An Innovative Pedagogical Model for Teaching with GIS

GI Pedagogy Project https://www.gilearner.ugent.be/gi-pedagogy/ 2019-1-UK01-KA203-061576

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GI-Pedagogy:InnovativePedagogiesforTeachingwithGeoinformation

REF.2019-1-BE02-KA201-060212

INTELLECTUALOUTPUT1

AnInnovativePedagogicalModelforTeachingwithGIS

ElaboratedbyEUROGEOwww.eurogeography.eu

FinalVersion:18November2020Contributedtobyallprojectpartners

Keywords:pedagogies,GIS,digitalcompetences,teachingandlearning,teachertrainingAbstract:Thisoutputconsistsofareview,analysisandevaluationofexisting,prevailingteachingpracticesthatincorporateGISinschoolsandanexplorationofevidencerelatedtoalternative,innovative,pedagogicalapproachestoteachingwithGIS.Asaresultofthereviewandanalysisoffindings,aseriesofrecommendationsareprovidedtoinformthedevelopmentoftheteacherprofessionaldevelopmentcourseandtoolkitofinnovativepedagogicalapproachestoteachingwithGISandconnecttothecasestudiesofoutcomes.ThisprojecthasbeenfundedwithsupportfromtheEuropeanCommission.Thisdocumentreflectstheviewsoftheauthors,andtheCommissioncannotbeheldresponsibleforanyusewhichmaybemadeof

theinformationcontainedtherein


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TableofContents

1. THEGIPEDAGOGYPROJECT __________________________________________________________ 3 2. INTRODUCTION _____________________________________________________________________ 5 3. DIGITALCOMPETENCES ______________________________________________________________ 7 4. TEACHINGWITHGIS _________________________________________________________________ 9

4.1 INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY _________________________________________________________ 10 4.2 E-LEARNING, FIELDWORK AND MOBILE GIS _________________________________________________ 11 4.3 WEB-BASED GIS __________________________________________________________________ 14 4.4 GEOMENTORING __________________________________________________________________ 15 4.5 PERSONALISED LEARNING ____________________________________________________________ 16 4.6 ROSENSHINE AND EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION _________________________________________________ 18

5. APPROACHESTOTEACHINGWITHGIS ________________________________________________ 20 5.1 SPATIAL THINKING _________________________________________________________________ 20 5.2 GEOGRAPHICAL QUESTIONING, ENQUIRY AND SPATIAL REASONING _________________________________ 21 5.3 TPCK AND G-TPCK ________________________________________________________________ 24 5.4 THRESHOLD CONCEPTS AND POWERFUL KNOWLEDGE __________________________________________ 27 5.5 GEOMEDIA, SPATIAL CITIZENSHIP AND PARTICIPATORY GIS ______________________________________ 30

6. PEDAGOGIES _______________________________________________________________________ 33 6.1 CRITICAL SPATIAL THINKING ___________________________________________________________ 33 6.2 ACTIVE PEDAGOGIES AND ENQUIRY-BASED LEARNING __________________________________________ 35 6.3 PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING AND CONTEXT-BASED LEARNING _____________________________________ 38 6.4 PROJECT-BASED APPROACHES __________________________________________________________ 38 6.5 LEARNING PROGRESSIONS, TRAJECTORIES AND LEARNING LINES ___________________________________ 39 6.6 COGNITIVE LOAD THEORY ____________________________________________________________ 42

7 TRAININGTEACHERSFORGIS _______________________________________________________ 48 8 CONCLUSIONS ______________________________________________________________________ 53

8.1 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GI PEDAGOGY _______________________________________________________ 53 REFERENCES ____________________________________________________________________________ 56


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1. TheGIPedagogyProjectGI-Pedagogy(2019-2022)isaschooleducationprojectfundedundertheKA2cooperationforinnovationactionoftheErasmusPlusprogramme(EuropeanCommission,2019),thatseekstoconsolidateinacoherentconcept,structure,andsetofoutputs,thefollowingthreemajorelements,consideredkeyforintegratingtheuseofGISandspatiallearningatapan-Europeanscale:1)Theme:Theprojectfocusesdirectlyoninnovativepedagogyspecificallyappliedtonationalcurricula.ItrespondstotheneedtotrainteachershowtointegrateinnovativeGISciencepedagogyintotheirlessons.Itseekstodothisbydevelopingessentialteachertrainingresources.Theprojectintendstotransformexistingavailableknowledge,materials,concepts,andideasintorealtrainingofyoungteachers,withthefurtherpossibilityfortheprofessionaldevelopmentofexistingteachers.Todothis,GI-Pedagogybuildsonpreviousinnovativeworkandalsoincorporatesthelatestweb-basedtoolsandtechnologies.2)Tools,Data,andResources:GI-Pedagogyproposestotakeadvantageoftheexcitingandinnovativeworldofopendataandopenscience,thusofferingeasyaccesstosourcesforschoolsandconnectingtheschoolworldwiththerealworld(usingofficialdataandscientificresults)andraisingthepupils'awarenessofcitizenshipanddataissues.Theprojectwilltakeadvantageofthegrowingnumberofeasytouseweb-basedtechnologiesbecomingavailableonline.GI-PedagogywillusetheinnovativetechnologiesmadeavailablethroughtheEuropeanCommissionDigitalSkillsandJobsCoalitioninitiative(https://www.esri.com/en-us/school-program-europe/overview)andthepledgemadebytheleadingGISsoftwarecompanyESRItosupportschoolsacrossEurope(Esri,2016).3)GeographicFocusandPreviousInitiatives:SomematerialhasalreadybeenproducedtohelpteachGISinschools;however,ithasnotbeendirectedatinitialteachertraining,norhasitfocusedonnewteachers,withEuropeanrelevance.Additionally,theGI-PedagogyprojectwillbuildresourceswithaEuropeanfocusandrelatedtotheDigitalSkillsandJobspledge.ItbuildsonwhathasalreadybeenachievedbyvariousEuropeanprojects:- theHerodotThematicNetworkforGeography(2000-2009)broughtGIandspatialthinkingtothe

attentionofmany(Attard,2010;Donertand.Charzyński,2005).Asaresultofthisprojectmanyotherinitiativesweretaken,oneofthemleadingtotheiGuessproject,coordinatedinFlanders.

- TheiGuessproject(2007-2010)trainedteachersintheuseofGIS(Zwartjes,2009),andindevelopingtheirowndidacticalmaterialsusingGIS.Althoughverysuccessful(thereareongoingdisseminationactivities)thepartnersinvolvednoticedthatformanyteachersthelackofcurriculumguidance,includingmaterialsonGIScience,makesitdifficulttofullyintegrateGISineducation.

- Thedigital-earth.eunetwork(2009-2013)focusedonthedevelopmentofacommunityofgeomedialearners(Donert,2013;Lindner-FallyandZwartjes,2012;DeMiguelandDonert,2014),butthisonlyreachedaspecificgroupofteachers,educators,andthoseresponsibleforeducation.

- theGI-Learnerproject(2015-2018)createdaspatialthinkingcompetencemodel(Donertetal.,2016)andalearninglinewithready-to-uselessons(ZwartjesandLazaroyTorres,2019)forsecondaryschools.

- theMYGEOproject(2018-2021) aimsatfosteringtheemployabilityofstudentsinhighereducationthroughpromotingtheacquisitionofkeyskillsrelatedtotheuseofGeographicInformationSystems(GIS)tools.

4)EducationalMethods:IfwewanttobridgethechasmbetweentheearlyadoptersofGISandthewholeeducationalcommunity,theonlyeffectivestrategyistoexploreandencourageinnovativeapproaches


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andfurthermoretoembedthemintheprocessofinitialteachertraining.PromotingstrongercoherenceinthecurriculausingGISisoneofthesteppingstonesthatwillallowmorepupilstoobtainjobsinthegrowinggeospatialindustry,whichhasbeenexpandingatmorethan12%perannumoverthepastdecadeandforecastsevenstrongergrowthintheyearstocome(GeoBuiz,2018)suchthateducationandtrainingcannotkeeppacewithdemand,leadingtoskillsshortagesandunfilledjobs.ThedevelopmentoftheGI-Pedagogyprojectwasderivedfrom:a)theresultsoftheSchoolontheCloud-ConnectingEducationtotheCloudforDigitalCitizenshipnetworkproject,whichexploredhoweducationshouldrespondtoCloudComputingdevelopmentsandhowCloud-basedservicescanbeusedtoimprovethequalityofeducationandtransformlearningandteachinginschools(KoutsopoulosandPapoutsis,2016);andb)theGI-Learnerproject,whichestablishedacompetencemodelandframework(Zwartjes,2018).TheseprojectsalsodemonstratedthatleadershipforchangeisneededasdescribedbyCamburnetal.(2013),asthemainissuetodayisnolongergettingaccesstotechnology,butthecapabilitytoestablishmeaningfulweb-basedlearningandteachingapproaches.TheGI-Pedagogyprojectaimstoexplorelearningandteachingbydevelopingtrainingandresourcesforgeographyteachers.Thehighest-prioritytargetgroupfortheresourcesarethosestillininitialteachertraining,NewlyQualifiedTeachers,andthoseintheirfirstfullyearofteaching,whoaccordingtoChristensenandKnezek(2017)areintheprocessoftransitioningbetweeneducationalenvironments-acriticalstagefortechnologyintegration.


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2. IntroductionGeographicInformationSystems(GIS)areaninnovativetechnologythatusesCloudComputingtodeliverawidevarietyofdifferentITservicesrelatedtogeospatialinformation,data,andevenmultimedia(Luetal.,2019).TheCloudhasbecomeaubiquitoustoolenablingdigitaladministrativeandoperationalsystemswhichcanbeestablishedandusedinreal-time.Theuseofweb-basedapplicationsonmobiledevicesisexpanding,andincludesservicessuchasemail,informationstorage,filesharing,collaborativetools,digitalcommunication,andotherservices.Basedonrecentlypublishedguidance(EducationEndowmentFoundation,2019),thequestionhasshiftedfromwhetherornottechnologyhasaplaceintheclassroomtohowtechnologycanbeintegratedintothecurriculumandespeciallyintoteachertraining(Curtis,2019;Hohnleetal.,2016)andensurethatthosetrainedtoteachpupilsrecognisetheimportanceofweb-basedservicesinthewiderworldandineconomicandsocialactivities.Technologicaladvanceshaveresultedinnewparadigmsandincreasinglypowerfultoolsforexploringspatialrelationships,butmuchlessattentionhasbeendirectedatmethodsandstrategiesusedtoteach.

“theprocessofacquiringknowledgeandskillswithinlearningprocessesshouldnotproducepassiveknowledgeandisolatedskillsandabilities,butshouldinsteadresultinapplicableknowledgeandintegratedskillsandabilitiesinareal-worldcontext”(HartigandKlieme,2007,p.13).

Petrasetal.(2015)describetheuseoffreeandopensourcesoftware,whichhasbeenconsideredahighpriority(andoftenstatedasmandatorybyfundingagencies),asitisfullytransparentandmoreaccessibleforinstitutions,individualstudentsandscientists.Opensoftware,opendata,openstandardsandopeneducationarethekeycomponentsoftheopenGISframework.Theysuggesttheapplicationofgeospatialconceptsshouldbeemphasizedineducationmuchmorethansoftware-specifictasks.Ifteachersunderstandnotonlytheimplementation,butalsotheunderlyingscienceandtechnology,thentheywillbeabletodevelopbetterandmoreflexiblelearningsolutions.Web-basedGISisaverypractical,active,andrelevantwayofincludingdigitaltechnologyinschooleducationandteachertraining(HongandStonier2015),howeverastechnologyadvancesitmakesdecisionsaboutwhenandhowtodothisincreasinglyharder.PreviousEuropeangeotechnologyeducationprojectshaddemonstratedthatthemostchallengingperiodfortechnologyintegrationisgettingteacherstorecognisethevalueofthetoolssotheyarepreparedtoaddresstheclassroomissues.Ithasbeenshownthattrainingiscritical(ZwartjesandLazaroyTorres,2019)sothatteachersareabletodevelopbasicskillsandcompetenciesinGISandasoundframeworkforinvolvingtechnologyuseintheirclassroomsandwithpupils.MathewsandWikle(2019)dealwithteachingaboutGIStechnologyanditsapplicationsinhighereducation.TheEuropeanCommissionacknowledgesthatEuropemustbecomemuchmore"Cloudactive"tostaycompetitiveintheglobaleconomy,andhastackledmajorbarrierssurroundinglegalissues,datasecurityandcopyright.Schoollearnerexpectationsarealsochanging.Learnersrequirereadyaccesstorelevantonlinetoolsandcontent,aswellassecure,reliablenetworkswhichcanoffertheabilitytocreateandsharecontentonanynumberofdevices.AppliedcomputersystemslikeWeb-basedGISprovideaquick,reliable,24/7service,whichconformstothisnewanddifferentservicemodel(DeMiguelGonzálezandDeLázaroTorres,2020).TheadoptionofGISinschooleducationremainsfragmented(JacksonandKibetu,2019)becausewhileCloudComputingoffersmanyadvantages,teachersarelargelyunawareofthegreatneedsoftheindustryandthepotentialbenefitsforlearningandteaching.Improvedtrainingandenhancedsupportsystems/


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pedagogicaltoolsareneededtohelpnewteachersintegratetherapidlyevolvingCloudComputingGISenvironmentintotheclassroom(Mitchelletal.,2018).Innovativepedagogicalchangeisneededinteachereducation,otherwiseeducatorswillcontinuetheparadoxofusingoldteachingmethodsbutwithnewtools.LittleresearchhasbeenundertakendemonstratingtheintegrationofGISandgeospatialapplicationsintotheschoolcurriculum.RoosaareandLiiber(2013)introducedamodelofhowtonationallyintegrategeo-mediaandGISintogeneralsecondaryschooleducation,wheregeoinformaticswasdevelopedasanelectivecourseforpupilsatsecondaryschoollevelinEstonia.Thiscoursehasbeenusedasanopportunitytoapplytheuseofgeo-mediatools,emphasizeICTskillsandstudents’geospatialthinkingskills.Bakeretal.(2015)commentthatresearchinGISeducationseemstohavehadlimitedimpact.Ithaslargelyfocusedontheeducationalandtechnicalchallengesthathaveaffecteditsimplementationinformalandinformallearningenvironments.Bednarz(2004)suggeststhishasbyandlargerelatedtocomputerspeedandcapacity;softwareuseandcomplexity;shortagesofresourcesandlessons,linkstocurriculumandstandards;administrativeandtechnicalsupport;andtimerequiredtoimplementGIS-basedmethods.Rickles,EllulandHacklay(2017)focusontheresultsofasurveyonresourcesandplatformsusedintheinterdisciplinaryteachingofGISandthenexploringpossibleconstructivistlearningtheories.Theyproposedaframeworktoactastheeducation-basedstructureforwhichGISconceptscanfocusonanddefineinterdisciplinarityas“betweendisciplines”,suggestingthebasicelementsofatleasttwocollaborators,atleasttwodisciplines,andacommitmenttoworktogetherinsomefashioninsomedomainarenecessary.However,theintroductionoftechnologyintocurriculumisfurthercomplicatedbyspeedofchange,varietyanddiversityofcontexts.AccordingtoStringeretal.(2019),integratingtechnologyintotheclassroomtoimprovelearningrequiresaddressingbothpedagogyandimplementation.


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3. DigitalcompetencesInteachereducation,professionalcompetencesdependonsubject-specificknowledgeandskillsinspecificpedagogicaldomains.ThecompetencesserveasabasisfortheimplementationofaneducationalapproachtothepracticeofteachingandlearningandaccordingtoSchultzetal.(2012)relatesstronglytocurriculumdevelopment.Digitalcompetencesareakeytransversalcompetence,thatcitizensincreasinglyneedtoacquire.Theyareconsideredtobeanecessitytoachievingadegreeofliteracysuitedtopresent-daysociety’sneeds.DigiCompistheEuropeanCommissionframeworkdesignedtosupportanunderstandingofdigitalcompetence.Itincludesissuessuchasinformationstorage,digitalidentity,developingdigitalcontentandbehaviouronline,ineverydaylifesuchasworking,shoppingandparticipatinginsociety.Kluzeretal.(2018)provideauserguidewithabroadrangeofexamplesfromthosewhousetheDigCompframework.

ADigCompEduFrameworkhasbeendevelopedtosupporttheteachingprofessioninallsectorsofeducation.Itimpliesbeingabletousedigitaltechnologiesinacritical,collaborativeandcreativeway.DIgiCompEduconcernstheuseandtransmissionofeducator-specificdigitalcompetencesforuseinschoolandtheclassroom(Rubioetal.,2019).DigiCompEduproposes22elementarycompetencesorganisedin6areas(Figure1).Area1isconcernedwiththeuseofdigitaltechnologiesinprofessionalinteractions.Area2looksatthecompetencesneededtoeffectivelyandresponsiblyuse,createandsharedigitalresourcesforlearning.Area3isdedicatedtomanagingandorchestratingtheuseofdigitaltechnologiesinteachingandlearning.Area4addressestheuseofdigitalstrategiestoenhanceassessment.Area5focusesonthepotentialofdigitaltechnologiesforlearner-centredstrategiesandArea6detailsthespecificpedagogiccompetencesrequiredtofacilitatestudents’digitalcompetences.

