and ultimate disposal of personal information. Describe how you will de-identify the data or attach the signed confidentiality agreement on the attachments tab (scan, if necessary).
Participants will be provided with contact information for questions about the research and research participants' rights. An opportunity will be given for participants to obtain appropriate information about the nature, results, and conclusions of the research, and reasonable steps will be taken to correct any misconceptions that participants may have. All written materials identifying the participant will be kept in a separate location from the transcribed data. All computer files will be password-protected on an encryption enabled flash drive kept in a locked box. Transcribed data will be held for a period of seven years and then shredded. All digitally recorded interviews will be erased from the recording device once the written dissertation has been accepted by Antioch University Santa Barbara. A summary of results will be made available to each participant upon request. Should anything happen prior to completion of or acceptance of the final written dissertation, the Executor of my estate will be tasked in writing to properly dispose of all associated study materials, the shredding of written documents and to ensure that any audio recordings are erased.
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17. Will electrical, mechanical (electroencephalogram, biofeedback, etc.) be applied to participants, or will audio-visual devices be used for recording participants? If YES, describe the devices and how they will be used:
A password-protected digital or wireless device, i.e., a smartphone, will be used to audio record the interviews. The audio files will be downloaded onto a password-protected, encryption enabled flash drive and transcribed; the transcribed data will then be entered into the NVivo software. The drive will be kept in a locked location separate from the transcribed files. After seven years, the audio files will be deleted along with the shredding of the transcribed data.
18. Type of Review: Expedited
Please provide your reasons/justification for the level of review you are requesting.
This is a minimal risk qualitative study that presents only benefits to participants.
19. Informed consent will be included with this application. If information other than that provided on the informed consent form is provided (e.g. a cover letter), attach a copy of such information. If a consent form is not used, or if consent is to be presented orally, state your reason for this modification below. *Oral consent is not allowed when participants are under age 18.
A copy of the Informed Consent form is attached. The Participant letter is also attached.
20. If questionnaires, tests, or related research instruments are to be used, then you must attach a copy of the instrument at the bottom of this form (unless the instrument is copyrighted material), or submit a detailed description (with examples of items) of the research instruments, questionnaires, or tests that are to be used in the project. Copies will be retained in the permanent IRB files. If you intend to use a copyrighted instrument, please consult with your research advisor and your IRB chair. Please clearly name and identify all attached documents when you add them on the attachments tab.
These will be uploaded in Sakai.
I have agreed to conduct this project in accordance with Antioch University's policies and requirements involving research as outlined in the IRB Manual and supplemental materials.
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Appendix F
Faith Development InterviewFowler, J., Streib, H., Keller, B. (2004). Manual for Faith Development Research. Center for Research in Faith and Moral Development, Candler School of Theology, Emory University. Permission granted.