an exploration of motivation and attitude of teachers towards ...

AN EXPLORATION OF MOTIVATION AND

ATTITUDE OF TEACHERS TOWARDS ENGLISH

AS MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION IN RURAL

PAKISTAN

By

Zawar Hussain Shah Hashmi

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MODERN LANGUAGES

ISLAMABAD

February, 2015

AN EXPLORATION OF MOTIVATION AND

ATTITUDE OF TEACHERS TOWARDS ENGLISH AS

MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION IN RURAL PAKISTAN

By

Zawar Hussain Shah Hashmi

M.A. English, NUML, 2006

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

In English/Linguistics

To

FACULTY OF HIGHER STUDIES

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MODERN LANGUAGES, ISLAMABAD

February, 2015

© Zawar Hussain Hashmi, 2015

ii

Degree Name in Full

Name of Discipline

Signature of Research Supervisor Name of Research Supervisor

Signature of Dean (FHS)

Name of Dean (FAISR)

Signature of Rector

Name of Rector

THESIS AND DEFENSE APPROVAL FORM

The undersigned certify that they have read the following thesis, examined the defense, are

satisfied with the overall exam performance, and recommend the thesis to the Faculty of Higher

Studies for acceptance:

Thesis Title:

AN EXPLORATION OF MOTIVATION AND ATTITUDE OF TEACHERS TOWARDS

ENGLISH AS MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION IN RURAL PAKISTAN

Submitted By: Zawar Hussain Shah Hashmi Registration #: 363-MPhil/Ling/2008(Aug)

Doctor of Philosophy

English Linguistics

Prof. Dr. Rubina Kamran ________________________ Prof. Dr. Shazra Munnawer _______________________ Maj. Gen. (Retd) Zia Uddin Najam, HI(M) ________________________

_______________________

Date

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MODERN LANGUAGES FACULTY OF HIGHER STUDIES

iii

CANDIDATE DECLARATION FORM

I Zawar Hussain Shah Hashmi

Son of Kamir Shah Hashmi

Registration # 363-MPhil/Ling/2008(Aug)

Discipline English Linguistics

Candidate of PhD English at the National University of Modern Languages do hereby

declare that the thesis AN EXPLORATION OF MOTIVATION AND ATTITUDE

OF TEACHERS TOWARDS ENGLISH AS MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION IN

RURAL PAKISTAN submitted by me in partial fulfillment of PhD degree, is my

original work, and has not been submitted or published earlier. I also solemnly declare

that it shall not, in future, be submitted by me for obtaining any other degree from this

or any other university or institution.

I also understand that if evidence of plagiarism is found in my thesis/dissertation at

any stage, even after the award of a degree, the work may be cancelled and the degree

revoked.

_____________________________

__________________ Signature of Candidate Date

__Zawar Hussain Shah Hashmi __ Name of Candidate

iv

ABSTRACT

Thesis Title: AN EXPLORATION OF MOTIVATION AND ATTITUDE OF

TEACHERS TOWARDS ENGLISH AS MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION IN

RURAL PAKISTAN

History of medium of instruction in Pakistan is marked by alternations mainly

between two languages i.e. Urdu and English, the former being its national while the

latter official language. Lately, the government of Punjab took an ostensibly decisive

step in this regard by imposing EMI (English as Medium of Instruction) for content

subjects in all public sector schools of Punjab. It led to a complex situation because

the teachers, expected to use EMI, are in no way different from EFL learners of any

level in their proficiency.

In view of this situation, the current study was designed to explore the motivation and

attitude of the teachers of rural areas towards EMI policy of the Punjab government.

A survey from six districts of Punjab (selected on the basis of Human Development

Index) was conducted using triangulation as a data collection technique. Following

convenience sampling 100 questionnaires were distributed among the teachers from

each of the selected districts making it thus a total of 600 questionnaires overall.

Interviews of 25 pricipals/incharges of the schools were conducted with at least three

from each of the six districts.

A hybridization of socio-educational model of R. C. Gardner and WTC (Willingness

to Communicate) model by MacIntyre was used for theoretical grounding and for the

purpose of instrumentation. Percentages and chi-square were used to find variation on

the basis of gender, age and qualification. Correlation and regression analyses were

used to discover the nature of relationship among the selected variables. Structural

Equation Modeling (SEM) was used to confirm the path from motivation to WTC as

hypothesized (but found not confirmed) by Yashima (2002).

The path from motivation towards WTC was confirmed through SEM. Qualification

was found to be the most important predictor of motivation. The teachers were

discovered not to be motivated by any means at present. However, a predominantly

optimistic view was found existent among the participants about the future of EMI.

Training was pointed out as one of the most important requirements by the teachers.

Therefore, it is strongly recommended that these teachers should be provided

intensive language training to develop adequate proficiency.

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

THESIS AND DEFENCE APPROVAL FORM ii

CANDIDATE DECLARATION FORM iii

ABSTRACT ……………………………………………………… iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS ………………………………………… v

LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………….. vi

LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………. vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT… …………………………………… viii