Figure1:TheEuropeanDigiCompEduframeworkforteachers(Vuorikarietal,2017)

TheFrameworkoutlinessixdifferentstagesthroughwhichaneducator’sdigitalcompetencetypicallydevelops,soastohelpeducatorsidentifyanddecideonthespecificstepstotaketoboosttheir


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competenceatthestagetheyare.Inthehigheststages,called‘Leader’and‘Pioneer’,theteachersareabletopassontheirknowledge,critiqueexistingpracticeanddeveloptheirownnewpractices.

Schultzetal.(2013)commentonthreecorecompetencesfoundationaltoworkingwithGIS:GIS-relatedknowledgeandskills,spatialthinking,andproblem-solvingskills”(Schultzetal.,2013).Jakabetal.(2016)describedhowthestrongcross-disciplinarycharacterofGISrequirestheapplicationofwiderangeofkeycompetencesthathelpteachersshapeanddeveloptheirprofessionalidentity.Bearmanetal.(2016)notedhowmuchtrainingtendstobebasedondevelopingGISskills,ratherthanonspatialproblems,orunderstandingtheusefulnessofdata,ortheneedsofthelearners.Asaresultofthisfocusonthetechnology,coursesattractteacherswhoaremoretechnologicallyableanddigitallyliteratethanthosewhoarenot.Thisrelatedtotechnicalcompetencesratherthancriticalspatialthinking.

AspartoftheGI-LearnerProject,Donertetal.(2016)proposedasetofspatialthinkingcompetencesforpupilsbasedonspatialthinking,wherespatialthinkingisadistinctformofthinking,whichhelpspeopletovisualizerelationshipsbetweenandamongspatialphenomena(StoltmanandDeChano,2003),theseweredescribedasto:

1. Criticallyreadandinterpretcartographicandothervisualizationsindifferentmedia2. BeawareofgeographicinformationanditsrepresentationthroughGIandGIS3. Visuallycommunicategeographicinformation4. DescribeanduseexamplesofGIapplicationsindailylifeandinsociety5. Use(freelyavailable)GIinterfaces6. Carryoutown(primary)datacapture7. Beabletoidentifyandevaluate(secondary)data8. Examineinter-relationships9. Synthesisemeaningfromanalysis10. Reflect,andactonthebasisofknowledge.

Theyhavebeenusedtocreatelearningprogressionobjectivesthatteacherswouldtranslateintolearningobjectives,teachingandlearningmaterialsforthewholecurriculum(K7toK12)thusincreasingspatialthinkingeducationactivitiesforhighschoolpupils(Zwartjes,2018).


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4. TeachingwithGISDonertetal.(2016)defineanddescribeTeachingwithGISasacomplexcontextofgeospatialthinkingandgeospatiallearning,exploringtheintegrationofspatialliteracy,spatialthinkingandGIScienceintoschoolsasanoutcomeproposedintheKA2ErasmusPlusGI-Learnerproject.RoosaareandLiiber(2013)suggestthereisconsiderablediversityinunderstandingwithregardtowhat,whenandhowtoteachwithGISingeographyeducation.AccordingtoFavierandvanderSchee(2014),itisnotthetechnologyitselfthatproduceslearning,butthecomplexwholeofclearandappropriatelearninggoals,solideducationaltechnologies,well-designedtasks,andhigh-qualityinstruction,coaching,andreflectionprovidedbytheteacher.Kerskietal(2013)analysethestatusofGISinschoolsinthirty-threecountriesandproposesrecommendationsforadvancingtheimplementationandeffectivenessofGISinsecondaryeducation.TheirstudyrevealedthatuseofGISinsecondaryeducationremainedsmall;howevertheysuggesttheconvergenceofcitizenscience,anemphasisonspatialthinking,mobiledevices,opendata,andWeb-basedmapservicescouldcauseasignificantincreaseinthenumbersofschools,educators,andstudentsteachingandlearningwithGIS.Despitehardwareandsoftwarechallengesrepeatedlymentionedbyeducators,societalissuesappeartocastthegreatestconstraintonGISbecominganembedded,requiredtoolthroughouteducation.Ofmajorimportanceseemedtobethelackofawarenessofspatialthinkingandanalysisandtheirimportanceineducationandsociety.Favier(2013)presentsaschematicviewof5waystodealwithgeoinformationtechnology(Figure2).TeachingandlearningaboutGISfocusesmoreonthetheoreticalaspectsofGIS(knowledgeofGIS,structureofthetechnology),whereastheotherwaysusethetechnologytodevelopandusespatialthinkingskills.Hesuggestsgeographyeducatorshavepredominantlyfocusedonusinggeoinformationtechnologytolearnsubjectknowledgeanddomain-specificskills,ratherthanfocusingonlearningtousethesoftware.However,ifgeo-informationtechnologyisappliedinlessonsinwhichstudentssitbehindthecomputerandareactivelyinvolvedwiththetechnology,youcannotavoidteachingthemfirstaboutthecharacteristicsofdigitalgeoinformationandhowthetechnologyworks.Hesuggestsitthereforemakessensetostartbyusingweb-basedGISandvirtualglobeslessons,followedbylessonswithdesktopGIS,andfinallyapplyGISinsmallpracticalassignments.Thiswouldbeaniceelaborationforalearningtrackfor(geography)educationwithgeo-informationtechnology.

Figure2:FivewaysofintegratingGISingeographyeducation(Favier,2013)


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4.1InstructionalTechnologyInstructionaltechnology,oftenusedinterchangeablywiththetermeducationaltechnology,isaspecifictechnologyfieldthatdealswithcreatingresourcestosupportlearning(Caldwell,2019).ColvinandTomayko(2015)suggestteacherstodayneedtomasterinstructionaltechnologytopreparelearnersforahigh-techandincreasinglyinterdependentworldwhereprofessionaltoolsareintegratedintotheclassroom.Stringeretal.(2019)consideredhowtechnologycanimproveteachingandlearning,througha4-stageimplementationprogressprocess(Figure3)summarisinghowimplementationoftechnologyinlearningandteachingcanbedescribedasaseriesofstagesrelatingtothinkingabout,preparingfor,delivering,andthensustainingchange.Consideringtheimpacttoconsiderwhetheritcansupplement,enhanceorreplaceexistingteaching.

Figure3:TheImplementationProgressProcess

RecentresearchbyMayer(2019)lookedatthepotentialofmultimediainstructiontoimprovelearningintheclassroom,whereresearchevidenceshowsthatpeoplelearnmorewhenimagesareaddedtotextastheyworktogethertopresentaninstructionalmessagewhichleadstoadeeperunderstanding,thanwordsontheirown,whetheritispresentedinabookoronacomputer.Theuseofpicturescanincludestaticphotos,charts,graphicsandillustrationsordynamicvideosandanimations,andwordscanbeeitherspokenorprinted.AccordingtoMayer,thiscognitivetheoryisbasedon3keyideasfromcognitivescience,thedual-channelprinciplewhereverbalandpictorialinformationprocessingisseparate(Baddeley,1992),thelimitedcapacityprinciple:whichmeansonlyafewitemscanbeprocessedatatime(ibid)andtheactiveprocessingprinciple:whichmeansthatmeaningfullearningneedstobecoherently


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organisedandintegratedwithpriorknowledge,sothatrelevantwordsandimagescanbeselectedfromtheworkingmemory,toguidethelearner’scognitiveprocessing.(Mayer2009)Mayer(2019)proposesthatinmultimediainstruction,theworkingmemorymentallyorganisesthewordsintoaverbalmodelandtheimagesintoapictorialmodel,whichcombinewithpriorknowledge,makingsureworkingmemorydoesnotbecomeoverloaded.Asetof11evidence-basedprinciplesformultimediadesignarepresentedthatincreasestudentlearning(Table1).Table1:DesignformultimediainstructionExtraneousprocessing–cognitiveprocessingthatdoesnotsupportinstructionalgoals–i.e.unnecessary- Coherence–keepinstructionalmessagesimple,avoidunnecessarydetail- Signalling–highlightessentialmaterial- Spatialcontinuity–integratetextwithrelevantpartofgraphics- Temporalcontinuity–presentspokenwordsimultaneouslyasgraphics,drawingoranimations- Redundancy–donotduplicatenarratedgraphicswithprintedtextaswell.Manageessentialprocessing- Segmenting–breakdownlearningintoparts- Pretraining–teachanoverviewofkeyelementsandwordsbeforeintroducingthediagramdetails- Modality–spokenwordsupportsmorelearningthanifthewordsareprintedEncouragegenerativeprocessing- Personalisation–usinginformalconversationtopresentinformation- Voice–usingahumansoundingvoiceratherthanamachine- Embodiment–includehumanlikegesturesonthescreenAlibrandiandPalmer-Moloney(2001)confirmedthatasatechnology,GISoffersnewwaysofviewing,representingandanalysinginformationfortransformativelearningandteaching,howeveritsusemeanssteppingintotheunknown,takingrisks,creatingpathwaysandexperimenting.Baker(2005)notedtheemergenceofGISasaninstructionaltechnologyforsupportingcontextuallyrichstudentlearningintheK12curriculum.FaginandWikle(2011)commentedthatteachersusingGISbefittedfromsignificantadvancesininstructionaltechnology.

4.2 e-learning,fieldworkandmobileGISE-learningisasetofmodels,technologiesandprocessesfortheacquisitionanduseofknowledgethroughtheuseofinformationandcomputertechnologies.IthaspredominantlybeenusedforteachingwithGISbyincorporatinganumberofgeospatialtoolsandtechniques.IntheirpaperKarolčíketal.(2019)analyseane-learningenvironmentforGeographyinordertoimplementpersonalizedactivelearninginGeographyteachingandlearning.TherequirementsofanadaptivetoolforGeographyteachingandlearningarediscussedandatheoreticalframeworkforpersonalizede-learningenvironmentisproposed.ICTcanbeusedasaresearchtooltohelpstudentsapprehendnotionsandanalyseinformation.Thisallowsaseriesofquestionssuchas:where?what?andorganizationalaspectssuchaswhy?how?andrelationshipstotakeplace.Thechallengeofadidacticprocessistoorganizeandsupportstudents’questions.Thus,accordingtoZwartjesetal.(2015)thereisaneedtomodeltheprocessingofinformationinaneducationalcontextin4steps,theproblem,dataresearch,buildinganargumentandproducingresultsand.Bearmanetal.(2016)suggestthepresenceofane-learningenvironmentisimportantbecauseithelpsstudentstobeabletoaccessandmakesenseof(geo)information.TheysuggestGIShasbeenheldbackbecauseofanemphasisonthetechnologyratherthanthespatialdatahighlightingthefocusonITskillsratherthanspatialliteracy.Asaresult,studentswillnotbetaughttheskillstheyneedtobeabletocriticallyinterpretmapsanddata.TheyalsoconsiderthatpracticaltechnicalsessionsdominatedinGIS


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curricula.Inpedagogicalterms,thestudentwasoftengivenadata-setandgiveninstructionsonhowtousetheGIStoprocessthedatatogetthefinalanalysisoutput.Thisapproachdevelopsthestudent’sabilitytousethesoftwareinquestion,butitdidnotaddmuchtotheirknowledgeaboutthetypesofquestionthataGIScananswer.GISanalysisandGISoutputweremucheasiertousethancompletingthewholeproblem-solvingprocess.RoosaareandLiiber(2013)reportonthedevelopmentofaweb-based(Moodle)electivecourseopensthedoorforflexibleandindividualizedteaching/learningsolutions.TheauthorsalsoreportonthelessonslearnedfromtheGeo-Olympiadwhere,since2005,computer-basedexercisesandGIShavebeenincludedinthewrittentasksforsecondaryschools.Studentshavetofind,interpretandanalysesomegeographicalinformationfromInternetportalsandproblem-solvereallifeproblems.AccordingtoFeddernetal.(2018)learningsoftwarehasbeendevelopedtosupportindependentlearning,basedontechniquesofretrieval,interleaving,spacingandvisualcues,whichtheytestedasrandomisedcontroltrialwithschoolpupils.Theirindependentlearningplatformwascapableofbeingusedwithavarietyofcontentyetnotneedingmuchstafftraining.Themoduleswhichintroducematerialorteststudentsareshort,anduseanalgorithmtointerleaveandspacelearningusingamixtureoftext,imagesanddifferenttypesofquestions,whicharedesignedtopromoteretrievalpractice.Grunwaldetal.(2005)reportontheconstructionofavirtualmodularlearningenvironmentbasedontheconceptofReusableLearningObjectsinordertoevaluatetheefficacyofdifferente-learningtoolsforon-campus(OC)anddistanceeducation(DE)studentsincontextoflearningoutcomes.TheyconcludedthatavirtualGIScoursehasthepotentialtogenerateequallearningoutcomescomparabletoon-campusGIScoursesprovidedstudentsareself-motivatedtostudythecoursematerialandcapableofmanagingtheirtimeappropriately/effectively.Belgiuetal.(2015)evaluateopeneducationinitiativesinthegeospatialdomainandtheMOOCmovement.ThearticlefocusesonWeb-basedtechnologies,fosteringonlinecoursesandprograms.OpenEducationalResources(OER)havebecomethenormasOERimplylegallyopencontentlicensingunderaCreativeCommons(CC)license.TheuseofMOOCs(MassiveOpenOnlineCourses)havebecomeapopularopeneducationmodelforhighereducation.Caeiroetal(2011)evaluatedtheeffectivenessoftheuseofvideosinthestudentslearningoutcomesinaGISe-learningcourse.Thehighereducationstudentswereguidedbyacurricularunitplan,digitalresources,formativeactivitiesandacontinuousassessment.Thevideoseffectivenesswasassessedbyanalysingstudentswrittenassignments(e-folios).TheirresearchconfirmedthatvideoshavethepotentialtobeusedasanimportanttoolinGIS-educationinane-learningsystem,astheyareavisualmediumwiththepotentialtosupportlearningindifferentwaysthanothertechnologiesdo,includingthepotentialfordemonstrationsandthroughtheuseofscreen-capturetechnology.MichelandHof(2013)wereconcernedwithtakinge-learningandGISintothefield.Theyexploretheuseofmobileandspatially-enableddevicesinthefieldandthecombinationofadventureandmediapedagogywithmultimediaenvironmentaleducation.Theyconsiderhowlearningresourcesandoutdooractivitiesarecombinedtogetoriginalnatureexperienceswithitsvariedspatialandtemporaldimensions.Theauthorsprovidetheconceptualizationofagame-basedapproachcalledtheeGeo-Riddle(Figure4).


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Figure4:TheeGeoRiddleapproach

Themobilefieldtripwasbasedonthreelearningunits,amultimediaintroductionwithbackgroundinformationforknowledgetransfer;theeGeo-Riddlewithinteractiveexercisesandriddlesinthefield;andthesolutionandevaluationstationforpostprocessingandknowledgeconsolidation.Withinthisframework,thefieldtrippromotesspatialreasoningandinterpretation,whichinvitesstudentstodetectandmapdifferenttypesandstructuresinaninteractivemap.Butmoreimportantlythestudents,bygoingoutside,willmaketheirownobservationsandcollectsamples,andareconsequentlypracticallyandtheoreticallytrainedinthinkingwithandaboutspaceaswellasacquiringatangibleimaginationofspatialcharacteristicsanddifferences.Fieldworkisanintegralpartofeducationindisciplineswithastrongspatialcomponent.Kolvoordetal.,(2019)saythattheincreasingimportanceofdataandgeospatialtechnologiessupportseducationinitiativesthatteachGIShands-onandapplyingittolocalproblems.GISisthereforevaluableforeducationsinceitcanhelpstudentstoidentifyandanalysespatialpatterns.DeLázaroyTorresetal.(2016)suggestedthatoutdoorlearningingeography,usingmobiledevicesandassociatedspatialthinkingwillservestudentswellforemployment.PánekandGlass(2018)appliedmobileGISmethodsinfieldworksituationswherestudents’workincludedtheaccumulationandevaluationofdifferenttypesofdatatoconstructasenseoftheplacetheywerestudying.Theysuggestedstudentsneededtolearnhowtoengagewithaneighbourhoodinwaystomakemeaningofthedifferentlayersofhistoryoftheresearchsite.LambrinosandAsiklari(2014)createdafieldtriptreasurehuntusingacompass,GPSandGISgeneratedmapswityoungpupilsfromtheageof10.Theysuggestthattechnologyapplications,likeGISandGPS,canbeeasierimplementedthroughinterdisciplinarysubjects.Brooks(2018)describestheprocessesanddecisionsmadeinthedevelopmentofamobilelearningapplication.TheintendedusersofthisapplicationwereadultlearnerswhowanttolearnaboutGISconceptsandskills.Hesuggestsanactivepedagogyshouldinvolve“kinaestheticactivities,theconscious


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analysisofspatialdata,andreflectiononlearning”.Buildingactivelearningintothecurriculumcanbringmanybenefits,includingtheclaimthatstudentslearnmorethroughthemetacognitionprovidedthroughactivelearningandthatstudentslearnmoreovertraditionallecturingmethods.Theapplicationdescribedinthisthesisessentiallyutilizesmapmashupswherestudentscaninteractwithlayers,features,attributes,analysistools,andotherGIS&Tfunctionstolearnthelessonconcept.Incorporatingthesemashupsascorecomponentsofthelessonsandavoidinghighlystructuredexercises,allowsgreaterflexibilityandpersonalizationofcontent,whichisoneofthemajoradvantagesofmapmashups.MichelandHof(2013)warnhowever,thatinspiteoftheimportanceoflocation-basedlearningandtherequirementofstudentsformorepracticalexamples,thequantityofdaysforfieldvisitsandpracticalfieldworkarebeingreduced.Totacklethisseverale-learningcoursesontheinternetaswellasawiderangeofGPS-basedlearningandadventureopportunitieshavebeenestablishedinrecentyears.