I INTRODUCTION -------------------------------------------------------- 1

1.1. Background and Context of the Study------------------------------ 1

1.1.1. Historical Perspective ---------------------------------------------- 2

1.1.2. English in Different Educational Policies ----------------------- 6

1.1.3. Status of English in Pakistan -------------------------------------- 12

1.1.4. Social Perception of English in Pakistan ------------------------- 14

1.1.5. Teaching of English in Pakistan ---------------------------------- 16

1.1.6. Medium of Instruction Controversy ------------------------------ 18

1.1.7. Feasibility Conditions for EMI Implementation ---------------- 20

1.1.8. The Case of Punjab ------------------------------------------------- 21

1.1.9. General Profile of the School Teachers --------------------------- 23

1.1.10. Studying Motivation and Attitudes of the Teachers ----------- 25

1.2. Conceptual Background of the Study ------------------------------- 27

1.3. Statement of the Problem --------------------------------------------- 35

1.4. Rationale of the Study ------------------------------------------------ 36

1.5. Objectives of the Study ----------------------------------------------- 37

1.6. Research Questions ----------------------------------------------------- 38

1.7. Significance of the Study ---------------------------------------------- 39

1.8. Delimitation of the Study ---------------------------------------------- 41

1.9. Methodology ------------------------------------------------------------ 42

2 LITERATURE REVIEW ------------------------------------------------- 43

2.1. Socio-cultural Basis of Motivation ----------------------------------- 44

2.2. Social-psychological Background of Affective Variables --------- 47

2.3. Attitudes ----------------------------------------------------------------- 49

2.3.1. Structure and Formation of Attitudes ------------------------------ 53

2.3.2. Characteristics and Classification of Attitudes ------------------- 55

2.3.3. Attitude Change -------------------------------------------------------- 57

2.3.4. Relationship between Attitude and Behaviour -------------------- 58

2.4. Language Attitude ------------------------------------------------------- 60

2.4.1. Importance of Studying Language Attitudes ----------------------- 61

2.5. Attitudes towards English as Global Language ---------------------- 63

2.6. Relationship between Attitude and Motivation ---------------------- 65

2.7. Motivation ----------------------------------------------------------------- 70

2.7.1. Motivation as a Social Psychological Construct ------------------ 74

2.8. Language Motivation ---------------------------------------------------- 75

vi

2.8.1. Motivation of EMI Teachers ----------------------------------------- 78

2.9. Language Learning Anxiety -------------------------------------------- 80

2.10. Language Teaching Anxiety ------------------------------------------ 82

2.11. Anxiety among Teachers Using EMI ------------------------------- 85

2.12. Linguistic Self-Confidence -------------------------------------------- 86

2.13. Important Theories of Language Motivation ----------------------- 88

2.13.1. The Canadian Socio-educational Camp --------------------------- 89

2.13.2. Self-Determination Theory ----------------------------------------- 94

2.13.3. Process Models of Second Language Learning Motivation --- 95

2.13.4. Willingness to Communicate (WTC) ----------------------------- 97

2.13.4.1. McCroskey’s Willingness to Communicate Model ----------- 98

2.13.4.2. Clement’s and MacIntyre’s Willingness to Communicate -- 99

2.14. Synthesizing Socio-educational and WTC Model ---------------- 101

2.15. Position of Current Study -------------------------------------------- 104

3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ------------------------------------------ 106

3.1. Introduction -------------------------------------------------------------- 106

3.2. Type of Research ------------------------------------------------------- 106

3.3. Design of the Study ---------------------------------------------------- 108

3.4. Theoretical Framework ------------------------------------------------ 109

3.4.1. Selected Theoretical Models ---------------------------------------- 109

3.5. Adaptation of the Framework for Present Study ------------------- 112

3.5.1. Adaptation from WTC Model --------------------------------------- 113

3.5.2. Adaptation from Socio-Educational Model ----------------------- 113

3.6. Types of Variables ------------------------------------------------------ 115

3.7. Sampling ----------------------------------------------------------------- 117

3.8. Instrumentation ---------------------------------------------------------- 119

3.8.1. Construction of the Questionnaire ---------------------------------- 120

3.8.1.1. Adaptation of AMTB (Attitude Motivation Test Battery) ---- 120

3.8.1.2. Adaptation of WTC Scale ------------------------------------------ 121

3.8.1.3. Integrating AMTB and WTC Scales ------------------------------ 121

3.8.2. Piloting of the Questionnaire ----------------------------------------- 121

3.8.3. Designing Interviews -------------------------------------------------- 123

3.9. Data Analysis Techniques ---------------------------------------------- 124

3.10. Summary ------------------------------------------------------------------ 124

4 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS --------------------------- 126