4.3 Web-basedGISTheinternetisbecomingmoreandmoreimportantfortheprovision,transferandanalysisofgeodata.Asaresult,GISfeaturesarebeingintegratedandimplementedinweb-basedinformationsystems.TheseareWeb-basedgeographicinformationsystemsorWeb-basedGIS.Theenormousincreaseinthenumberofweb-basedapplicationsthatusetechniquesderivedfromgeographicinformationsystems(GIS)isbasedonthedemandforthevisualisationofgeographicdataontheWeb.Inordertoexaminethepotentialassociatedwiththeuseofweb-basedGISingeographyclasses,Arslan(2015)analysestheusabilityandstudentlearningoutcomesofusingdesktopandWeb-basedGISsoftwarewithschools(Figure5).

Figure5:CriteriausedtoanalyseWeb-basedGISplatforms(Arslan,2015)

Web-basedGIS,primarily,wasseentohaveapositiveimpactonstudentachievement.Therealpotentialofweb-basedGISforgeographycoursescanbeunderstoodbetterwhenconsideringotherbenefitsthat


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web-basedplatformprovidedforstudents,courseandteachers.Thecoursewasstudent-centered,therewasevidenceofmanyskillsbeingdeveloped,suchasspatialanalysis,spatialthinking,findingcause-effectrelation,queryingandcreatingquestions.Web-basedGISwasaneffectiveteachingtool,easilyusedbyteachersintheircourseswithouttechnicalissues.Studentsconsideredittobeaneffectivelearningtool,helpthemtograspideaseasily.MilsonandEarle(2008)exploredtheuseofInternet-basedGISasatoolforintegratinggeospatialtechnologiesinninth-gradegeographycurriculumandinstructionwithinaninductivelearningenvironment.Thestudyfindingsindicatedthatstudentswereabletoaccessandmakeuseofgeospatialdatatoconstructtheirunderstandingofgeography.KerskiandBaker(2019)suggestthatusingaWeb-basedGISsystemimpliesachangeinhowGISareperceivedandtaught.Fargher(2018)arguesthatbydrawingonaGeoCapabilitiesapproachtheteacher’suseofWebGIScanbeenhancedindeepeningtheirstudents’abilitiestothinkandreasonwithgeographicalknowledgeandideas.FundamentaltoGeoCapabilitiesthinkingisanemphasisonaprogressive,subject-ledapproachtoteachingschoolgeographyparticularlythroughthedevelopmentofpowerfuldisciplinaryknowledge(PDK),schoolsubjectknowledgecanonlybepowerfulwhenitenablesyoungpeopletothinkinwaysbeyondtheirdirectexperience(Figure6).

Figure6:AtypologyofGeography’spowerfulknowledge

GeoCapabilitiesadoptsanapproachunderpinnedbythebeliefthatknowledgedevelopmentinschoolsshouldbeledbysubjectspecialistswhoarebestplacedtoprovideyoungpeoplewiththehighestqualitygeographyeducation.

4.4 GeoMentoring


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IntheUSA,theGeoMentorprogramme(http://www.geomentors.net),establishedbyEsriandtheAmericanAssociationofGeographers,bringstogetherpeople(experts)whoarewillingtohelpwiththedeploymentofGISintoteaching.(DeMers,2016)suggestsprofessionalGISmentoringofeducatorsrapidlyimprovesthelikelihoodthatGISwillreachtheelementaryandsecondaryteachers.Healeyetal.(2018)reportonaprogrammetosupportteachersinintroducingWeb-basedGISinschoolsintheUK.TohelptheeffectiveuseofArcGISOnlineinclassrooms,adedicatededucationalteam–includingaformerclassroomteacher—and300professionalGISusersregisteredasvolunteerGeoMentors.TheseindustryexpertsgivetheirtimetoschoolstosupporttheiruseofGIS.TheyhelpteachersgetfamiliarwiththeArcGISOnlineplatform,createnewresourcesincollaborationwithstaff,andinspirestudentstopursuetheirowncareersinGISbytalkingabouttheirexperiences.HealeyandWalshe(2019)focusonhowlearningfromreal-worldgeographersincludingindustryexpertsbothfromlocalcontextsandfromtheGeoMentorsnetworksetupbyEsriUKabouttheGIStheyuseintheireverydayjobscanengagestudents.HealeyandWalshe(2020)exploretheuseofGISinUKschoolsinthecontextofschoolanduniversitycrossover.Theauthorsareparticularlyinterestedintheconnectionwithcurriculumthinking.TheyreportareluctanceamongstteacherstoengagewithGIS,andexploredtheuseofreal-worldexpertstoinfluencestudentperceptionsoftherelevanceofGISandreal-worldapplicationswhichtheninfluencessubsequentacquisitionofstudentknowledge.AlongitudinalstudyexplorestheUKGeoMentorsschemeofESRI/RGS-IBGwhichfocusesonhowtappingintotheexpertiseofreal-world,industryexpertsandthewaysitcanaffectstudents’perceptionsoftherelevanceofGIStogeographyandsupporttheiracquisitionofgeographicalknowledge.Theirresultssuggestthatengagementwithindustryexpertsincreasesstudents’understandingofwhatGISis,allowingthemtodevelopamorenuancedappreciationofitsreal-worldapplications;thisthenappearstoplaybothadirectandindirectroleinthesubsequentdevelopmentofstudents’geographicalknowledge.

4.5 Personalisedlearning

Aseducationiscurrentlyundergoingsignificantchangebroughtaboutbyemergingreforminpedagogyandtechnology,effortshavesoughttoclosethegapbetweentechnologiesaseducationaladditivetoeffectiveintegrationasameanstopromoteandcultivatestudentcentred,inquirybasedandproject-basedlearning.GIShasbecomestronglypersonalisedaslocation-awareservices,personaliseduserinterfacesandaccessiblemobilecommunicationhaveevolved.PersonalisedGISdevelopmenthasbeenreportedinmanydiversefieldsforinstanceintourism(Posladetal.,2001),communitymapping(Ardissonoetal,2017),heritageinformation(MacAoidhetal.,2006),education(deLázaroetal.,2017)and3Dnavigation(Doulamisetal.,2013).Ineducation,personalisationinGISlookstointegratestudentsintheirenvironmentandenhancetheirunderstanding.Althoughtherearedifferencesindefiningpersonalizedlearning,alldefinitionsandresearchagreesontheseprinciples:- Personalizedlearningstartswiththelearnerandthelearnerisinthecentre- Thelearnerisactiveindesigningtheirlearninggoalsandprocesses- Thelearnerdecideshowtoaccessandacquireinformation,- Thelearnerownsandtakesresponsibilityoflearning,thusmoremotivatedandengagedinthe

learningprocess,- Thelearnerownsthecapacityforcriticalmonitoringoflearningoutcomes- Highqualityteachingresponsivetothedifferentwaysstudentsachievetheirbest- Creatinganeducationpaththattakesaccountoflearner’sneeds,interestsandaspirations


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- Makingastrongcontributiontoequityandsocialjustice(Zwartjesetal.,2015).Personalisedlearningdescribessituationswherelearningwascustomisedforthepreferencesandabilitiesofindividuallearnersorgroupsoflearners.Itshiftstheroleofstudentsfrombeingsimplyaconsumerofeducationtoaco-producerandcreatoroftheirownlearningpathwayactivelyengagesstudentsintheprocessoflearning(Bartle,2015).Fromtheteachers’perspective,issaidtobeathree-partprocess,whichincludesplanningthatpromotesdeeperstudentlearning;understandingofeachstudent’slearningneedsandinterests;andprovisioningofappropriatelearningexperiencesthatmatcheachstudent’suniquelearningprofile. PersonaliseddigitallearningenvironmentsareusuallyWeb-basedsystemsandoftenutilisemobiledevicesofferingauniqueandpersonalplatformfordevelopinglearner-centrededucationalexperiencesthattoenhancestudents’learningengagementviapersonalisedinformationandservices(Masselenoetal.,2018).Personalisedlearningenvironmentsplacethestudentintoamorecentralandactiveroleintheirownlearning,wherelearnerscanaccessrelevantandcontextualinformationbasedontheirdifferenttasksandneeds.Learnerscanlearnfromthematerialsprovidedbylearningsystemsbasedontheirownlearningpaceandpreference.Thisencourageslearners’empowermenttowardstheirownlearningprocessandprogress.ThePersonalisedLearningEnvironmentconceptplacesthefocusontheappropriationofdifferenttoolsandresourcesbythelearner,wherebythelearnerissituatedwithinasocialcontextwhichinfluencesthewayinwhichtheyusemedia,participateinactivitiesandengageincommunities.TheperspectiveisthebasictheoremoftheActivityTheory(Engeström2001).Theactivitytrianglemodelrepresentinganactivitysystemcombinesthevariouscomponentsintoaunifiedwhole.Fromthisperspective,focusingonthethreeaspects–personal(‘subject’),learning(‘tools)andenvironment(‘object’)–meansdisregardingtheso-called‘socialbasis’oftheactivitysystem(rules,communityanddivisionoflabour)whichsituateshumanactivitiesinabroadercontext.(Zwartjesetal,.2015).InthecaseofGIS,personalisationcanleadtoactivitiesthatcombineauthentic,contextualised,localsituationsanduselocation-basedservices.Zwartjeseta.l(ibid)describetheelementsofapedagogicalapproachforpersonalizededucation(Figure7)andrelateittousinggeospatialtechnologiesandICTforlandscapeeducation(deLázaroyTorresetal.,2017).Theyunderlinetheimportanceofpedagogicalmethodstoencourageindividualguidedlearningatadistance,wherestudentstaketheirowndecisionsandareresponsiblefortheirlearninginaccordancewiththeirinterestsandskills.Inthiscontext,thearticleunderlinesthatthetoleoftheteacherisevenmoreimportantthaneverastheyhelpcustomisethelearningdesignoftheirstudents.However,Prainetal(2013)presentastrongcritiqueofpersonalisedlearningasitdependsonbotheffectiveteacherdifferentiationofasetcurriculumtoaddressdiversityoflearnerneeds,andthedevelopmentofindependentlearnercapacities.Karolčíketal.(2019)discussthedevelopmentofane-learningenvironmentforGeography,basedonthepersonalizationofthecontentandthestudentactivitiesaswell.Theyenvisagepersonalisedlearningastailoringeducationtomeetdifferentstudentneeds,suchasdifferencesinknowledgelevels,skills,agesandsoon.Activelearningshouldbeencouragedinwhichthestudentparticipatesorinteractswiththelearningprocess.Inthefuture,accordingtoNikolovetal.,(2016),itislikelythatmanyoftheadvancesineducationwillbebroughtaboutbyfurtherintegrationofpersonalisedlearningintosmartlearningenvironments.


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Figure7:Elementsofapersonalisedlearningsystem

4.6 Rosenshineandeffectiveinstruction

Rosenshine(2012)developedtenprinciplesofInstruction(Table2)derivedfromresearch-basedevidencefromcognitivescienceandhowbrainacquiresandusesinformation,classroompracticeofexpertteachersandcognitiveinstructionalmethodstohelplearncomplextasks.Herecommendsthatexperientialactivitiesshouldalwaysbeusedafterthebasicknowledgeislearned.Table2:Rosenshine’sTenPrinciplesofInstruction1. DailyReview–offacts+skillstostrengthenconnectionsbetweenthemateriallearntsorecall

becomesautomatic,buttakeslotsofpractice(5-8mins).Canincludemarkinghomework,identifyingdifficulties+errorsmade,aswellasanythingelseneeding‘overlearning’.

2. Usesmallstepstopresentnewmaterial–guidestudentstopracticerecallingideaslearntusingstrategiesandmodellingby‘thinkingoutloud’.

3. Askquestions–seehowwellmaterialislearntbygettingstudentstoexplainprocessesandhowtheyfoundanswers.

4. Providemodelsandworkedexamples–usingstep-by-stepinstructionspromptingwho,where,whyandhowtodevelopquestions.

5. Guidestudentpractice-processinginformationbyrephrasing,elaboratingandsummarisingsmallamountsofmaterial,makingsureallstudentsexplainideasandaskingquestions,giveandreceivefeedback,tohelpdevelopunderstandingaswellastransferideastolongtermmemory.

6. Checkstudentunderstanding–frequentcheckinghelpstoincreaseconnectionsmadetopreviouslearning.

7. Highsuccessrate–foroptimalachievement,instructionandpracticeactivitiesneedan80%successrateforallstudentsbothfororalresponsesaswellasindividualwork.

8. Providescaffoldsfordifficulttasks–providetemporarysupportwhichisgraduallyremovedtoallow‘novicelearners’toobserve‘expertthinking’,studentsarehelpedthroughcoachingtobecomemoreindependent.

9. Independentpractice-lotsofpractice(overlearning)takesplaceinordertobecome‘fluentandautomaticinaskill’,studentsstarttoworkindependentlybutwithsupportonhandfrombothteachersandpeers.

10. Weeklyandmonthlyreview–usedtodevelopwell-connectednetworksofideas(schema)tofreeupspaceintheworkingmemoryasstudentsbuilduppatternsby‘utilization’or‘chunking’whichimprovestheir‘cognitiveprocessing’capacitytoreviewmateriallearntinthelong-termmemory.

Sherrington(2019)proposedgroupingRosenshine’sprinciplesinto4strandsthatcombineconnectedprinciplesthatcanbeorderedintoaworkflowofalesson.Theseweresequencingconceptsand


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modelling(presentingnewmaterialinsteps,providingmodelsandscaffolding),questioning(askingandcheckingunderstanding),reviewingmaterial(daily,weeklyandmonthly)andstagesofpractice(guidedandindependentpractice,obtaininghighsuccessrates).HesuggestsRosenshine’sPrinciplesofInstructionprovideclearguidanceforteachersbasedonaskingquestions,practicingandsequencingconcepts,aswellasausefulreflectiontooltoweighuphowwellthisisbeingdone.


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5. ApproachestoteachingwithGISTheapproachestoteachingandlearningaredefinedasthestrategiesthatteachersadoptfortheirteachingpractice.Astudent-centredapproachisusuallyconsideredtobenecessaryforthesuccessfulintegrationofeducationtechnologyinteachingandlearning(Somekh,2008;DeMiguel,2016).ThefollowingareexamplesofapproachesdevelopedinteachingwithGIS.

5.1 Spatialthinking

Inrecentyears,spatialthinkinghasattractedtheattentionofmanyresearchers,dealingwiththecomponentsofspatialthinking(Figure8)andtheskillsandabilitiesofcriticalspatialthinkers(DeMiguel,2016).

Figure8.SpatialandgeographicalthinkingsequenceforteachingandlearningwithGIS(DeMiguel,2016)MichelandHof(2013)sayspatialthinkingdescribesnotonlytheunderstandingofspecializedspatialprocessesbutitincludeselementsofspatialconcepts,toolsandmethodsforspatialrepresentation,aswellastheprocessofspatialreasoning(Figure9).

Figure9:Elementsofspatialthinking(MichelandHof,2013)

Goodchildetal.(2010)makesthecasethatcriticalspatialthinkingshouldbeacentralthemeineducationforaworldwhereinformationisincreasinglyseenthroughgeographicalfilters.AccordingtoBearmanetal.(2016),criticalspatialthinkersshouldbeabletounderstandtheeffectofscaleandcriticallyevaluatethequalityofspatialdatabeingusedandunderstanditsimplications.Thisimpliesthattheprocessesofdatamanipulation,analysisandmodellingwillprovokeandrequirecriticalthinking,


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Nguyenetal.(2019)focusonspatialthinkingasanessentialandbasicfunctionofaskills-orientededucationprograminschools,Theyemphasisetheneedtoconsiderthethreefundamentalelements(conceptsofspace,toolsofrepresentation,andprocessesofreasoning),increatingGeographycurriculum;andprovide“examplesofquestionscontainingspatialthinkingfromlowtoveryhighlevelandquestionsofnonspatial-thinkingingeographytextbooks”.Theysuggesttheformulationofacognitiveprocessingtaxonomy-StructureofObservedLearningOutcome(SOLO)shouldbedevelopedtoassesstheprocessofreasoning.DeLázaroyTorresetal.(2018)showhowitispossibletotakeadvantageofCloud-basedtoolstoenablespatialthinkingandthedevelopmentofdigitalcompetencies.Theyfocusedonexplaininghow,byusingflippedteachingandcollaborativework,studentlearningcanbeenhanced.Theresultsofthisflippedteachinglearningactivitywereacollectionofdifferentstorymapsfocusedonspecifictopicsdemonstratinginquiry-basedlearningbycollectingandusinggeodataandawebmappingapplicationonWebGIS.Otherproposedinnovativeaspectswerehowtointegrateawebmapwithdigitalstorytelling,usingopengeodataandcollaborativestudent-centredlearningaboutthetopic.

5.2 Geographicalquestioning,enquiryandspatialreasoningSeveralresearchershavereportedtheeffectivenessofusingGISinenquiry-basedlearningbecauseofitscapacitytopromotestudents’higher-orderthinkingskills,connecttheclassroomwithreal-worldissues,andconstructmeaningandknowledgethroughtheenquiryprocess(Kerski,Demirci,andMilson2013;Jadallahetal.2017;MetoyerandBednarz2017).HongandMelville(2018)confirmedspatialthinkingwasfundamentaltothegeographicinquiryprocess.Asacollectionofcognitiveskillscomprisedofknowingconceptsofspace,usingtoolsofrepresentation,andreasoningprocesses,GISoffersadisciplinarytoolwithgreatpotentialforenquiry-basedlearning.However,theyconfirmthereisalackofpedagogicalresourcesforGISforimplementationinK–12classrooms(MillsapsandHarrington2017).Theyintroducedanenquiry-basedapproachtodesigningeffectiveprofessionaldevelopmentinGIS,whichhasthepotentialtoempowerteachersandstudentsinenquiry-basedlearningwithGIStechnologiesandultimatelyincreasestudentengagementandtheirunderstandingofarapidlychangingworld.Favier(2011)examinestheprocessesandstagesingeographicalquestioning(Figure10),establishingtheuseofGISwithinthewiderissueandallowingstudentstoseehowGISintegratesaspartofthewidercycleofproblem–evaluation–solutionloop.Hedefinessixstagesasaskinggeographicquestions,acquiringgeographicresources,visualizinggeodata,cognitiveprocessingofknowledgeabouttheworldaroundus,answeringgeographicquestionsandpresentingtheresultsofgeographicinquiry.Heconcludesthatcriticalspatialthinkingrequiresthestudenttothinkaboutallofthestepsinthisprocess.


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Figure10:Theprocessesadoptedwhenansweringgeographicquestions(Favier,2011)

AccordingtoFavier(2013),whileusingGIS,weshouldnotonlyfocusonlearningsubjectknowledgeanddomain-specificskills,butalsoaboutbasicideasaboutGIS.Heexplainsthisviaaframework(Figure11)forgeographicenquiryusingGeo-ICTresearch,wherelearningcanbeseenasacyclicalprocess.

Figure11:AframeworkforgeographicenquiryusingGeo-ICT(Favier,2013)


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FavierandvanderSchee(2014)dealwiththequestionwhethergeographylessonswithgeospatialtechnologiesreallycontributedtothedevelopmentofstudents’geospatialthinking,andinparticulargeospatialrelationalthinking.TheuseofgeospatialtechnologieslikeGISshouldenableteacherstodevelopinstructionmethodsthataimtostimulategeospatialrelationalthinkingskillsthatareoftendifficulttoaddress.Geospatialrelationalthinkingconnectstosystemsthinking,whichisaholisticapproachthatfocusesonspatialassociationandhowtheconstituentpartsofasystemarerelatedtoeachother,howsuchsystemsrespondtochanges,andhowsystemsworkwithinthecontextoflargersystems.Theirresearchsoughttoidentifytheeffectsongeospatialrelationalthinkingofaseriesoflessonswithgeospatialtechnologiesonhighschoolstudents’,whencomparedwithaconventionallessonseries.Theyfoundtheuseofgeospatialtechnologieshadpositiveeffectsongeospatialrelationalthinking,thestudentswerealsomorepositiveabouttheeffectsonthelearningoutcomesandtherewasmoreattentiononsystematicgeospatialrelationalthinking.However,studentscouldonlyidentifysomeoftherelationsandtheirknowledgewaspoorlystructuredintermsofgeospatialsystemsastheycouldonlytakesomeoftherelevantfactorsintoaccountwhentheysolutionsforspatialchallenges.Hwang(2013)focusesontheroleofGISinfurtheringeducationaboutsustainabilityandemphasisesGISasapositivisticmodeofobservation,oratoolforquantitativeenquiryandresearch.HeproposesahierarchyoffivegeospatialinquiriesthatstudentscanmaketoexploresustainabilityissuesusingGIS(Figure12).Theyarespatialdistribution(SD)orwherethingsare;spatialinteractions(SI),howthingsinteractbetweenregions;spatialrelationships(SRs),howthingsarerelatedacrossdomains;spatialcomparisons(SCs),howthingsaredifferentacrossregionsandtemporalrelationships(TRs),howthingschangeovertime.Heconcludesthesetypesofenquiriescanhelpstudentstoexplorespatialpatterns,relationships,andchanges,anduncoverplace-specificprocesses.

Figure12:Definitionofandhierarchyamongfivegeospatialinquiries

Jantetal.(2020)explorespatialreasoningandtheroleofspatialthinkinginSTEMeducationandtoextendtheimportanceofspatialthinkinginSTEMeducationbeyondwhatistypicallymeasuredbyspatialabilitytestsandbringitinlinewithapproachesthatemphasisethepracticesofSTEMthinking.TheirresultssuggestthatGIS-basedinstructioncanbeusedtoenhancestudents’useofspatialreasoning


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whensolvingSTEM-relevantproblems.TheyindicatethatGIStraininghelpsstudenttoconsider,understand,andimplementspatialsolutionsandthustheauthorsrecommendspatialthinkingcould,andshould,becentraltoscientificreasoning,justasmodellingandevidence-basedargumentationare.PerdueandLobben(2013)proposeaspatialthinkingframeworkandhypothesizedthatcertainspatialthinkingskillsarehigherorderthanothersandbuilduponprevious,lesscomplexskills(Figure13).So,intheexampleshown,regionalidentificationisconceptualizedasahighlevelskill,achievedthroughtheaccumulationofproximity,boundary,clustering,andclassificationskills.

Figure13:Aspatialthinkingframework(Perdueetal.,2013)

5.3 TPCKandG-TPCKTheTechnologicalPedagogicalContentKnowledge(TPCK)frameworkhasprovidedatheoreticallensforintegratingtechnologyinteachinginschool(Figure14).Itconceptualizesthreeknowledgeareasforteachers,thesubjectmatterordisciplinarycontent,usingtechnologiesanddigitalresourcesandlearningandteachingprocesses(pedagogy).Kerskietal..(2013)suggestprofessionaldevelopmentinteachereducationmustbeexpandedanditneedstoembracethetechnologicalpedagogicalcontentknowledgewhichcapturesthecomplexinterplayamongcontent,pedagogy,andtechnology.


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Figure14:TheTechnologicalPedagogicalContentKnowledge(TPCK)framework(afterMishra,2019)

Walsh(2017)saysteachersoftenavoidengagingwithGISwithresearchsuggestingthatthelackofGIStrainingininitialteachereducationispartiallyresponsible.Shestates,“SuccessfuluseofGISineducationrequiresthatteachershaveastrongunderstandingofgeographicalcontentknowledge,geospatialsoftwareapplications,dataanalysistechniques,andpedagogicalstrategies(Coulter,2014);assuch,professionaldevelopmentinteachereducationshouldbeexpandedtoembracethetechnologicalpedagogicalcontentknowledge(TPCK)”(Walshe,2017;619)Hammondetal.(2018)exploredthedynamicrelationshipofTPCKandfoundthatdevelopingteachers’geospatialTPCKisparamountforsolidintegrationofthesetechnologiesintoteaching.Simplyengagingwithtechnologyiswillnotimprovestudentlearning,educatorsshouldconsiderwhichpedagogieswillbemosteffective(Hicksetal.2014).TodothistheTPCKapproachrecommendsthatteachersalsoneedtechnologicalandgeographicalcontentknowledge.IndevelopingTPCK,MishraandKoehler(2006)integrateeffectivetechnologyuseintothecurriculum,basedonthestrengthofteachers’pedagogicalandcontentknowledge(PCK).RoigandFlores(2014)pointoutthatwhiletheremaybehigh"contentknowledge"amongteachers,thesamedoesnothappenwith"technologicalknowledge".Newerteachersoftenratetheirtechnologicalknowledgeashigherthantheirsubject/pedagogicknowledge,perhapsdemonstratingalackofconfidence(Álvarez-OteroanddeLázaroyTorres,2018).GómezTrigueros(2018)explorestheuseoftheTPACKmodelforintroducingGIS.Hesuggeststhattheteacher’sownsubjectknowledgeandtheirpedagogicalknowledgeneedtobeconsideredsimultaneously.ThemodelproposesthatinorderforteacherstohavetrainingtoincorporateICTintheclassroom,theyneednotonlytopossess“thebasicknowledge”inanisolatedandindependentway,butalsotopossessthemininteractionwiththeapproach.Heproposesthatonlyinthiswaywillthetechnologybeincorporatedintothetrainingprocessinanappropriatemannerandachievethestudent'sintendedteachingandlearningobjectives.


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Curtis(2019)usesMishraandKoehler’s(2006)Technological,Pedagogical,ContentKnowledge(TPCK)frameworktoexaminetheinfluenceofpedagogicalknowledgeonteachers’decisionmakingwhenteachinggeography.Sheexaminedteachingthatintegratesprofessionaltoolsintheschoolclassroomandsuggeststhisissupportedbywell-documentedlearningstandardsandstudies.Shedescribeshowinstructionthatreflectstheactionsofbusinessneedswillenablegeographyteacherstoprepareknowledgeable,criticallythinkingtwenty-first-centurystudentsthroughgenuine,geographicalcontextsthatfostercollaborationandtheapplicationofknowledgetorealisticscenarios(CharlesandKolvoord,2016).However,researchshowedthatgeographyeducatorshavetodiscovermethodsontheirownastheyarenottaughtpedagogicalstrategiesforteachingwithgeospatialtechnologies.Doeringetal.(2009)recommendteachershavetodevelopgeographicaltechnologicalpedagogicalcontentknowledge(G-TPCK).Thefocuschangesfromwhatteachersshouldknowtoeffectivelyintegratetechnologyintotheirclassroomstostudyinghowtheirgeographicalknowledgeshouldbeusedwithintheclassroomforthemosteffectiveresults.Theyproposeaproblem-basedGeoThentictrainingcoursewhereteachersdeveloptheirtechnologyknowledgeusinggeospatialtechnologies,theirpedagogicalknowledgebyinvestigatingoptimalpedagogyforgeographicproblemsolvingwithgeospatialtechnologies;andtheircontentknowledgebydevelopingthespecificgeographicalcontentareaneededtoeffectivelyteachtheproblem-solvingmodules.Rickles,EllulandHacklay(2017)identifiedthetheoreticalelementsofGISconceptsandconnectedthemtotheeducationalapproacheswithintheTPCKframework(Figure15).TheyindicatethatContextBasedLearningistherecommendedlearningapproachorpedagogicalknowledge.Theuseofcontextreferstoboththelocallearningenvironmentandthecontextoftheproblemdomainforthelearningactivity.IdentifyingtheplatformstouseprovidesthetechnologicalknowledgeandthecontentknowledgewouldbebasedonthecurriculumsubjectorinhighereducationtheGIS&TBodyofKnowledge(Prager,2012).ResearchbyCurtis(2019)revealedapossiblerelationshipbetweenpedagogicalknowledgeandthefrequencyofuseanddepthofintegrationofGItechnologyintogeographyteaching.Shestatedthatitwasimportanttodevelopteachers’G-TPCKforthemtoacceptthetechnologyandimplementitingeographyclassrooms.


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Figure15:GISandtheTPCK)framework(Rickles,EllulandHacklay,2017)

Hong,andStonier(2015)suggestedenquiry-basedlessonsusingGIStechnologieswouldbeawaytointegratetechnologiesusingtheTPACKmodel.TheirresearchsuggestedfourdifferentusefulmethodstointroduceGIStostudentsforthefirsttime:

1. makingthefirstactivityrelatetothestudents(e.g.“makestudentsinterestedinGISfirst”and“getfamiliarwithGIS”,forinstancebyaskingstudentstomakeanindividualmaptolayouttheirlives,suchasthelocationsoftheirhomesandschools”),

2. exposingstudentstoGISasmallamountatatime,introduceitgraduallysothatstudentswouldnotfeelintimidatedoroverwhelmedwhentheystartusingGIS.

3. usingpeerleaders,creatinghelpandsupportamongthemselvesandmonitoringbyteachersand

4. providingtutorialvideos.

5.4 Thresholdconceptsandpowerfulknowledge

ThresholdconceptsoriginatedinMeyerandLand’s(2003)workassessingaspectsofstudentlearning.Theyaredescribedasconceptswhich,oncegrasped,leadtoatransformedviewofsubjectmatter(Figure16).Theprocessofgraspingthresholdconceptsimpliescrossingaconceptualgatewaywhichmayresultfromovercomingtroublesomeknowledge.

MeyerandLand(2006)describethecharacteristicsofthresholdconceptsastransformativechangingthewayyouseetheworld;troublesomewhereitmightseemcounterintuitive,irreversiblemeaningthatonceitislearntitisunlikelytobeforgotten;integratedasitrevealsconnectionsbetweenthedifferentpartsofthediscipline,boundedwherebytheconcepthasdefinedparametersinwhichitappliesanddiscursivesothatitleadstothedevelopmentofnewlanguage.Enser(2017)suggeststhatthresholdconceptsarean


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importantelementincheckinglearning,andcouldbeafocustohelpunlockanewunderstandingoftheworld.

Figure16:Keycharacteristicsofthresholdconcepts(afterHamm,2016)

SrivastavaandTait(2010)presenttheimplementationofcurriculumdesignprinciplesforteaching,theysaytheadoptedpedagogyshouldutiliseexistingpedagogicalcontentknowledgeforthecoursematerial,identifythethresholdconceptsforthediscipline,involvestudentsinactiveandauthenticlearning,aswellasprovidingexperiencewithproblem-basedlearning,andtakesintoaccountthebackgroundsofthestudentsbyofferingflexiblelearningopportunities.Theirstudypresentsalearning-assessment-feedbackmodelinvolvingseveralcurriculumdesignprinciples.Theauthorsrecommendthatteachingshouldbebasedonrecenteducationresearchdevelopments.Thecurriculumdesignprinciplesstartfromdesigningtheaimsandoutcomesofthecoursefollowedbyasequentialarrangementoflearningactivities,leadinguptoappropriateassessment.Theresultwasthecreationofastudent-centredapproach,withopportunitiesforself-direction,guidedresponsibilityfortheirlearningandlearning/assessmentopportunitiesofferedinreal-worldcontexts(Figure17).

Figure17:AGISpedagogymodelinuse

Assessmentwasdesignedtodevelopfromsimpleknowledgeconceptsandmovetoanalysis,criticalthinkinganddeeperexamination,demonstratinghowGIScanbeappliedintheirdisciplineareas.Thus,


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studentsmovefromunderstandingtheoreticalconceptstodirectlylinkingthetechnologyanddisciplineinanunderstandingofpracticalreal-worldapplicationofGIS.SrivastavaandTait(2010)offerasummaryofthethresholdbarrierstobecrossedforlearningtouseGIS(Figure18).TheysuggestmasteringthekeythresholdconceptswilltransformastudentfromageneralmapusertoaGISprofessional.Theidentificationofthesekeythresholdconceptsshouldresultintheidentificationofanyelementsoftroublesomeknowledge,whichcanformabarriertolearning.AsimilarsummarymightbeusefultoteachersforselectingtopicswhenlearningwithGIS.

Figure18:ThresholdconceptsforlearningGIS

Walshe(2018)warnsofthedangerofGISbeingreducedtojustamechanismforcompletingasetofskillsanddrawsonthetypologyofAlaricMaude(2018)todeveloppowerfulgeographicalknowledge,withreferencetotheGeoCapabilitiesprojectwithitsuseofcurriculumartefacts.GISallowsstudentstoengagewithopportunitiestocreate,testandevaluateknowledge.Maude’stypology(Table3)wasusedbyFargher(2018)toexemplifyhowacurriculumartefact,definedas“the‘key’toaseriesoflessonsonagiventopic”canbecreatedinArcGISOnlinetoconstructpowerfulgeographicalknowledge.Theexampledevelopedofthe2004IndianOceanEarthquakeandTsunamidemonstratestheneedforteacherstoleadwiththeirexpertsubjectknowledgetoensureengagementwithGISisunderpinnedbythesubject’skeyconceptsandsupportsthedevelopmentofstudents’geographicalthinking.Table3:Typologyofpowerfulgeographicalknowledge(afterMaude,2018)Typeofpowerfulgeographicknowledge

Description

Type1 Knowledgethatprovidesstudentswith‘newwaysofthinkingabouttheworld’

Type2 Knowledgethatprovidesstudentswithpowerfulwaysofanalysing,explainingandunderstanding

Type3 Knowledgethatgivesstudentssomepowerovertheirowngeographicalknowledge


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Type4 Knowledgethatenablesyoungpeopletofollowandparticipateindebatesonsignificantlocal,nationalandglobalissues

Type5 Knowledgeoftheworld

5.5 Geomedia,spatialcitizenshipandparticipatoryGISAccordingtoGryletal.(2010)spatialcitizenshipisanamalgamofthreemaincontributingareasofresearch,citizenshipeducation,theappropriationofspaceandthelinksbetweenGIandsociety.Spatialcitizenshipwasthusdefinedastheabilitytocriticallyappropriatespacebydemocraticmeans.Spatialcitizenshipeducationisthereforeaboutlearninghowtonavigatetheworldwithrespecttothephysicalworld,themeaningsattachedtothephysicalobjectsandenvironmentandthepowerrelationsinvolvedintheproductionofmeaning.Threemainfieldsofcompetencewereidentified(Figure19).TheysuggestspecificstrategiesneedtobedevelopedforworkingwithGISthatgoesbeyondtechnicalcompetenceswidelyreproducedinmanycurricula.