4.1. Introduction --------------------------------------------------------------- 126

4.2. Demographics ------------------------------------------------------------- 128

4.3. Analysis of Close-ended Part ------------------------------------------- 129

4.3.1. Single Item-Analysis -------------------------------------------------- 131

Interest in Foreign Languages--------------------------------------- 131

Desire to Learn English Language---------------------------------- 150

Instrumentality---------------------------------------------------------- 167

Linguistic Self-Confidence------------------------------------------- 178

English Language Learning Experience---------------------------- 185

vii

Attitude towards English as Medium of Instruction--------------- 198

Anxiety------------------------------------------------------------------ 211

Willingness to Communicate in English---------------------------- 226

4.3.2. Construct wise Analysis ----------------------------------------------- 259

Interest in Foreign Languages---------------------------------------- 260

Desire to Learn English Language----------------------------------- 262

Instrumentality---------------------------------------------------------- 264

Linguistic Self-Confidence-------------------------------------------- 266

English Language Learning Experience----------------------------- 269

Attitude towards English as Medium of Instruction--------------- 271

Anxiety------------------------------------------------------------------- 274

Willingness to Communicate in English----------------------------- 276

4.3.2.2. Construct wise Comparatives -------------------------------------- 278

4.3.3. Descriptive Statistics -------------------------------------------------- 280

4.3.4. Regression and Correlation Analysis -------------------------------- 281

4.3.4.1. Correlation Structure ------------------------------------------------ 282

4.3.4.2. Co-linearity Diagnostics -------------------------------------------- 283

4.3.4.3. Coefficients of Regression ----------------------------------------- 284

4.3.4.4. Diagnostics ---------------------------------------------------------- 285

4.3.4.5. Interpretation of Regression Coefficient ------------------------- 285

4.3.5. Structural Equation Modeling ---------------------------------------- 286

4.3.5.1. Model Fit No 1 ------------------------------------------------------- 286

4.3.5.2. Model Fit No 2 ------------------------------------------------------- 291

4.3.5.3. Model Fit No 3 ------------------------------------------------------- 294

4.4. Analysis of Open-ended Part ------------------------------------------- 296

4.4.1. Demographics ---------------------------------------------------------- 297

Question 1 ------------------------------------------------------------- 298

Question 2 ------------------------------------------------------------- 303

Question 3 ------------------------------------------------------------- 308

Question 4 ------------------------------------------------------------- 313

4.5. Analysis of Interviews --------------------------------------------------- 319

5 Findings, Recommendations, Suggestions and Conclusion ---------- 347

5.1. Introduction ---------------------------------------------------------------- 347

5.2. Summary ------------------------------------------------------------------- 347

5.3. Findings -------------------------------------------------------------------- 353

5.4. Fulfillment of Objectives ------------------------------------------------ 357

5.5. Contribution of the Study ----------------------------------------------- 357

5.6. Recommendations -------------------------------------------------------- 358

5.7. Suggestions ---------------------------------------------------------------- 360

5.8. Limitations of the Study ------------------------------------------------- 361

5.9. Discussion ----------------------------------------------------------------- 362

References ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 366

Appendices ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 387

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table Title Page

1 Linguistic diversity in Pakistan------------------------------------------ 4

2 Status of English in major educational policies over the past------- 10

3 Districts selected for the survey------------------------------------------ 117

4 List of the persons who assisted in the survey------------------------- 118

5 District wise distribution of the number of questionnaires----------- 119

6 Cronbach Alpha values of subscales of the questionnaire------------ 122

7 Demographic information------------------------------------------------- 128

8 Gender-based variation in the responses to IFL 1 (Q item 1)-------- 131

9 Age-based variation in the responses to IFL 1 (Q item 1)------------ 131

10 Qualification-based variation in the responses to IFL 1 (Q item 1)- 132

11 Gender-based variation in the responses to IFL 2 (Q item 2)--------- 133

12 Age-based variation in the responses to IFL 2 (Q item 2)------------- 134

13 Qualification-based variation in the responses to IFL 2 (Q item 2)- 134



16 Qualification-based variation the responses to IFL 3 (Q item 3)----- 136










26 Gender-based variation in the responses to IFL 7 (Q item 7) --------- 144




30 Age-based variation in the responses to IFL 8 (Q item 8)-------------- 147



33 Age-based variation in the responses to IFL 9 (Q item 9)-------------- 149


35 Gender-based variation in the responses to DLEL1 (Q item 10)----- 150

36 Age-based variation in the responses to DLEL1 (Q item 10)--------- 151

37 Qualification-based variation the responses to DLEL1 (Q item 10)- 151


39 Age-based variation in the responses to DLEL2 (Q item 11) --------- 153





44 Gender-based variation in the responses to DLEL4 (Q item 13)---- 157



ix

47 Gender-based variation in the responses to IFL DLEL5 (Q item 14)- 159

48 Age-based variation in the responses to DLEL5 (Q item 14)----------- 159

49 Qualification-based variation the responses to DLEL5 (Q item 14)-- 160

50 Gender-based variation in the responses to DLEL6 (Q item 15)------- 161

51 Age-based variation in the responses to DLEL6 (Q item 15)----------- 161


53 Gender-based variation in the responses to DLEL7 (Q item 16)------ 163

54 Age-based variation in the responses to DLEL7 (Q item 16)---------- 163


56 Gender-based variation in the responses to DLEL8 (Q item 17)------ 165

57 Age-based variation in the responses to DLEL8 (Q item 17) ---------- 165


59 Gender-based variation in the responses to INST1 (Q item 18)------- 167

60 Age-based variation in the responses to INST1 (Q item 18)----------- 167

61 Qualification-based variation the responses to INST1 (Q item 18)--- 168



64 Qualification-based variation the responses to INST2 (Q item 19)--- 170



67 Qualification-based variation the responses to INST3 (Q item 20)-- 172

68 Gender-based variation in the responses to INST4 (Q item 21)------ 173

69 Age-based variation in the responses to INST4 (Q item 21)---------- 173


71 Gender-based variation in the responses to INST5 (Q item 22)------ 175

72 Age-based variation in the responses to INST5 (Q item 22)---------- 176


74 Gender-based variation in the responses to LSC1 (Q item 23)------- 178