Figure19:Competencesforspatialcitizenship

Geomediaismediathathasconsistsofspatiallylocalisedinformation,ithasbecomeanessentialpartofeverydaylife.Technologicaldevelopmentsenabledordinarycitizenstoparticipateandcollaborateusinganincreasingnumberofweb-basedapplicationsandmobiledevicesforgathering,processingandvisualisinggeoinformationandthensharinganddistributingtheirowninformation.FelgenhauerandQuade(2012)exploretheimplicationsofgeomediaforeducation,raisingissuesassociatedwiththetypesoflearningstylesneededtoaddressyoungpeopletoengageincitizenshipactivitiesandthereflectiveandreflexiveuseofGIandgeomedia.Gryl(2016)suggestsreflexivegeomediacompetenceandspatialcitizenshiparebasedonreflectionandreflexivity.Reflectionmeansbeingcriticaltowardsacertainmatter,reflexivityconnotesbeingcriticalregardingownthinkingandactingwiththismatter.Spatialcitizenshipandreflexivegeomediacompetenceaccountsforthesocialconstructionofspacesfromspatialthinkingapproachesfromgeomedia(GrylandJekel,2012).RoosaareandLiiber(2013)presentthesituationinEstoniawheregeo-mediaandGIShasbeenintegratedintoschooleducation,wherealistofcompulsoryICT-basedpracticalworkshavebeenaddedtothegeographycurriculum.Gryl(2016)aimedtoidentifyteachers’differentbasicabilitiesandtheirwillingnesstofurtherreflexivityandgeomediaapproachesatschoolandtoidentifyideastofurtherthedevelopmentofteachers’abilitiesandwillingness.Interviewsofteacherswereundertakentoconstructatypologyofteachers’abilityandwillingnesstofurtherreflexivegeomediacompetencesandspatialcitizenshipcompetencesamongtheirstudents.Sinhaetal.(2016)exploretheuseofParticipatoryGIS(PGIS)asapowerfulplatformforgeographiceducation.PGISresultedfromcommunityengagementresponsestotechnologicaldevelopmentsinGISandempowerment.PGISproducesmediausefulforcitizenadvocacyanddecisionmaking.Butthe


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pedagogicalbenefitsofPGISprojectshavereceivedlimiteddirectattentionintheliterature,understandablesincePGISprojectsaredesignedtobeledbycommunitiesandthefocusshouldremainoncommunitydevelopmentandempowerment,notonhowstudentsandresearcherscanbenefitfromtheprocess.WhilePGISisnottheonlyapproachforteachingstudentsgeographyinthefield,itoffersoneofthemostflexibleandscalableoptionsofenablingstudentstoworkwithcommunities.PGISprojectsarenaturallysuitedforcomplementingclassroomtrainingbecauseparticipatingstudentsmustworkbeyondtheclassroomandinahostcommunity,theyhavetolearncollaborativeandcommunitydevelopmentskills,reflectontheirownsituationandcircumstanceswhilestrivingtosafeguardandpromotecommunityinterests;demonstratetheapplicationofhuman,physical,andgeospatialgeographicknowledgeinthefieldandfostercriticalreflexivityinstudents.PGISapproachescanhelpmeetdiverselearningobjectivesrelatedtolocalknowledgeandplace-basedthinking,understandingtherelationshipsbetweenpeopleandlandscapesthroughcommunityengagement,gettingpracticaltraininginfieldmethodsofcollecting,managing,processing,andvisualizinggeographicinformationandgainingexperientialandpracticalintroductiontoqualitative-quantitativemethodologies.Gordonetal.(2016)examineinteractiveparticipatorymappingforteachingandpractisingcriticalspatialthinking.Theyproposethatcriticalspatialthinkingisfoundationaltocivicengagementandthatdigitalgeographicpedagogiesareanimportantarenainwhichyoungpeoplecanbuildtheseaptitudes.Theyshowhowinteractivedigitalmappingpedagogiesofferstudentsanopportunitytodevelopawarenessofwhathappensintheirurbangeographiesandguideandinformcivicengagement.Theyillustratehowcriticalciviclearninghappensasaresultofastudent-guidedexploratoryprocess,collaborativework,andsharingwithandlearningfromtheirpeers.

5.6 Thestorytellingtechniqueandwebmaps

Kerski(2015)includesstorytellingasoneofthefiveconvergingglobaltrendsthatareexertinggreatimpactongeography.Theevolutionofgeographictools,data,andmultimediaonthewebexpandtheabilityandaudienceforstorytellingthroughmaps.Hedescribestheimportanceofeducatingageoliteratepopulationthatcanassessandusegeographicinformationtomakewisedecisions.MotalaandMusungo(2013)examinetheeffectsonstudentlearningbyintroducingstorytellinginGISteachingandlearningactivities.IncorporatingstorytellingintoGISanalysisandmappinghelpedstudentstovisualizecomplexconcepts.Theysuggestthatmultimediastorytellingwasapowerfullearningmethodasthestudentsweregivenopportunitiestotelltheirownstoriesandempathisewiththegeography.Theirownpersonalnarrativeshelpedthestudentstointernalisethelearning.Sherrington(2018)summarisesDanielWillingham’s(2009)explanationoftheimportanceofnarrativeconnectionsinmemory-making.Hesaysthatstorieshavefourfeatures,causality,conflict,complicationsandcharacter.ItislikelythatinnovativepedagogiesshouldconsiderhowGISresourcescanusetheprinciplesofstoriestohelpstudentsrecogniseandunderstandgeographicalpatterns,processesandconcepts(e.g.addinglayersincoherentstages;storymaps)andhowthestepsoflearningaGIStechniquemightbetaughtmoreeffectivelybyfollowingthestorytellingprinciples.Storymapsusuallyintegratetext,multimediaandinteractivefunctionstoinform,educate,entertainandinspirepeople.MartaandOsso(2015)describetheirprojectinitiative“StoryMapsatschool:teachingandlearningstorieswithmaps”.Workingwithgroupsofteachersandtheirclassestheyfoundthatstorytellingwithmapsmotivatedstudentsandestablishedapositiveattitudetowardslearning.The


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studentswereactivelyinvolvedinthestorymappingprocess,beingcreativeintellingtheirownstoriesandencouragingthemtoaskquestions.Sui(2015)reflectsontheusesofmapstoriesorlocation-basedstorytelling.Hesaysthattoday’smapsarethusnotsimplyusedasillustrations,instead,theyareincreasinglyusedasamediumtotellstoriesandhelplearnersacquiredeepermeaningthroughtheireducationalactivitieswithGISandfocusonPink’s(2006)frameworkofthesixsensesofthenewmind,design,story,symphony,empathy,playandmeaning.


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6. PedagogiesLittleresearchattentionhadbeenpaidtopedagogicalissuesinusingGIS(Donert,2007;Bednarz,2001),yetaccordingtoMathewsandWikle(2017).surveysofemployerssuggestimprovedpedagogicalapproachesinteachingGIS&Tareneededastheworkforceisoftenpoorlypreparedtotakeonreal-worldproblems.RoosaareandLiiber(2013)confirmthatmaininfluenceonteachingatschoolsistheteaching-learningprocessintheclassroom,whichisdependentonteachers'professionalismandtheirenthusiasmtoimplementnewtechnologiesandteachingmethods.Stringeretal.(2019)statethattoimprovelearning,thetechnologymustbeusedinawaythatisinformedbyeffectivepedagogy.Sanchez(2009)assessedthewaygeotechnologiesbeintegratedintothegeographycurriculumforsecondaryeducation,andwhateffectstheyhaveintermsofpedagogicalsettingandeducationalgoals.Evidencehegatheredsuggestedthatgeotechnologieswerebeingusedindifferentpedagogicalcontexts:withthewholeclassthroughtheuseofadataprojector,withsmallgroupsofstudentsorindividualusewhereastudentisaloneinfrontofacomputer.MatthewsandWikle(2019)wereconcernedwiththewayGIScoursescanbedesignedtoaddresslearningobjectivesthatpromotecreativethinking,advanceproblem-solvingskills,andfostercollaboration.Theirgoalistoassessthepedagogicalapproachesusedtoteachcourses,aswellasidentifythechallengesassociatedwithsuchteaching,basedonanInternet-basedsurveyof318collegeanduniversityfaculty.Theyfoundactivelearningmethodswerenotwellintegratedwithinclassesandnotedthatstudentsneededtoreceiveasolidconceptualframeworkandteachingstrategieswouldbenefitfrommoreactivelearningapproachesandotherteachinginnovations.Theysuggestedcoursesshouldbedesignedtoaddresslearningobjectivesthatpromotedcreativethinking,advancedproblem-solvingskillsandthatfosteredcollaboration.Muijs(2020)highlightstheincreasedimportanceofthe‘Scienceoflearning’beingusedtoinformclassroompractice.Thereisagrowingawarenessofthepotentialhelpthatself-regulationandmetacognitivestrategiescanhaveonlearning.Muijssupportstheviewthatself-regulationrelatestothelearner’sawarenessoftheirownstrengthsandweaknesses,andislinkedtotheirmotivationtodeveloptheirownlearningstrategies.Thisheseesasbeinglinkedtothreebroaderfunctions:cognition,whichisinformationprocessingandpractice;metacognition,whicharethestrategiesthatcontrolcognitionandmotivation,whichislinkedtointerestandself-belief.Coeetal.(2020)reportontheGreatTeachingToolkit,findingthatakeyfeatureofgreatteachingisthatteachersunderstandthecontenttheyareteachingandhowitislearnt.Theysuggestthatteacherswhowanttoincreasetheireffectivenessshouldfocusonfourpriorityareas,i)understandingthecontenttheyareteachingandhowitislearnt,ii)creatingasupportiveenvironmentforlearning,iii)managingtheclassroomtomaximisetheopportunitytolearnandiv)presentingcontent,activitiesandinteractionsthatactivatetheirpupils’thinking.Allier-Gagneuretal.(2020)suggesttheseprinciplesgiveanindicationofthetypeofpracticesthatcouldbesharedwithteachersduringteacherdevelopmentsessions.

6.1 CriticalspatialthinkingAccordingtoGoodchildandJanelle(2010)educationapproachesmustrecognizetheneedtoimpartproficiencyinthecriticalandefficientapplicationofthesefundamentalspatialconcepts,ifstudentsaretomakeuseofexpandingaccesstothegrowingamountsofspatialinformationanddataprocessingtechnologies.Thetermcriticalimpliesbeingreflectiveoranalyticalofspatialperspectivesandinusingactivequestioningandexaminationofthedata,thetechniquesandthecontext.Thechallengefor


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educationishowtodeveloptechniquesofcriticalspatialthinking,sothatstudentswillbebetterpreparedtousetheevolvingtechnologies,andbetterequippedtoexploitthegrowingfloodofspatiallyreferenceddata.Theauthorssuggeststudentsshouldbetrainedthattothestandardsofacriticalspatialthinker,including,thepotentialtocontributecriticalspatialunderstandingtoinformationattheinterfacebetweendisciplines;toworkinateam;toexplainthespace–timecontexttonon-experts;theabilitytodevelopnewandhighlyoriginalspatiallyinformedideas;toenablesustainedandsuccessfuldialogwithinaninternationalcommunityofspatiallyawarescientists;todisseminatespatialunderstandingthroughteachingandcurriculumdevelopmentatK-12andundergraduatelevels;andtotransferspatialtechnologiesandspatialconceptsacrossdifferentknowledgedomainsandproblemsets.Willingham(2007)askswhethercriticalthinkingcanactuallybetaughtsuggestingthatthereisnosetofcriticalthinkingskillsthatcanbeacquiredanddeployedregardlessofcontext.Hesuggeststherearemetacognitivestrategiesthat,oncelearned,makecriticalthinkingmorelikelyandthattheabilitytothinkcriticallydependsondomainknowledgeandpractice.Thereforeproposingthatteachingstudentstothinkcriticallyprobablyliesinlargepartinenablingthemtodeploytherighttypeofthinkingattherighttime.Kaminske(2020)confirmsitiscontextdependentandpeoplecanthereforebegoodatcriticalthinkinginonedomain,butbadinothers.Criticalspatialthinkingtypicallyreferstoadeeperunderstandingofrelationshipssuchasspatialdependenceorspatialheterogeneity(NationalResearchCouncil2006);ortoreflexivityintheuseofspatialdataandtechnologies(e.g.assessingthereliabilityofdigitalspatialdataandgeospatialrepresentationsormakingandevaluatingargumentswithspatialdataandmapsKimandBednarz(2013)suggestcriticalspatialthinkingisakeyaptitudeforcivicengagementviadigitalgeotechnologies.Theydevelopedaninterview-basedcriticalspatialthinkingoraltest(ACriticalSpatialThinkingOralTest-CSTOT)totestproblemsolvingontheirownandusedthetesttoinvestigatetheeffectsofGeographicInformationSystem(GIS)learningonthreecomponentsofcriticalspatialthinking:evaluatingdatareliability,exercisingspatialreasoning,andassessingproblem-solvingvalidity(Golledgeetal.,2008).TheirstudydemonstratedthatdoingaGIScoursewasbeneficialinenhancingstudents’criticalspatialthinking,identifiedastheabilitytoassessdatareliability,usesoundspatialreasoning,andevaluateproblem-solvingvalidity.TheysaythatthiscouldbeexplainedbythenatureoflearningtouseGIS,asspatialreasoningisrequiredsostudentsareabletoapplyideasinpracticeandsolveproblems.MilsonandCurtis(2009)foundthatlearningwithGISwasaneffectivewaytoenhancestudents’criticalspatialthinking.Theseresearchersaskedstudentstoselectasuitablelocationforanewbusiness.Studentshadtodeterminecriteriaonwhichtobasetheirdecision,finddatatosupportthecriteria,andfinallydefendtheirthinkingprocesses,allofwhichsupportedthedevelopmentofcriticalspatialthinking.Liuetal.(2010)reportedthatproblem-basedlearningwithGISdevelopedstudents’higherorderthinking,suchasanalyticalandevaluationskills.Mostconceptsofcriticalspatialthinkingareeitherstronglyorientedtowardsgeospatialrepresentationorconcernhowdigitalspatialdataaremadeanddisseminated.Byfocusingongeospatialdataandrepresentation,thesenotionsofcriticalspatialthinkingdonotrelatetowhatyoungpeopleneedtoknoworunderstandabouttheworldaroundthemandtheircivicengagement.However,itisnecessarytolearnfromfirsthandreliablesourcesandtorepresentdatatoenableaclearandrealinterpretationofinequalities.Students’educationmustincludeunderstandinghowinequalitiesinsocietyaregeneratedandhowtheyandothersocialactorsmightintervenetochallengethem.


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6.2 Activepedagogiesandenquiry-basedlearningTheuseofgeotechnologiesinschoolsfacilitatestheimplementationofenquiry-based-learning(Sanchez,2008a)andopen-endedprojectsforteaching(Kerski,2008).ThisisprobablypartlyduetothefactthatGISallowsclassroomproceduresthatareclosetoprofessionalprocedures,includingmodellingorsimulation(Sanchez,2008b).Pedagogicdevelopmentshaveechoedthe“hands-on”emphasisinmuchGeographyeducation,characterisedbyactivelearninginthefieldandlaboratory,andtheadoptionofKolb’sexperientiallearningtheory(HealeyandJenkins,2000).MathewsandWikle(2019)foundthatactivelearningpedagogiesarebecomingmorefirmlyestablished,supplementingorreplacingtraditionalteachingapproaches.Thestrategiesthatencourageactivelearningarebasedoninteractivityinlearning-by-doing(Scheyvensetal.,2008).Inadditiontofacilitatingstudentengagement,activelearningencourageselementsofcriticalthinkingthroughstudentreflection(Scheyvensetal.,2008)andstudent-drivenproblem-solvingthatmayinvolvereal-worlddata(Connersetal.,1998).Chen(1997)appliedproblem-solvingtoactiveGISlearningactivities(Figure20).Thesestudent-centeredapproachesarealsowelldocumentedoutsidetheuseofGIS(Park,2018).