75 Age-based variation in the responses to LSC1 (Q item 23)----------- 178

76 Qualification-based variation the responses to LSC1 (Q item 23)--- 179







83 Gender-based variation in the responses to ELLE1 (Q item 26)----- 185

84 Age-based variation in the responses to ELLE1 (Q item 26)--------- 185

85 Qualification-based variation the responses to ELLE1 (Q item 26)- 186












x





101 Gender-based variation in the responses to ATEMI1 (Q item 32)--- 198

102 Age-based variation in the responses to ATEMI1 (Q item 32)-------- 198

103 Qualification-based variation the responses to ATEMI1 (Q item 32)- 199

104 Gender-based variation in the responses to ATEMI2 (Q item 33)---- 200

105 Age-based variation in the responses to ATEMI2 (Q item 33)-------- 200


107 Gender-based variation in the responses to ATEMI3 (Q item 34)----- 202

108 Age-based variation in the responses to ATEMI3 (Q item 34)--------- 203











119 Gender-based variation in the responses to ANX1 (Q item 38)-------- 211

120 Age-based variation in the responses to ANX1 (Q item 38)------------ 211

121 Qualification-based variation the responses to ANX1 (Q item 38)---- 212



















140 Gender-based variation in the responses to WTCE1 (Q item 45)------ 227

141 Age-based variation in the responses to WTCE1 (Q item 45)---------- 228

142 Qualification-based variation the responses to WTCE1 (Q item 45)-- 228





xi



149 Gender-based variation in the responses to WTCE4 (Q item 48)------- 235

150 Age-based variation in the responses to WTCE4 (Q item 48)----------- 235




154 Qualification-based variation the responses to WTCE5 (Q item 49)--- 238













167 Gender-based variation in the responses to WTCE10 (Q item 54)---- 249

168 Age-based variation in the responses to WTCE10 (Q item 54)-------- 250

169 Qualification-based variation the responses to WTCE10 (Q item 54)- 250


171 Age-based variation in the responses to WTCE 11 (Q item 55)------- 252



174 Age-based variation in the responses to WTCE12 (Q item 56)-------- 255


176 Gender-based variation in the responses to WTCE13 (Q item 57)----- 257

177 Age-based variation in the responses to WTCE13 (Q item 57)--------- 257


179 Construct Wise Comparatives------------------------------------------------ 278

180 Descriptive Statistics---------------------------------------------------------- 280

181 Correlation Statistics---------------------------------------------------------- 282

182 Co-linearity Diagnostics------------------------------------------------------ 283

183 Coefficient of Regression----------------------------------------------------- 284

184 Diagnostics---------------------------------------------------------------------- 285

185 Model Fit No 1----------------------------------------------------------------- 286

186 Model Fit No 2----------------------------------------------------------------- 291

187 Model Fit No 3----------------------------------------------------------------- 294

188 Demographic information of open-ended data---------------------------- 297

189 Presentation of data from open-ended question 1------------------------- 298




xii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Title Page

1. Classification of teachers on the basis of language proficiency and

professional education--------------------------------------------------- 26

2. The Theory of Planned Behaviour-------------------------------------- 52

3. Formative components of motivation----------------------------- 67

4. Cyclic chain of relationship between anxiety, cognition and

Behavior-------------------------------------------------------------------- 81

5. Heuristic model of variables influencing WTC----------------------- 100

6. Structural equation version of socio-educational model------------- 112

7. Conceptual framework based on socio-educational model and

WTC model developed for the study ---------------------------------- 115

8. Structural Equation Modeling 1----------------------------------------- 287

9. Model of L2 communication applied to French as a second

language situation in Canada-------------------------------------------- 290

10. SEM Model developed by Hashimoto--------------------------------- 290

11. Structural Equation Modeling 2---------------------------------------- 292

12. Structural Equation Modeling 3---------------------------------------- 295

xiii

LIST OF GRAPHS

Graph Title Page

1. Interest in Foreign Languages (IFL)------------------------------------ 260

2. Desire to Learn English Language (DLEL)---------------------------- 262

3. Instrumentality (INST)---------------------------------------------------- 264

4. Linguistic Self-Confidence (LSC)--------------------------------------- 266

5. English Language Learning Experience (ELLE)---------------------- 269

6. Attitude towards English as Medium of instruction (ATEMI)------ 271

7. Anxiety (ANX)------------------------------------------------------------- 274

8. Willingness to Communicate in English (WTCE)-------------------- 276

xiv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AFC Attitude towards French Canadians

AGFI Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index ALF Attitude towards Learning French

AMTB Attitude Motivation Test Battery

ANX Anxiety

ATEMI Attitude towards English as Medium of Instruction

CFI Comparative Fit Index CMIN Chi-square Minimum

CPD Continuous Professional Development

CT Certificate of Teaching

DLEL Desire to Learn English Language

ELLE English Language Learning Experience

EMI English as Medium of Instruction

GFI Goodness of fit index GTM Grammar Translation Method

HDI Human Development Index

HSSC Higher Secondary School Certificate

IFL Interest in Foreign Languages

INST Instrumentality

IO Integrative Orientation

LSC Linguistic Self-Confidence

MI Motivational Intensity

MOI Medium of Instruction

NEP National Educational Policy

OBE Order of British Empire

PCFI Parsimonious Comparative Fit Indices

PEELI Punjab Education and English Language Initiative

PG Postgraduate

PTC Primary Teacher Course

RMSEA Root mean square error of approximation SEM Structural Equation Modeling

SPDC Social Policy and Development Center

SPSS Software Package for Social Sciences

SSC Secondary School Certificate

TL Target Language

UG Undergraduate

VIF Variance Inflation Factor

WTC Willingness to Communicate

WTCE Willingness to Communicate in English

xv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I should like to express my appreciation to each and every one who helped me

during the process of my research. I am exceptionally thankful to my supervisor, Dr

Rubina Kamran whose support, help and encouragement from the very beginning of

the work till the end facilitated more insight and understanding of the subject.

I would like to thank the Rector NUML, Maj. Gen. (R) Masood Hassan and

the Dean, Faculty of Advanced Integrated Studies and Research, Prof. Dr Shazra

Munnawer for allowing me to work on this thesis. I should never forget to thank both

my much-loved parents, all my dear teachers, lovely siblings, my wife and kids. I am

greatly obliged to my friend Muhammad Usman Haroon and my brother Israr Ahmed

for their enormous help and support. I would like to express my thanks to the Head of

the English Department (GS) who encouraged and facilitated me a lot to go ahead

with my thesis.