Figure20:ProblemsolvingandactivelearningwithGIS(afterChen,1997)

Intermsofscope,activelearningincludesarangeofstrategieswithvaryinglevelsofstudentengagement,suchas“flipped”classroomswheremeetingtimesarereorganizedtoreplacetraditionallectureswithstudent-centredactivities.Studentsinflippedclassroomsreviewothermaterialsinadvanceofclassmeetings,enablingclasstimetofocusonproductiveopen-endeddiscussionorcollaborativelearningactivities(Reidsemaetal.,2017).Similaractivelearningmethodsthatwerenotedincluded“think–pair–share”,whichcanbeintroducedusingareadingassignmentorpresentationfollowedbyaseriesofquestionsposedbytheteacher.Studentssubsequentlywritereflectivestatementsandthenworkinpairsorsmallgroupstodiscussandcompleteassignments.AlthoughnotfocusedonGIS,severalotherstudiesdemonstratedtheeffectivenessofactivelearninginincreasingstudentengagementandperformance(LeeandShahrill,2018).Somedisadvantagesofactivelearningstrategieshavealsobeen


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noted,suchastheaddedtimeneededforpreparingmaterialsandchallengespresentedbylargeclasssizes.Despitethebenefitsassociatedwithactivepedagogicalapproaches,arecentsurveyofscience,technology,engineering,andmathematics(STEM)fieldsdemonstratedthatthemajorityofcollegeteacherscontinuetorelyonpassive,lecture-basedinstructionalmethods(Stainsetal.,2018).AsnotedbyŞeremetandChalkley(2015),GIScoursesarenoexception.Itiscommonlyacceptedthatwhentheoryiscombinedwithpractice,theeducationaloutputbecomesbeneficialforthestudents’learning.Traditionalteachingmethodsaresupplementedbyotherapproaches,suchasenquiry-basedlearning,whichinvolvecomplexproblemsandscenarioswithfieldworkandcasestudies.Therefore,whenusedtoitsfullpotential,theuseofGISinschoolscanprovidealearningenvironmentwithprovenpotentialforenquiry-basedactivities,withstudentslearningaboutgeographicalproblems,issuesandeventsofreal-worldrelevance(FargherandRayner,2012).Enquiry-basedlearninginvolvesexploring,analysingandactingupongeographicalknowledge.TeachersneedtobemorecriticallyawareofthekindsofgeographicalthinkingthatcanandcannotbeenhancedthroughGIS.Enquirylearningincludessuchprocessskillsasobserving,classifying,measuring,predicting,inferring,summarising,communicating,collectingdata,analysingdata,drawingconclusions,buildingmodels,interpretingevidence,andexperimenting.Throughenquirylearning,problemsolvingstrategiesareemployedtoidentifyassumptionsandconsideralternativeexplanations.GISenquiryisusuallybasedonfivesteps(Table4),withstudentsareencouragedexploringspatialrelationsandpatternsamongdataanddrawingsensibleexplanationstowardstheobservations.Table4:StepstoenquirywithGIS(afterFargher,2018)Step WhattoDo TypeofKnowledgeConstructionAskageographicalquestion

Askquestionsabouttheworldaroundyou

Enquiry

Acquiregeographicaldata

Identifydataandinformationthatyouneedtoansweryourquestions

Inventory

Exploregeographicaldata

Turnthedataintomaps,tables,graphsandlookforpatternsandrelationships

Spatialprocessingandanalysis

Analysegeographicalinformation

Testahypothesis,carryoutmap,statistical,writtenanalysisusingevidence

SpatialAnalysis,Modelling,

Actwithgeographicalknowledge

Takeoutcomesandevidenceandundertakeactionstofurtherthem

DecisionMaking,Dissemination

Thesestepsareintendedtoteachdisciplinarycontentthroughthedevelopmentofhigher-order,enquiry-processskills(i.e.,formulatingresearchquestions,designingorimplementingsystematicdatacollection,analysingandsynthesisingdata,andsoon).Suchenquiry-basedactivitiesarecriticaltothedevelopmentofproblem-solvingskills,which,astheworldhasseenmustbeemphasisedineducationsothattheyarepreparedtoeffectivelyandefficientlysolverealworldchallenges.Bonnstetter(1998)describedenquiryasanevolutionarylearningprocessinwhichtherolesoftheteacherandstudentchangeasshowninTable5.Enquirylearningcanbedefinedasthestudent-basedexplorationofanauthenticproblemusingtheprocessesandtoolsofthedisciplineorcontent.Processskillsmayincludeobserving,classifying,measuring,predicting,inferring,summarizing,communicating,collectingdata,analysingdata,drawingconclusions,buildingmodels,interpretingevidence,andexperimenting.Thisapproachhasthepotentialtochangegeographyeducationforthebetterbecauseitcanbeusedtoprovidemeansofaccessingandanalysinggeographicaldatathatcansupportdeepergeographicalunderstanding.


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Table5:Enquiryevolution(afterBonnstetter,1998)

Walshe(2017),reportingontraineeteachersandtheiruseofGIS,confirmedthatwithregularusetheydevelopedamorenuancedunderstandingofthenatureofGIS,fromseeingitasamethodofdatadisplaytorecognisingitsvalueforsupportingstudent-centred,enquiry-basedlearningandthedevelopmentofgeospatialthinking.TheirrepeatedexposuretoGISwithincreasingcomplexitysupportedthedevelopmentoftheirpracticeasitgavethemtheopportunitytoengagewithitattheirownpace,allowingthemto‘tryout’ideasinschoolandthensharetheirideaswiththeirpeersandintegratingtheuseofGISintotheirteaching.Enquirybasedlearningcanalsointegratemanyothertechniques,suchaslearninginequalpairsandcollaborativelearning(Figure21).

Figure 21: Steps in GIS enquiry (Source: De Lázaro, De Miguel and Buzo, 2016)

Arecentsurveyofthegeo-educationcommunityfoundthatactivelearningpedagogieshavebecomemorefirmlyestablished,supplementingorreplacingtraditionalteachingapproaches(MathewsandWikle2019).Thisisconsistentwiththeideathatthelearningprocessbeingexperiencedbystudentsisa


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dynamicandactiveone,andapproachesbyinstructorsthatareineffectivecanbecounter-productive(DiBiase2018).Project-basedandproblem-basedlearningwerethemostpopularapproachesastheymostcloselymimicauthentic,real-worldexperiences(Bowlicketal.2016,HowarthandSinton,2011).

6.3 Problem-basedlearningandcontext-basedlearningGISeducatorshavelargelyadoptedinnovativeapproachessuchasproblem-basedlearning(Drennon,2005)andparticipatoryaction(Elwood,2009)incourses.Problembasedlearning(PBL)hasbecomeregardedasaneffectiveandpopularformatforlearningwithGIS.WorkingthroughproblemswithGISoperationsmimicstheapplicationofGISto“real-world”issues.InPBL,thelearningoutcomesareoftenunstructured,withthestudentsincontroloftheprocessthroughwhichsolutionswillbeidentifiedandreached.Inthisform,studentsarepresentedwithasituationandthenproceedtoorganizethestrategiesandmethodsforgatheringinformationandreachinganoutcome.Anauthenticproblemisattheheartoftheexperience,reflectingthereal-worlduncertainties,messiness,tensions,andpolitics.Inclassroomsettings,accordingtoHowarthandSinton(2011)PBLismorestructuredandcantakemultipleformswithvaryingdegreesofproblemcomplexityandteacherinvolvement.However,theamountoftimemaydictatethattheproblemsthemselvesaresimplified,withprepareddataandexpectedoutcomes.Theburdenofdesignandpreparationisontheteacherandactivitiesarehighlycontrolled.Sanchez(2009)suggestedthepedagogicalfeaturesofaproblem-based-learningapproachappearedtohaveapositiveimpactonthestudentsuseofgeotechnologiesinschools.Hubeauetal.(2011)introducedaSupervisedSelf-Study(SSS)teachingapproachinthepracticalpartsoftheGISandTechnologycoursesatKULeuveninBelgium.ThestudentssolveandreportbackonasetofexercisesusingwithFreeandOpenSourceSoftwaresystems(FOSS),whilehavingthepossibilitytoreceivesupervisionandfeedback.Studentsuse“conceptualexercises”tosolveproblemsindependentlyofwhichGISsoftwaretoolsarebeingused.Themainadvantagesofthisteachingapproachisinthetime-efficiencyandthestimulusforstudentstodealactivelywiththelearningmaterials.Theirresearchrevealedthatifinsufficienthumansupport,adviceandfeedbackavailablethenstudentscouldloseinterestandmotivation.Rickles.EllulandHacklay(2017),focusonhowtoimprovelearningGISinaninterdisciplinaryresearchcontext.Context-basedlearning(CBL)isdescribedasapedagogicalmethodologythat,inallitsdisparateforms,centresonthebeliefthatboththesocialcontextofthelearningenvironmentandthereal,concretecontextofknowingarepivotalintheacquisitionandprocessingofknowledge.Thisconcernsthereforethelearningenvironmentandthereal,concretelearningactivitycontextofknowledgeacquisition.Theauthenticity(i.e.relevancetoreal-worldproblems)iskeytoengagingthelearnersandallowingthemtoreflectonthelearningprocesswhenlearningwithGIS.

6.4 Project-basedapproachesManyapproachestousingGISinschooleducationhavebeenrelatedtoproject-basedpedagogies(MilsonandEarle,2007;Kerski,2008;Favier,etal.,2009;Demircietal.,2011).DeLázaroyTorresetal.(2016)raisetheneedtointegrateGeographylearningtechnologiesinschools.Forthis,itisnecessarytotrainfutureteachersbyprovidingrelevanteducationalexperiences.Theyproposeanactivemethodologyandgrouptechniques,manyofwhichareusedintheprofessionalworld,suchasproblem-basedlearningandproject-basedlearning.Demircietal(2010)introduceanationallyfundedprojectdesignedtouseGIStodevelopsocialsensitivityamongstudentsthroughtheimplementationofGIS-basedprojectsingeographylessonsat


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secondaryschool.Theprojectinvolvesstudentsindifferentactivitiesrangingfromconductingasurveyofthepublic,identifyingthemainsocial,economicandenvironmentalproblemsinsociety,developingprojectstosolvesomeofthecurrentproblemsincooperationwithgovernmentalagencies,usingGIStocollect,store,manipulate,andanalysedata,andinformingpublicandrelevantinstitutionsabouttheoutcomeoftheirprojects.Thedevelopproject-basedlearning,withtheuseofinformationandcommunicationtechnologies,anddevelopmentofstudents’socialsensitivityandmayalsobelabelledasservicelearning.EstevesandRocha(2015)analysehowPortugueseGeographyEducationhasaddressedteachingwithGIS.TheypresentsomeprojectsthathavebeendevelopedinordertoenhancetheuseofGISintheclassroom.Theysuggesttheteachershouldcreateproceduresthatwouldleadthestudentstorealizethattherecanbemultiplehypothesesinrealproblemsolving.Therefore,theidentificationprocessesandlearningofspatial-temporaltransformationwouldbefacilitated,whichisfundamentaltotheunderstandingofgeographicalphenomena.EstevesandRocha(2015)describeasecondaryschoolprojectcalled“WePropose!”,inwhichschoolsidentifylocalproblems,createsolutionsandpresenttheseattheUniversityofLisbonandlatertolocalauthorities.IncurriculumtermstheK11studentsinvolvedarerequiredtodevelopacasestudyduringtheschoolyear.Thestudentsresearchlocalproblems(withintheGeographysyllabus),contactlocalauthoritiestolearnaboutmoreabouttheproblemsandwhatishappeningintermsofplanningatalocalscale.TheygetGIStrainingsogeotechnologycanbeusedtopresentproposedsolutionsandpresentresearch-basedproposalstosolvetheidentifiedproblems.Studentsthusbecomeengagedinactivecitizenship:animportantskillacquiredinGeographyEducation.TheydevelopanduseGISskills,workonreallifeproblemsandpresenttheresearchtheycarriedouttolocalauthorities.Furthermore,themunicipalauthoritieswillimplementthestudents’researchprojectinthecity.Huei-Tseetal.(2016)analysetheuseofawebmapmindtoolcreatedfortourplanninginordertoassistlearners’project-basedlearning.Students’assessmentdemonstratedapositiveattitudetowardthecollaborativeproblem-solvinglearningandimprovementontheircognitiveskills.TheyconfirmedtheworkofJoandBednarz(2009)whichsuggestedthecognitiveprocessesofspatialthinkingconsistedofthreelevels,firstlydescribing,specifyingandobservingapieceofinformation(thinking).Secondly,processingofinformationwhereanalysis,classificationandinterpretationtakesplacetoacquireunderstanding.Thethirdleveliswhereinformationisevaluatedandintegratedtocreatenewknowledge.

6.5 LearningProgressions,TrajectoriesandlearninglinesLearningProgressions(LP)providesanapproachtostudyinghowstudentsadvancetheirknowledgeaboutasubjectastheirintellectualideasandabilitytocommunicategrow.Itisamethodusedbyeducationresearcherstobetterunderstandanddocumentthecapabilitiesofstudentsastheymovealongapathwaytogreaterunderstanding.Todevelopalearningprogression,theresearcherimmersesherselfintryingtounderstandthemultiplepathwaysthatstudentstaketoreachdifferentwaypointsofknowledgeaboutasubject(Huynhetal.,2015).Anunderstandingoflearningprogressionsmayhelpunderstandhowlearners’geospatialthinkingevolvesovertime.Thedevelopmentofalearningprogressionforgeospatialthinkingwouldincludeanorderingofgeospatialconceptsthatbuildstowardmoresophisticatedgeospatialunderstandingsandreasoningskills,whileprovidinglearningstrategiesandlearningexperiencestosupportstudentdevelopmentalongtheprogression.Assessmentmeasurestodefinestudents’progressonthelearningprogressionwillalsoneedtobeincluded.


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LearningTrajectories(LT)aredefinedasempiricallysupportedhypothesesaboutthelevelsorwaypointsofthinking,knowledge,andskillinusingknowledge,thatstudentsarelikelytogothroughastheylearnandreachorexceedthecommongoalssetfortheirlearning(Solemetal.,2014).TheLPsandLTsshiftthefocusfromtheendpointtounderstandinghowideasbuildupononeanotherasstudentsdevelopdesiredknowledge,skills,andpracticesinadiscipline.Itdoesnotimplythatthereisasinglepaththroughtheprogression,multiplepathsarelikely.ALearningProgressionisaroadmaptocharthowdifferentstudentsproceedtothenextormoresophisticatedlevelofunderstanding(Larsenetal.,2018).LearningProgressionshaveanupperandloweranchorandlevelsofunderstanding(Figure22).Theloweranchorrepresentstheemergingknowledgestudentshaveasnovicelearnersofaconstructorpracticeandtheupperanchorisadepictionofwhatlearnersshouldknowandbeabletodoafterlearninghasoccurred.

Figure22:Learningprogressioncomponents(afterLarsenetal.,2018)

Huynhetal.(2015)suggestaLearningProgressiontypicallycomesinthreestages.Thefirststageinvolvesthecreationofahypotheticalprogressionbasedoncoreideasandskillsets.Inthesecondstage,thelowerandupperanchorsarerefinedbyresearchersbasedontheirexperiencewithstudentsanddevelopresourcesandpotentialassessmentmaterialsrelatedtoaparticularconcept.Finally,inthethirdstage,experimentsareconductedtotracestudentlearningovertime.Studentunderstandingisassessedthroughasetofprogressvariables(Gunckeletal.2012).Throughoutadetailedanditerativeprocess,researchersworktoeditandrevisetheLearningProgressionbasedontheirinteractionswithstudents(Stevensetal.2015).TheGeoProgressionsproject(Solem,,HuynhandBoehm,2015)wasaninitiallookatthepotentialvalueofapplyinglearningprogressionstomaps,geospatialtechnology,andspatialthinking,suggeststhatthislineofscholarlyresearchhassignificantpotentialtotransformaspectsofgeographyeducation(Huynhetal.,2015).DeMiguelGonzálezandDeLázaroTorres(2020)presenttheDigitalAtlasforSchools(ADE)anddiscussdifferentlearningmethods,progressionmodelsandtools(Table6).EmpiricalresearchonlearningresultsandbenefitsfromlearningwithADEaredescribed.TheyshowhowADEisapowerfultooltohelplearngeographyasitfostersmoremeaningfullearningthanconventionalinstructionalresources.Ithelpsinthegoaltobalancespatialthinking,geographicalknowledgeandspatialcitizenship.SchoolandhighereducationparticipantsexperiencedeffectivelearningimplementingtheDigitalAtlas,althoughthiswasmoremarkedinthesecondaryschoolgeographystudents.