I am indisputably indebted to my friend Mr. Ayaz Mahmood whose help, inspiring

thoughts and encouragement helped me all the way through my research and writing

of this thesis. I must bring up all the research participants and the friends who

facilitated my meetings with them and helped in the survey. It is important to mention

those friends and colleagues who have ever been a great help for me. The group

includes Mr. Saeed Imran, Mr. Bashir Ahmad Khan, Mr. Ejaz Mirza and Mr. Gohar

Ali. I am thankful to Kyzer Abbas Hashmi, Muhammad Ashraf, Zahoor Akhtar,

Mansoor Ahmad, Azhar Ahmad and Abdul Naeem for making data collection

possible for me.

I also want to thank Mr. Arslan Ahmed, Mr. Shafiullah Qureshi and Syed Ali Raza

Bukhari for their technical support and assistance. I cannot forget Ms. Ambrina

Qayyum and Mr. Muhammad Uzair who answered all my queries with a smile in

difficult times. I am grateful to my spouse for her timely support, keen interest, and

valuable contribution. Lastly, I offer my regards and blessings to all those who

supported me in any respect during the completion of this project.

xvi

DEDICATION

To my beloved parents and all my respected teachers

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

This chapter contextualizes the study by providing background to different issues

related to the status and teaching of English in Pakistan with the focus delimited to six

districts of Punjab. It includes a historical perspective on the status of English in Pakistan,

perceptions related to it and its presence in state offices, education and society at large.

The predicaments, problems and promises involved for students and teachers in its

presence in educational institutions have been briefly discussed. It also includes the

statement of problem, significance of the study, objectives of this study, research

questions and delimitation of the study.

1.1. Background and Context of the Study

In this study the aim was to examine motivational level of non-proficient teachers

in such an academic environment where English has been imposed as medium of

instruction through state order regardless of the ground realities. Teachers have

undeniably pivotal position not only in the successful implementation of this policy but

also in bringing it to fructification. In view of this, potential readiness of teachers was

explored in terms of their attitudes and motivation to accept English as Medium of

Instruction (EMI) and use it as such. A hybridization of two very influential models of

studying language motivation was used both for theoretical frame work and

methodological purposes in order to carry out this study. Further, to substantiate

interpretation as well as to cross validate the results, interviews were conducted from the

heads of the selected high schools thus the study is a fusion of quantitative and qualitative

methods.

2

1.1.1. Historical Perspective

Pakistan is a country that has a background of colonial rule. English colonists

ruled here for almost a century during their heyday. So, the people here have inherited the

dominance of English language along with many other aftermaths of the colonial sway.

English language, since then, has enjoyed the status of a prestige language with, at the

same time, unsuccessful reactions against it from the camp of the rightist (Rahman 2007).

Thus status and perception of English in Pakistan is deep-rooted in its colonial past.

Rahman (1990) divides the spread of English into this region in three distinct phases.

First phase (1614-1765) is called as missionary phase by him; the second (1765 – 1835)

is considered as the phase of local demand while the third (after 1835) is the phase when

it was spread through government policy. This division highlights the initiation and

continuation of the prevalence of English in this region.

One important factor supporting acceptability of English was distinct symbolic

value attached to each of the vernacular language. Hindi was considered as language of

Hindus, Urdu as language of Muslims (Rahman, 1997) whilst rest of the local languages

had cultural as well as religious value for the respective communities of those languages.

People could be easily divided into different factions on the basis of their sympathies and

support for a particular language on the basis of its importance for them due to distinct

religious, political and cultural affiliations. In such an environment of linguistic

controversies and competition English was perceived as neutral language devoid of

ideological, religious, cultural and ethnic affinities with any particular segment of the

local people (Coleman, 2010a).

During British India there came many policies of education which awarded elitist

position to English not only in education but in the echelons of power as well. English

was the language of the British rulers which was adopted by the Anglicized local elite

who aspired to share power with their masters by dint of learning English language and

thus coming close to their masters (Rahman, 1997). The first step in this regard is

generally considered Macaulay’s Minute of January 2, 1835 as an argument in favour of

3

English which was approved by the Governor General, Lord Bentick the same year

(Rahman, 1997; Mahboob, 2003). Macaulay recommended that the books should no

more be published in Arabic or Sanskrit but in English (Mahboob, 2003). This move is

generally seen as a step to create a race of locals who would be Indians in blood and

colour but English in their taste, character, morals and intellect (Curtin, 1971). It all

aimed to ensure British control through creation of a local class of people who could

propagate colonial agenda or safe guard the interests of British rulers. Selected schools

were supposed to provide education through English according to this policy. Thus the

education system was divided into two categories; English medium which were to

provide education to the students belonging to elite class who were to become part of

colonial bureaucracy and Urdu medium, on the other hand, was for the masses that were

to serve on subordinate positions (Rahman, 1997). Thus nascent Pakistan inherited

dichotomized system of education as colonial legacy.

Colonial rule played havoc with education in Punjab as it is pointed out by Leitner

(1971) as cited in Rahman (2003), that when Punjab was conquered during 1849 the

enrolment number in the schools of Punjab was 300,000 which dropped to 60,168 during

1860-61. There were two mediums of instruction used in Punjab at that time; Persian and

Arabic. Persian was more popular medium in view of the importance of this medium

regarding socio-economic status because it was the official language adopted for the

functions of state institutions. Thus there were Maktabs which used Persian as medium of

instruction and Madrassas which used Arabic as medium of instruction. After conquest

of Punjab English naturally replaced Persian for its being the language of new rulers

while Urdu was introduced by the British as medium of instruction in the schools for

masses because Urdu, at that time, was informally working as a lingua franca.

The condition was even worse in the western part of the Punjab which consists of

present day Pakistani Punjab after partition so far as education is concerned. The area

which consists of present day Pakistan has great diversity regarding language and culture.

It is a multiethnic and multilingual country with over 300 different dialects and above 57

different languages spoken within its borders (Khan, 2002 as cited in Halai, 2007).

4

However the languages of almost all the domains of power – government, media,

education, corporate sector etc – are Urdu and English; with the former having the status

of national language of Pakistan while the later as the official language of Pakistan

(Rahman, 1996). It is interesting that there are only 7% native speakers of Urdu in

Pakistan because it was the language of Mohajirs (refugees) who migrated to Pakistan

after partition to settle in the new country. There are five major languages spoken in

Pakistan i.e. Punjabi, Pushto, Sindhi, Balochi and Siraiki. The most widely spoken among

these is Punjabi language. Linguistic reasons have been a cause of differences right from

the beginning in Pakistan. The most important instance is separation of East Pakistan to

become Bangladesh where linguistic preference was one of the most important factors. In

the following table different languages spoken in Pakistan, number of their speakers and

the percentage of the speakers have been given to show linguistic diversity in Pakistan.

Table 1

Linguistic diversity in Pakistan

S. No Name of the language Number of

speakers(in

millions)

% age of

population

1 Punjabi Western 60.6 38.3

2 Sindhi 18.5 11.7

3 Siraiki 13.8 8.3

4 Urdu 10.7 6.8

5 Pashto Northern 9.6 6.1

6 Pashto Central 7.9 5.0

7 Balochi Southern 2.8 1.8

8 Brahui 2.0 1.3

9 Hindko Northern 1.9 1.2

10 Balochi Eastern 1.8 1.1

11 Pashto Southern 1.4 0.9

12 Balochi Western 1.1 0.7

13 Farsi Eastern 1.0 0.6

5

14 Punjabi Mirpur 1.0 0.6

Sub-total 134.1 84.8

58 other languages 24.0 15.2

Total 158.1 100.0

Source: Adapted from OBE (2010): A report prepared for British Council titled

“Teaching and Learning in Pakistan: The Role of Language in Education”

There were multiple ethnicities united for the struggle of independence from

British yoke in the name of Pakistan for the sake of Islam as their common ideology

despite diverse socio-cultural backgrounds and distinct histories. The major ethnic groups

which united to achieve Pakistan could roughly be divided as Punjabi, Sindhi, Baloch,

Bengali and Pashtuns. The biggest group among these on the basis of number was

Bengali which comprised of more than 50% of total population. The consciousness of

this majority in number played role in dissatisfaction of Bengalis with language policy

introduced in newly created Pakistan that of raising status of Urdu as national language of

the country against Bengali. Pakistan faced riots for the first time on the basis of language

in 1953. Thus, there developed a sense of alienation among the speakers of other

indigenous languages (Aryes, 2003). The resentment of Bengalis had language as one of

the major causes, as has been referred to above, and this lead to the secession of Bengal

in 1971.

After the independence of Pakistan English continued to remain the official

language of Pakistan and as a result has always remained invariably a compulsory part of

all the curricula - public or private - up to graduation. But it is very unfortunate that

uniformity - in the way it is treated in different educational institutions of Pakistan - has

never been achieved. The causes, for this lack of uniformity, are mainly related to the

lack of clear educational policies given by various governments at different times.

Different reactions by various factions of Pakistani society against English have also had

important influences on decision making. Such reactions can be seen rooted on the basis

of nationalistic or religious grounds for which the general public supports a local or the

national language which they think to be a guarantee for the preservation of their cultural,

6

national or religious identity. The people of Pakistan can be divided into two groups the

pro-English and anti-English. The former amongst the two are generally those people

who have been at the helm of the affairs as regards the decision-making power related to

educational policies and the proponents of enlightened moderation while the later are

generally thought to be the rightist group who either belong to some religious group or

belong to the proto-elite (Rahman, 1997).

This controversy is rooted in the power struggle between the proto-elite and the

Westernized Elite where the former supports Urdu to be used not only as medium of

instruction but also as the official language of Pakistan. However, that is not all; the

status of Urdu as such is also challenged by the regionalists on ethnic grounds who want

to promote the local languages by implementing them as medium of instruction in

schools. These are the circumstances, which have mainly been constituted by historical

factors, where language policies in education were to be devised and, quite as expected,

there have never been any decisive and categorical steps taken to introduce a clear-cut

policy in this regard. It has always suffered from uncertainty due to the vested interests

and politics on linguistic bases. The matter of language in educational policies and plans

for this reason has been an oscillation between Urdu and English except in Sindh where

the education has been in Sindhi especially in the areas of rural Sindh. Under the next

heading a brief survey of educational policies has been given in order to see the role

given to different languages in education particularly to English.

1.1.2. English in Different Educational Policies

The importance of language policies in education is undeniably very much as it

carries political, social, ideological and academic implications for the ones who would be

the subjects of these policies (Cooper, 1989). In view of this importance the need for a

clearly planned, democratically selected and wisely implemented language policy is

required for effective progress of educational system and fruitful results. This quality is

found by Aryes (2003) to be absent in Pakistan’s language policy in education. He

presents the seriousness of the matter by highlighting the linguistic, ethnic and cultural

7

diversity which further raises the importance of the matter in view of the complication

consequent to such a situation. It has resulted in a disproportionate distribution of power

and socio-economic as well as political benefits. There are certain ethno-linguistic groups

who enjoy greater control in all these domains by dint of the value attached to the

language they use while others suffer from deprivation.