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Table6:LearningprogressionforspatialthinkingwiththeDigitalAtlasLevel0 NoevidenceofunderstandingLevel1 Studentscanunderstandprimitivegeospatialconceptssuchasidentity,locationLevel2 StudentscanidentifyspatialdistributionasasimpleconceptLevel3 Studentscanestablishgeospatialrelationsandidentifyclustersinthemap,adifficult

conceptLevel4 StudentscanidentifycorridorsandbuffersinthemapascomplicatedgeospatialconceptsLevel5 Studentsacquireextendedabstractthinking,astheycangeneralisecomplexspatial

structuressuchashierarchyorcentralplaceZwartjes(2018)presentstheGILearnerprojectandtheconceptoflearninglines.Alearninglineisaneducationaltermfortheconstructionofknowledgeandskillsthroughoutthewholecurriculum,reflectingagrowinglevelofcomplexity,rangingfromeasy(morebasicskillsandknowledge)todifficult(Lindner-Fally&Zwartjes,2012).GI-Learneraimedtohelpteachers,andinthelonger-termgovernments,implementlearninglinesforgeospatialthinkinginsecondaryschools.Inordertodothis,theprojectdefinedasetof10geospatialthinkingcompetencies,createdlearninglinesandtranslatedthemintolearningobjectivesandteachingandlearningmaterialsforthewholecurriculum(K7toK12).Eachblockoflearningbuildsontheprevious(Figure23).

Figure23:Alearninglineshowinglearningprogression

A‘learningline’asanoverallframeworkforeducationandtraining,withadistinctsequenceofstepsfrombeginnerstoexperts,itisanalytical;i.e.itdistinguishesindetailtheskills,knowledgeandattitudesonseverallevelsthatmaybeexpected.Itiscompetence-based,asitdistinguishesasetofcompetencesthattogetherbuildtheoverallcompetenceinthefield(Zwartjes,2019).DeMiguel(2016)givesanoverviewonlearninglinesandtheintegrationwiththegeographicalinquiryprocess(Table7).Table7.Learninglinesandgeographicalinquiryprocess Zwartjes Roberts Kerski Arayo,SoutoandHerreraLevel1 Perceiving Creatinganeedto

knowAskingGeographicalquestions

Perceivinggeographicalenvironment


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Level2 Analysing Makingsenseofgeographicalinformation

Acquiringgeographicalresources

Analysinggeographicalenvironment

Level3 Structuring Reflectingonlearning

Exploringgeographicaldata

Interpretinggeographicalenvironment

Level4 Applying Analysinggeographicalinformation

Actingongeographicalenvironment

Level5 Actingongeographicalknowledge

6.6 CognitiveLoadTheory

Cognitiveloadtheoryhasdevelopedintoaninfluentiallearningtheorybasedonourknowledgeofhumancognitionsupportedbyarobustevidencebase(Sweller,2011).Thetheoryassumesthatknowledgecanbedividedintobiologicallyprimaryknowledgethataregenericandwehaveevolvedtoacquireandsecondaryknowledgethatisusuallydomainspecific,importantforculturalreasonsandthatrequiresexplicitinstructionineducationcontexts.Secondaryknowledge,unlikeprimaryknowledge,isthesubjectofteachingandlearning.Intermsofsecondaryknowledge,humancognitionrequiresaverylargeinformationstore,thecontentsofwhichareacquiredlargelybyobtaininginformationfromotherinformationstores.Onlyverylimitedamountsofnewinformationcanbeprocessedatanygiventime.Incontrast,verylargeamountsoforganizedinformationstoredintheinformationstorecanbeprocessedinordertogeneratecomplexaction.Amajorfunctionofcognitiveloadeffectsistoprovidespecificinstructionaldesignguidelines(Sweller,2020).Intrinsiccognitiveloadisdeterminedbytheintrinsicpropertiesoftheinformationbeingprocessed.Extraneouscognitiveloadisdeterminedbyinstructionalprocedures,thosethatuseteachermaterials.Theextrinsicapproachisunderstoodasgoodinstructionalmaterial.Thevastmajorityofthecognitiveloadeffectsareduetochangesinextraneouscognitiveload.Sweller(1988)suggestedthecognitiveloadimposedonapersonusingacomplexproblem-solvingstrategymaybeanimportantfactorinterferingwiththeirlearning.Cognitiveloadtheoryprovidesteachingrecommendationsbasedonourknowledgeofhumancognition(Sweller,2020).Secondaryknowledgeisfirstlyprocessedbyalimitedcapacity,limiteddurationworkingmemorybeforebeingpermanentlystoredinlong-termmemoryfromwhereunlimitedamountsofinformationcanbetransferredbacktoworkingmemorytogovernappropriateaction.Thetheoryusesthiscognitivearchitecturetodesignteachingandlearningproceduresrelevanttocomplexinformationthatrequiresareductioninworkingmemoryload.Manyoftheseprocedurescanbemostreadilyusedwiththeassistanceofeducationaltechnology.HowarthandSinton(2011)gatherstrategiestoreducethedifficultyofproblem-basedlearningbasedonresearchincognitiveloadtheory.Amajorfocusconcernscognitivestructures(problemschemata)thatallowstudentstorecognizethecategoriesofproblemstates,basedontheirpossiblesolutionsorallowablemoves(Sweller,1988).Theacquisitionofproblemschematamaybeaffectedbytheintrinsiccomplexityoftheproblem,theextraneousloadfromthedesignofthelearningmaterialandthegermaneload,resultingfromactivitiesthatfacilitatetheacquisitionofschemataintolong-termmemory(Sweller,2010).Problem-basedlearningshouldbedesignedtomanagethesesourcesofcognitiveloadinordertofacilitatethelearningofproblemschemata.Didau(2019)describesschematheory,wheretheabilityto


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reclaimitemsinmemoryisdependentoncuesandpromptsthathelpustoretrievesomeconnectedinformation.SolvingproblemswithGISisacomplexundertakingasstudentsmustlearnandapplygeneralspatialconcepts(e.g.location,distance,hierarchy),conceptsofspatialrepresentationandanalysiswithGIS(e.g.raster,vector,buffer),andspatialrepresentationandanalysisthatarespecifictoparticularGISplatformHowarthandSinton,2011).Studentsmustalsodealwiththesubjectcontentandconceptsthatarespecifictotheproblem.Itissuggestedthatteachersmayreducetheproblem-solvingcomplexitywithGISbycarefullyprovidingalearningsequence(ShibliandWest,2018).Coe(2020)describesretrievalpractice,whichcanbedoneusingavarietyofactivities.Ithasbeenfoundtobeoneofthemostusefultechniquestoimprovestudentlearninginvariouscontexts,justifyingitswidespreadusebyteachers(Dunloskyetal.,2013).Researchhasshownthatrereadingandcreatingconceptmapsisnotaseffectiveasthetestingeffectofquizzes,despitemanystudentsusingtheseapproaches(SumerackiandWeinstein,2018).Repeatedretrievalusingactivitiesofincreasingdifficultyhasbeenfoundtobeverybeneficialforlearning,althoughitisimportantthatteachersmonitorandadjuststrategiesaccordingly(Kapleretal,2015).Thereislittledifferencebetweenusingshortanswer(whichareharder)andmultiplechoicequestions(whichareeasiertomark),orahybridformat,nordoesthetimingofthequestionswithinthelessonmakeadifferencelongterm(Littleetal,2012)–butwhatiskeyforlearning,istheimportanceofprovidingsufficientopportunitiesforretrievalwhetheritbeinterspersedquizzesthroughoutthelessonorafterwards.Inreality,theteacherhastohavetheskillstoaskgoodquestions.Teachersthereforeneedguidancetohelpthemdeveloptheircapabilitiestoestablishwhatworks.CognitiveLoadTheorysuggeststhatthemoreintermediatestepsaproblemhas,thegreaterthestrainonworkingmemorytokeepallofthevariablesorganizedandthegreaterthechallengetoanticipatehowtheywillinteractwithoneanotherassolutionsareenvisioned.Methodsforsequencingmaterialcanbebasedonthetypesoftaskandstrategiesforchunkingproblemscanbebasedonthelengthandstructureofsolutions(DoeringandVeletsianos,2007).Thelevelofguidanceprovidedbytheteacherduringproblemsolvingisafurtherissueasresearchhasshownthatteachingthroughworkedexamples,wherestudentsarepresentedwithaproblemandworkthroughitssolutionpriortohavingstudentssolveproblemsindependently,canfacilitatemoreeffectivelearning(Sweller,1988).Sweller(2020)seekstoprovideguidanceconcerningwhicheducationaltechnologiesarelikelytobeeffectiveandhowtheyshouldbeusedtoidentifythoseaspectsofhumancognitionandevolutionarypsychologythatarerelevanttoinstructionaldesign.Themajorfunctionofthecognitiveloadeffectsistoprovidespecificteachingguidelinesthataredirectlyrelevanttotechnology-basededucation.SwellerandSweller(2006)proposefiveprinciplesinwhichhumanscanacquirenovel,secondaryinformation:• Randomnessasgenesis,randomlyselectingapossiblesolutionandtestingitforeffectivenesscloser

tothegoal• Borrowingandreorganisingprinciple,dealingwithsecondaryinformationfromothersforwhichwe

donothavepreviouslyacquiredknowledge,combiningitwithpreviouslystoredinformationbeforethenewinformationisitselfstored.

• Thenarrowlimitsofchangeprinciple,describesthemannerinwhichthatinformationisinitiallyprocessedbyworkingmemory.

• Theinformationstoreprinciple,onceprocessedbyworkingmemory,domain-specific,secondaryinformationcanbestoredinlong-termmemoryforlateruse.


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• Theenvironmentalorganisingandlinkingprinciple,onreceivingappropriatesignals,informationpreviouslystoredinlong-termmemorycanbetransferredtoworkingmemorytogenerateaction.

Sweller(2020)summarisestheinstructionaleffectsgeneratedbyCognitiveLoadTheory(Table8)andconfirmthatCognitiveLoadTheoryisdirectlyapplicabletotechnology-assistedlearningandthatmanyoftheinstructionalproceduresgeneratedbythetheoryaredifficulttousewithouttheassistanceofeducationaltechnology.Table8:AsummaryofsomeinstructionaleffectsgeneratedbyCognitiveLoadTheory

Abetterunderstandingofthedesignofmultimedialearningmaterialsisoneoftheongoingresearchareas(Mayer,2008).Theeffectivenessofvisualmethodsforteachingspatialconceptswillsupportlessexperiencedlearners.Butmayimpedelearningformoreadvancedstudents(Kalyuga,2020).ChandlerandSweller(1991)discussthesplitattentioneffect,whichcanbecausedifadiagramandthetextarenotphysicallyseparatedandsorequiresthelearnertointegratethem,increasingthecognitiveloadandconsequentlyreducingthecapacityoftheworkingmemory.So,accordingtoChandlerandSweller(1991;293),“CognitiveLoadTheorysuggeststhateffectivelearningmaterialsfacilitatelearningbydirectingcognitiveresourcestowardsactivitiesthatarerelevanttolearning”,practicallyimplementedforinstancebydesigningvisualslikePowerpointtoavoidoverloadTharby(2019).Castro-Alonsoetal.(2019)examineCognitiveLoadTheoryinrelationtovisualisations,bothinstatic(e.g.,illustrationsandphotographs)andindynamicformats(e.g.animationsandvideos).Theyfoundthatthoughstudentsenjoythesematerials,theiremotionsandopinionsarenotalwaysrelatedtolearningtakingplace.Effectivelearningundertheseconditionsisworkingmemoryprocessing.Theyshowedthatinstructionalvisualizationscanoptimizecognitiveprocessing,andthusbeeffectivetoolsforlearningabouthealthandnaturalsciences.Theydescribedcognitivemethodsforincreasingtheeffectivenessofthesevisualisations;andportrayhowvisuospatialprocessingimpactsonsciencelearningthroughvisualizations(Table9).Table9:Methodstooptimizevisualizationsandexamplesforvisuospatialinformation(afterCastro-Alonsoetal.,2019)Cognitiveloadtheory

Cognitivetheoryofmultimedialearning

Exampleofsolution


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Splitattentioneffect Spatialcontiguityprinciple Physicallyintegratethevisuospatialinformation

Modalityeffect Modalityprinciple PresentsomeinformationauditorilyRedundancyeffect Coherenceprinciple Deleteunimportantvisuospatial

information Signallingprinciple,using

visualcuestothemainfocusSignalimportantvisuospatialinformation

Transientinformationeffect

Avoidfast-pacedvisuospatialinformation

CESE(2018)identifyandillustrateseventeachingstrategiesthatcanhelpteacherstomaximisestudentlearning(Figure24).Thesestrategiesworkbyoptimisingtheloadonstudents’workingmemories.

Figure24:Teachingstrategiesfromcognitiveloadtheory(CESE,2018)

RelatedtoCognitiveLoadTheory,Enser(2019)explainssomeimplicationsforteachers,theyneedtomanagetheintrinsicdifficultyoflearningandtasksand‘extraneous’load,byprovidingsteps,withscaffolding,overtime,teachersshouldgraduallyremovethescaffoldingtoenablestudentstomovetowardsindependence.Workedexamplesshouldbeusedwhicheliminatenon-essentialinformationanddualcodingshouldbeusedpresentingoralandvisualinformationtogetherandregularlyreviewthelearningtakingplace.


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Brookman-ByrneandThomas(2018)discusstheimportantlinksforlearningbetweenneuroscienceandeducation.Theysuggestitsrelevancetobetterunderstandtheprocessesthatunderliethemechanismsoflearning.Waysofunderstandingthebrainhaveincludedmeasuringoxygenatedbloodflowtolinkfunctionstoenergyused,brainactivityandeyetrackingandtheconceptofleftandrightbrainlearners.AccordingtoSherrington(2019),basedonthesimplemodelofhowthebrainworks,astheworkingmemoryissolimited,learningneedstodevelopschemainthelong-termmemoryabletoconnectnewinformationtoexistingknowledge(Figure25).Thiscanthenbereinforcedbypracticeinrecallingnewlylearnmaterialwhichhelpstoreducecognitiveoverload,andthemorefluentthisretrievalofstoredinformationbecomesthegreatercapacitytheworkingmemorywillhavefornewlearning,whichdescribesthedifferencebetweennoviceandexpertlearners.Sequencingconceptsandmodellingrequiresadvancedplanningasideasshouldbepresentedinsmallsteps,oneatatimeandsupportedwithclearanddetailedexplanations.Teachersshouldmodelthesestepsbythinking’outloud’andreteachingbits,ifneeded.

Figure25:Modellingthebrain(Sherrington,2019)

Practiceliesattheheartoflearning,andneedstobeguidedusingavarietyoflearningactivitieswhich‘rephrase,elaborateandsummarisenewmaterial’makingsurethatthereisahighsuccessrate,whichisimportantforthelessknowledgeablestudents,tohelpthemformschemaearlyon,andbuildconfidence.Sherrington(ibid)suggeststhatplanningofresourcesshouldtakeplacesoallstudentscanachievesuccessintheirlearning.Theultimategoalofteachingshouldbeindependence,withatransitionfromguidedscaffoldedpractice.Thestudentscanstarttosettheirowngoalsforimprovementbasedonfeedbackassupportisreduced.Sherringtonsuggestsinvolvingthestudentsinwell-structuredcollaborativelearningtasks,whichRosenshine(1986)calledcooperativelearning,sotheycanpracticebyexplainingandquestioningoneanother.AccordingtoHoward-Jonesetal.(2018),the‘Scienceoflearning’providesausefulframeworkforclassroompractice,andisagoodstartingpointforbreakingdownlearningintodifferentcomponentprocessesforanalysis(Figure26).Teachersfocusonspecificaspectsofthelearningsuchaslearnerengagement,whichinvolvessubcorticalprocessesinfluencingcorticalbrainactivityandreadinesstolearnthroughpraiseandreward;buildingknowledgeandunderstandingbyactivatingworkingmemory,


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whereeffectiveteachersconciselycommunicatetwo-waymeaningfulconnectionsbetweennewandpriorknowledge;consolidationoflearningbycreatingrecalleffortsmovingknowledgetolongtermmemory.Theysuggestthatastheengage–build–consolidateprocessesoccursimultaneously,theycanbeusedasasimplemeansofunderstandinglearningbetterratherthanaprescriptivemodelforclassroompractice.Theseprinciplesareonlystartingtobeappliedtoteaching,sothereisstillaneedforteacherstobasetheirdecisionsontheirownideasabouthowthelearningtheyobservetakesplaceintheirownclassroomsandnotsimplyonthesescientificterms.Thereareconsiderablegapsthatexistwiththistheoreticalbase.