Language policy in Pakistan has suffered from a dilemma between the choice of a

language on nationalistic grounds – that of selection of a language which could unify

otherwise diverse communities – and the language which would ensure the participation

of individuals and nation in the global stream of progress. While addressing the first issue

the policy makers were obviously tempted again and again by Urdu (Rahman, 1997)

whereas in dealing with the second concern English presented itself as a necessity by dint

of its being international or global language. Thus the history of language policy in

education is marred by confusions and wavering choices in this country. On the one hand

there have been attempts to satisfy the growing concerns of the proto-elite who always

took English with a grain of salt while on the other hand preferences of Westernized elite

as well as realization of the importance of being partners in the global progress came into

play. This situation created problems for the successive governments with the result that

English remained till recent the language of privileged class who enjoyed the lion’s share

in power and function of the state thus perpetuating the discriminatory education system

in the country.

The first move in this context was seen in All Pakistan Education Conference held

on 27th November, 1947 in Karachi, where Urdu was recommended to be made lingua

franca in Pakistan. Moreover, suggestion was made to make Urdu a compulsory subject

across Pakistan in the schools. It was declared by the first Governor General and founder

of Pakistan Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah and then the first prime minister of

Pakistan Liaqat Ali Khan that Pakistan was a Muslim state hence it needed a language

that could signify Muslim identity in order to be its lingua franca and it could be none

other than Urdu. However, in practice the situation was different; the legacy of colonial

rule came in the way and it proved to be a mere lip service paid to Urdu time and again in

8

the policies related to education and the status of national language. Urdu, though, was

declared as national language but it still begged the adequate will to be introduced in the

educational institutions and government offices (Rahman, 2008).

Thus the seeds of linguistic controversy were sown right from the beginning in

Pakistan (Ayres, 2003) which expressed itself in the riots of 1953 as mentioned already.

Then through the recommendations of the National Educational Commission (1959)

during Ayub Khan’s era Urdu was raised further in status and was made National

language from the status of being a lingua franca. However, there were again slight

changes in the inherited British policy of colonial time. Urdu was declared to be the

medium of instruction at primary and secondary level while English was made medium

of instruction in higher education. However, English continued to remain the official

language of Pakistan and the recommendations to raise Urdu to the status of language of

education and that of the office of government remained an unrealized dream. Ayub

Khan as an army general proved to be representative of pro-English military elite and a

number of cadet colleges were established during his time which ware strictly English

medium and served to strengthen the hold of English in this country.

Almost same happened to what was stipulated in the first framed constitution of

Pakistan by elected parliament of Pakistan in 1973. Three articles were included in the

constitution related to language policy in which once again it was pledged that Urdu

would be developed to replace English as official language and as language of education

at higher level. It was stated in the constitution that;

1. The national language of Pakistan is Urdu, and arrangements shall be made for its

being used for official and other purposes within fifteen years from the

commencing day.

2. English may be used for official purposes until arrangements are made for its

replacement by Urdu.

3. Without prejudice to the status of the national language, a provincial assembly

may by law prescribe measures for the teaching, promotion and use of a

9

provincial language in addition to the national language. (Article 251 of the

Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, 1973).

The biggest problem that served as an excuse in delaying the imposition of Urdu

as an official language was its corpus which was found deficient by the experts involved

in making language policy. It was determined in every policy statement that corpus of

Urdu would be developed in order to enhance its capacity to adequate level so that it

becomes language of government office as well as of science and technology in

education. But this plan also met the same destiny and English remained the language of

power and that of the powerful because it maintained its status of the official language of

Pakistan and medium of instruction in the Anglicized elite education system. Urdu

continued to remain medium of instruction for the masses and was unable to enter into

the office of the government of Pakistan.

However, these arrangements were short lived because coup followed in 1977 by

Zia-ul-Haq who took to Islamization and Urduisation in order to create justifications for

his rule. Arabic was made compulsory in the schools at Middle level (from 6 to 8 years of

education). Islamic Studies was made compulsory in the school curriculum and it was

decided that with the passage of time Urdu would be introduced in government offices

and education. Important steps were taken in this regard by the establishment of

Muqtadira Qaumi Zuban (National Language Authority) in 1979 which was assigned the

task of developing Urdu to solve the issue of the limitation of its corpus. However Zia’s

policy resulted in mushrooming of private schools which claimed to be English medium.

Zia’s dictatorship was followed by democratically elected government of Benazir Bhutto

in 1988 who introduced a new pro-English policy in 1989 according to which English

was to be introduced from grade 1. However, in practice there was no change in the status

quo regarding language in education. There remained same divide of elite - masses,

private – public and English medium – Urdu medium still prevailed in the country.

Surprisingly, in the next educational policy which came during 1998 there was no

statement regarding language in education which shows lack of seriousness in dealing

with this issue.

10

In the ‘white paper’ issued on educational policy in 2007 important steps were

taken regarding language in education. It was decided that English would be taught as a

subject right from grade 1 but as medium of instruction it would be used from grade 6

and that also only for teaching mathematics and science. Government of Punjab decided

to adopt English as medium of instruction for teaching science from grade 1. Then in

2009 National Educational Policy (NEP) was developed as an elaborate plan for

educational reforms which showed somewhat pro-English stance. English was decided to

be medium of instruction from grade 4 and 5 in this policy and it was decided that

science and mathematics would be taught through English at all levels from 2014

onward.

Over all it has been observed that the matter of language in education has been

paid little attention in this policy as well and with almost little change so far as practice in

education is concerned. Three characteristics of this policy are seen to be prominent that:

1) English is just an examination subject, 2) English is not used by teachers while

teaching and 3) other indigenous languages have been marginalized (OBE, 2010). A

summary of the way language issue was treated in different educational policies is

presented in the following table.