Figure26:Learningprocesscategories(Howard-Jonesetal.,2018)


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7 TrainingteachersforGISCrespo(2019)raisedtheneedtotraincompetentteacherscapableofcreatingdigitalcontentanduselearningenvironments.Hesaidtheknowledgeofthenumerousdigitalcartographicresourcesofferedonlineandrecognisingtheirdidacticpotentialwouldbeanecessaryfirststepforsuchtraining.Hestatedthatonlinemappingtoolsnotonlyrepresentasignificantadvanceinthepossibilitiesofanalysinglandscape,buttheirusealsocontributespositivelytodevelopingskillsthatcanhelpstudentsdemandedtodayandinthefuture.Theuseandapplicationoftechnologythereforeshouldbeintegratedintocurricularcontent.Höhnleetal.(2016)presentedresearchaboutoptimisingtheuseofgeoinformationingeographyclassroomsinGermanythroughtheimprovementofteachertraining.TheyaddressthefeaturesofeffectivetrainingactivitiesandpresenttheresultoftheirresearchprojectaimingatimprovingimplementationofGISinGermanschools.TheyprovidedalistoffeaturesofeffectiveprofessionaldevelopmentactivitieswerecompiledforteachertrainingandGIS(Table10).Table10.EmpiricallydeducedrecommendationsfortheconceptionofGItrainingactivitiesincontinuingteachereducation(adaptedfromHöhnleetal.,2016)Teachereducationfeatures

Requirementsfortrainingactivities

Trainingactivitydesign

duration,timebudget structuredascontinuingcumulativeevents

supportoveralongerperiodoftime/regularrefreshercourses/reductionoflessonsforparticipatingteachers/ongoingsupport

professionallearningcommunities

Participationofteacherteams

cooperationbetweenteachers/integrationofdifferentsubjects/ongoingsupportoflearningcommunity/regularface-to-facemeetingsinonline-basedcommunities

institutionalframeworkconditions

formalsupportfortraining;activitiespromoted,provisionoftools,softwareanddata

trainingorganizationatschool/offergeneraltechnologytrainingforteachersasapreconditionforGIS

integrationofdifferentexpertise

abilitiesofteachertrainers inclusionofdifferentexpertsandexperiencedteachers

subject-matterknowledge,referencetocurriculum

focusonconcretereferencetotheclassroomandtoteachingpractice

two-stepmodel:firsttechnicalintroduction,thendidacticalintroduction/formulationofstandardsforeachagegroup/commonGIScurriculum/individualassistancefordevelopmentofcurricularplans/learnhowtocustomizelessonplans

closeconsiderationoffindingsofclassroomresearch

demonstrationofdidacticaladdedvalue

noncomputer-basedintroductiontoGISconcepts/discussionofopportunitiesforGISinlearningofstudents/orientationofprinciplesforinquiry-basedlearning

Makingco-creationpossible

workonastudentprojectwithlocalreferenceforteachers/timetoexchangeideasandexperiencesbetweenteachers/knowexperienceofparticipantsbeforestart/usestageswithinterimresults/programflexibilitytomeetteacherinterestsandneeds

phasesofinput,development,testing,andreflection

inclusionofpracticalexercises;promotecontact,exchange,andcooperationbetweenteachers;makea

makeconcreteteachingexamplesavailablefororientation/creationofvideoclipsofsuccessfulprojectsforpresentation/owndesignofteachingunits,trainingactivitiesaccordingto


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detailedhandoutavailablewithallthematerials

inquiry-basedlearningprinciples/exchangeofmaterials/integratefieldtripforacquiringandpreparingdata/hands-onactivities/workingwithownlaptop/divideprogramintovarioussessionssoteacherscancheckoutthingsintheirownclassroominbetween/integratehomeworkfortheteachers/detailedhandout,videotutorial,softwaretutorial...

experiencingownefficacy,feedback,coaching

intensepersonalsupportandadvice

discussquestions/discussownteachingunitsorexperiences/technicalandmoralsupport

Hong,andMelville(2018)introduceanapproachtodesigningeffectiveGISprofessionaldevelopmentbasedonsixfeatures:(1)collectiveparticipation,(2)practicetime,(3)timeforlessondevelopmentandpresentation,(4)stateandnationalstandards,(5)districtsupportanddirectinvolvement,and(6)professionalsupport.Theyconcludedthatpracticetime,timeforlessondevelopmentandpresentation,anddistrictsupportanddirectinvolvementappearedtobecrucialtomakingGISprofessionaldevelopmentsuccessful.Mitchelletal.(2018)highlightedtheimportanceofestablishingwell-structuredprofessionaldevelopmentthatbuildscommunity,integratesdiversecontentandpedagogicalexpertise,providesfeedbackandcoaching,andisofsufficientdurationtoeffectchange.Theyindicatedprofessionaldevelopmentwouldtakemoretimethanexpectedandrequirefollow-upandcoachingforgreatereffectiveness.Developinggeographicthinkingandworkingwithtraditionalgeographicconcepts(scale,pattern,region,diffusion,etc.)shouldbeequallyimportanttodevelopingtechnologicalproficiency.MillsapsandHarrington(2017)usedtheTPACKandSAMRmodeltocreateateachertrainingframework(Table11).Table11:TheSAMRmodelfortrainingteachers(MillsapsandHarrington,2017)

Hong(2017)reportsonacasestudyaboutdesigningGISlearningmaterialsforK-12teachers,basedonaUserCentredDesign(UCD)approach(Figure27),whichassumesthatknowledgeisconstructedbyactivelearners(Sharpetal,2007).AUCDapproachisaframeworktodesignanddevelopauser-friendlyproduct,systemorinterfacebasedonconsiderationsofuserneeds,objectivesandtheirspecificcircumstances(Baeketal.,2008).


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Figure27:TheUserCentredDesign(UCD)model(adaptedfromSharpetal.,2007)

Donertetal.(2016)introducetheGILearnerapproachthatmodelshowsecondaryschoolscouldadoptaGISciencelearninglinefromagegroupsK7toK12takingintoaccounttheageandcapabilitiesofstudents.Thiscanbeachievedbytheintegrationofspatialthinkingandthetranslationofspatialcompetencesintoreallearningobjectives.ThearticlepresentsGI-Learnercompetencesbasedonabroadliteraturereviewandestablishesaroadmapforsupportactivitiesforgeospatiallearninginschools.Walshe(2017)exploredtheresponsesoftraineegeographyteacherstoaGIStrainingprogramme(Table12)acrosstheirpostgraduateeducationyear.Table12:TrainingprogrammeforGeographytraineeteachers(Walshe,2017) Activity Overview GISfocusSeptember Introduction

toGISPracticalintroductionusingopensourcedatatoexplorerecentChileanearthquake,analysingaglobalevent

Setupaccounts,basicskillsincludingmeasuringdistance,addingmapnotes,importingexternaldata(fromUSGS)intoGIS,creatingcrosssectionsusingelevationprofileapp,createsimpleStoryMaps

November GISfieldtrip TwodaysexploringtheuseofArcGISOnlineinfield-basedgeographicalenquiry,traineesconsiderhowGIScandevelopcriticalspatialthinkingduringfullenquirysequence.

IntroductiontoCollectorappforArcGIS,addingfieldworkdata,usingarangeofmappingoptions,suchasheatmapstodisplaydata,planningroutesusingproximitytools

December GIStraining Advanceddataanalysisworkshopwithspecificreferencedtodrainagebasinriverflooding

Usearangeoffindlocationtools,includingcreatingwatershedsandtracingriversdownstream,usearangeofexternaldataincludingfloodriskdatato


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analysis.DevelopmentofTPCKthroughdesigningenquiry-basedlessonplans.

examinerisks,useScenetoview3Dtopography

December Trainingforschoolmentors

IntroductiontoGIS Settingupaccounts,basicskills,measuringareadistanceandaddingmapnotes,importingexternaldataintoGISascsvfiles

January StoryMapactivity

TraineesproduceaStoryMaponthegeographyoftheirschool’ccatchmenttoincludearangeofsocio-economicdatasuchasIndexofMultipleDeprivation

MorecomplexStoryMaps,sourcingsocio-economicdataandimportingintoGIS,creatingchoroplethmapsfromdifferentindicators

March GIStrainingday

Practicaltrainingandsupportsessionbyapractisingteacher

Accessingcrimedata,importingintoGIS,spatialanalysistoolsincludingtheinterpolationtooltoproduceisolinemaps,hotspotanalysis,surfacedensitymapping,useproximitytoolsbufferandfindnearest.UsemobiledevicestosupportGIS:CollectorappandSnap2Map.

May ESRIconference

OptionalparticipationtodevelopexpertiseinusingGISandobservingindustry-basedapplications.

Observeindustry-basedapplicationsofGIS,supportingexistingteachers,IntroductiontoArcGISOnlineSways

June Geographystudentstrainbiologists

PlanandrunatrainingsessionoGISforbiologists.

AccessStoryMapgallery,Importingexternaldataandaddinginternalmaplayerse.g.relatingtoecosystems,floraandfaunapopulations,patternsofdisease

June Disseminationevent

Shareexamplesoftheirpracticetoeachother.

Shareideasandresources

June GIStrainingformentors

Trainingformentorswithpresentationbyatraineeteacher

Basicskills,includingmeasuringdistanceandaddingmapnotes,importingexternaldataintoGISascsv,creatingcross-sectionsusingtheElevationProfileapp,creatingsimpleStoryMapsusingtemplates,workingwithIMDdataandproducingchoroplethmaps,usingCollectorapptosupportfieldwork

ThemostsuccessfultraineeteachershadpreviousexperiencewithGISmakingthenmoreself-confident.AlltraineesquicklylearnedthepotentialGIShasforsupportingenquiry-basedlearningusinggeospatialdata.Itwasveryimportantforthemtodealwithpractical,relevantexamplesofhowGIScanbeusedtosupportlearningintheclassroom.BeingawareoftherelevanceandusefulnessofGISandweb-basedGISweremoreimportantthatknowingaboutthedifferentapplicationsofGISinschools.Nevertheless,theappearstobestronglyonlearningGISskills,learningaboutGIS,ratherthanthegeographyorlearningwithGIS,oreffectivepedagogyforbothe.g.whatpedagogicalmodelismosteffectiveforteachingwithoraboutGIS;howcanteachingwithoraboutGIShelptoimproveateacher’spedagogy?


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Kuijpers(2019)examinedtheextenttowhichitispossibletosupportteachersfromsecondaryeducationwiththeintroductionofGISintheirclasses,forinstancebyusinguniversityteacherstohelpthemintegratecontent,pedagogicalandtechnologicalknowledge.Afteratestwithaclass,studentswerepositiveaboutthelesson,theteacherwasinspired,andtheGISspecialistthoughtitwasaneducationalexperiencetobeabletotransferhisknowledgetotheteacherandstudents.TateandJarvis(2017)wereconcernedwithCommunitiesofPractice(CoP)andtheimportanceofinformalsocialparticipationforlearning.TheyexploredhowCoPsandinparticularvirtualCoPsmightassistwithlearningtouseGISassomeofthesecommunitiesarelinkedwithMOOCsandparticularqualificationprogrammes.


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8 ConclusionsTeachersarethe"gatekeepers"ofeducationalchangeandeducationalinnovation.ItisthereforeimportanttodevotetimeandcaretotheirtraininginpedagogicaldevelopmentssuchasthoseassociatedwithlearningwithGIS.Muchoftheresearchgaveinformationaboutteacherpracticesusinggeotechnologies,butmostteachershadnotbenefitedfromadequatetrainingandsupportandtheyhadnotmasteredmostoftheconceptsembeddedinGISmaterial.Stringeretal.(2019)gavefourkeyrecommendationsforusingtechnology:1. Considerhowtechnologyisgoingtoimproveteachingandlearningbeforeintroducingit.2. Developaclearrationaleforimprovingthelearning.3. Considerwaystoimprovetheimpactofpupilpractice.4. Addressimprovingassessmentandfeedback.Fromthisreviewitisthepedagogyassociatedwithapplyingthetechnologythatmattersmost,aslearningisaffectedbyhowthetechnologyhasbeenusedintheclassroom(Quinn,2019).WritingabouttheGILearnerProject,Donertetal.(2016)confirmedthat“„…thereisstillaneedformuchmoretraining,additionallearningandteachingmaterials,moreexamplesofgoodpractice,andacomprehensiveandwell-structuredcompilationofdigital-earthtools.”8.1RecommendationsforGIPedagogyStringeretal.(2019)illustratedissuesfromacademicliteratureconcerningtheimpactofGIStechnologyandofferevidenceaboutimplementationandeffectiveteachingpractice.Theysuggestpoorimplementationisthemainreasonwhytechnologyhasnotrealiseditspotentialtoimprovelearning.Thechallengeistosynthesisefromtheliteraturehowthiscanbeachieved.Thefollowingareclearlyidentifiedrecommendationsfromtheliteratureproducedforconsideration:Planning• PlantrainingbasedonrealneedsandlinkGISusetocurriculumplanning(Stringeretal.,2019).• ModelawaytonaturallyincorporateGIStoolsintoteaching(Curtis,2019).• Involveteachersintheprocessofdevelopinginstructionalmaterials,usingauser-centreddesign

(UCD)method(Hong,2014).• Plantointegratetechnologyfullyusingitwithotherresources,ratherthanuseitaone-offlearning

activity(Luckinetal..,2012).• ConcerningRosenshine’sprinciples,subjectsshoulddrawonavarietyoflessontypesandactivities

whichmaywellleadtosubjectspecificmodelsfordevelopingknowledge,givingpracticeandcheckingunderstanding,andthattogetbetteratanyofthem,thisneedstofocusononeatatime(Sherrington,2019).

• Createinclusiveeducationalpractice,organiselearningintolevelsbasedonthelearner’sknowledgebackgroundandlearnhowtoappropriatelyconstructteachingmaterials(RicklesandEllul,2017).

• “programmesneedabalancebetweentrainingwhichprovidesclearexamplesofhowGIScanbeusedintheclassroomontheonehand,andinstructionthatrequirestraineestolearnatahigher,moreabstractlevelinordertosupportlearningforunderstandingandtransfer(Bednarz,2004)ontheother”(Walshe,2017;620)

• Developteachertrainingforteacherswithsimilarlevelsofexpertiseandknowledgesetstoenhancetheirabilitytoconnectgeospatialtechnologieswiththeircurricula(Curtis,2019).


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Approach• Usemanytypesofactivelearningapproach,fromsituationswherestudentsworkedwithalocal

organisation(Benhart,2000),problem-basedlearningwherestudentssolvedaproblem(King,2008),fieldbasedtechniqueswherestudentswereinvolvedinafieldbasedenquiry(Carlson,2007)andweb-basedinteractivelearningmodules(Clarketal.,2007).

• Learningdesignshouldconsiderthresholdconcepts,beproblembased,offerflexiblelearningpathwaysinanauthenticlearningcontextwithactivelearningapproachesandencouragemultidisciplinarity(SrivastavaandTait,2010).

• MakeGISuseineducationenquiry-driven,problemsolvingandstandards-basedwithasetoftasksthatincorporatesfieldwork(Bakeretal.,2012).

• IntegratetechnicalaspectsofGISwithcasestudies(Bearmanetal.,2016).Pedagogy• Developcriticalspatialthinkingfromapedagogicalpointofview(Bearmanetal.,2016).• DevelopaflexiblepedagogicalframeworkthatteachesnotonlyaboutGISbutassociatedconcepts

(RicklesandEllul,2017).• UseGIStohelpdevelopcriticalspatialthinking,byusingauthenticdataandconnectstudentstotheir

owncommunity(Bakeretal.,2012).• UseelementsrelatedtospatialcitizenshipandtheSpatialcitizenshipWebsite

http://www.spatialcitizenship.org/(Gryletal.,2010)PracticalrecommendationsA)Basedonstudentlearning• IncludeCognitiveLoadTheoryprinciplesasafoundationfortrainingteachers(Rosenshine,.• Adaptpracticebyincreasingthechallengeofquestionsandprovidingnewcontextsforpupilsto

applytheirskills(Stringeretal.,2019).• Givesupportforretrievalpracticeandself-quizzingtoincreaseretentionofideasandknowledge

(Stringeretal.,2019).• Providemeaningfullearningthroughidentificationofgeographicalproblems,geographicalskillsand

geographicalknowledge(DeMiguel,Koutsopoulos,andDonert2019).• Adaptpedagogicalpracticesothatittakesaccountofthefindingsofcognitivescienceandespecially

theinteractionofworkingmemoryandlong-termmemory,buildingofschema;notionofnoviceandexpert(Rosenshine,2012;Sherrington,2018)

• Onewaytodothisistofollow• Rosenshine’sPrinciplesofInstruction.• Lookattheimpactofthepedagogyandapproach,aswellasthesubjectbeingtaughtandthespecifics

oftheschoolcontext(Stringeretal.,2019),includingnarrativeandthepowerofstories.• Motivatestudentlearningthroughemployabilityskillslikeanalysisofspatialinformation,

georeferencing,visualisationormobileapplications(MYGEO).B)Basedontools• Usewebmapsandtheiranalysis,Web-basedGISandcreatewebmapapplications(KerskiandBaker,

2019).• Usegeotechnologiestoimprovethecapacitytohandlegeographicinformationasapartoftheir

digitalculture(Sanchez,2009).• Usevisualscorrectlyforcommunicatingcomplexideasinanefficientway,leavingmorecognitive

resourcesfreetoengageinhigherorderthinking(Caglioli,2018).• CompileArcGISmaterialssuitablefornationalconditionsandstudentcharacteristicsandprovide

supportingmaterialsforteachers,andsetuprelevantwebsites(Wu,2018).


55

• Collectdatausingcollaborativemappingtoolsbasedoncitizencontributions,toallowmappingrealtimedata(KerskiandBaker,2019).

Networking• Developa“CommunityofPractice”tosupportteacherslearning(TateandJarvis,2017),involving

teachersmentoringteachers.• Developaschoolnetworkofgeospatialclassroomswiththemissionformakinggeospatialeducation

accessibletoall,similartoGeoForAll(Donertetal.,2016).• EstablishaGeoMentoringprogrammeforteacherswithteachersandtrainers(Healeyetal.,2018)


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