Table 2

Status of English in major educational policies over the past

Year Event Policy Implementation

Before

1947

British Rule English medium

education for elite and

Urdu medium for masses

As policy

1947 Independent

Pakistan

Urdu became national

language

Urdu as medium for masses

while English for elite

1959 Sharif

Commission

Urdu at primary and

secondary level while

English for higher

No change

11

education

1973 New constitution Urdu to replace English in

fifteen years; provinces

given freedom of having

their own language policy

No change

1977 Coup by General

Zia-ul-Haq

Urduisation and

Islamisation

English was taught from

year 4; Schools started

preparing for converting

completely to Urdu; growth

of private English medium

schools started

1989 Benazir’s regime

started

English to be started from

class 1

No effective change

1998 New Education

Policy

Nothing said related to

language policy

Private English medium

schools grow

1999 Coup by

Musharraf

English to be started from

class one

No effective change

2007 White paper English from year 1 and

Mathematics and science

from year 6

No effective change; science

taught in Punjab through

English from 10th year

2009

National

Educational

policy

English to be used in

teaching science and

mathematics during year

4 and 5; English in

teaching all science and

mathematics from 2014

English declared to be

medium of instruction for

science in year 4 from April,

2009

Source: Adapted from OBE (2010): A report prepared for British Council titled

“Teaching and Learning in Pakistan: The Role of Language in Education”

This brief review of educational policies in this country provides insight that there

has ever been a futile attempt to empower Urdu and almost no attention was paid to

12

providing education in mother tongue except in Sindh and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa where it

has been Sindhi and Pashto respectively. However, it is interesting to note that in almost

all the schools of rural Punjab teaching took place mainly in local dialect of Punjabi

language as the researcher himself studied through this medium which is still in practice

even if in relatively less number of schools and to a limited extent.

It is important that after the new reforms initiated by the Punjab government in

2006 across Punjab in the form of CPD (Continuous Professional Development) changes

in the use of language for instruction can be seen. The administrative structure of the

planned reforms is carefully designed and expected to be effective if not in the short term

then in the long term but consistency is the condition for its success. The present

conditions do not show a good picture in terms of teachers’ readiness as has been shown

in various reports - discussed later in this chapter - despite promising prospects. In view

of such conditions, this study sees teachers’ motivation to have a pivotal position in

carrying this policy to fruition.

1.1.3. Status of English in Pakistan

Against all the Pro-Urdu, pro-vernacular and anti-English rhetoric, English does

not only hold the prestige position todate in Pakistan but it also keeps burgeoning as ever

in its importance and status in all the domains (public or private) in this country. Its status

of official language of Pakistan stands intact and it remains the language of higher

education science and technology as well as a gateway to power and position among the

elite of this country. As a result, to learn and develop English is like ever the dream of all

Pakistanis in order to secure a good socio-economic position both in the public as well as

private sector (Asif, 2013). The need for English has ever been felt by the people under

the circumstances constituted by the history of this country and at the same time as a

result of emerging global economy where English has become a gateway to progress not

only at national level but at individual level (Huppauf, 2004). The advancement of

technology and means of communication have not only shrunk the world but have also

developed a modern concept of citizenship which is seen in the emergence of

international job market attracting people across the borders. The realization of global

13

status of English has been expressed in the National Educational Policy of 2009 (Ministry

of Education Government of Pakistan, 2009). This is the crux of the imperatives which

serve to give English language an enviable status in Pakistan. The status of English in

Pakistan has been summarized in the following words by Baumgardner (1993, pp14-15);

“The anchorage of English in Pakistan is that the Constitutions and

the body of law are codified in English. As a consequence, judgments and

precedents, rules and regulations, orders and instructions, standing

procedures and major policy documents of the federal as well as the

provincial governments are in English; information – technological,

economic, sociological, and statistical – is also largely available in English.

English in Pakistan is more the language of Macaulay than of Shakespeare.

The large industrial and business sector operates in English. Although

introduced in this country through an historical accident, English has

become a pattern of life, and its cultural influence continues to be strong.”

English was declared to be the official language of Pakistan and it still upholds

this status despite consistent attempts to replace it by Urdu as has already been discussed.

In education it has ever been a compulsory subject up to 14 years of education

(Bachelor’s level) starting from different levels in different educational policies. Before

the first term of Benazir Bhutto it started from grade 6 but for the first time in her tenure

(1988-1990) it was stated to be introduced from grade 1 in the educational policy. So far

as the status of English as medium of instruction in education is concerned it has always

been given higher value to English medium in the education system but despite this it

remained absent from public sector schools due to confusion in language policy and lack

of required communicative competence in the English language of the stakeholders in

this context particularly the teachers. Thus there existed two virtually discrepant

education systems in Pakistan i.e. English medium and non-English medium; the former

for the elite and the later for the masses.

14

English language has strong role in distribution of socio-economic status and

power in this country. There has been found a positive correlation between socio-

economic status of the learners and their English language proficiency (see for example

Shamim, 2009). It is strongly believed as social class marker (Haque, 1983; Rahman,

1998, 2002; Rassool & Mansoor, 2009) because the real English medium education is

available only in very expensive schools which have traditionally provided education to

the elite belonging to civil and military bureaucracy as well as those who come

financially in the bracket of at least upper middle class. Thus English ensures the entry

of the rich elite into the powerful position while filtering out the proto-elite – supporting

Urdu – and the ethno-nationalist elite – supporting vernacular as against the Urdu

thinking it to be the language of the center. Thus controversy of medium of instruction

can be seen as a struggle for power among different groups belonging to ruling elite at the

center and the proto-elites at the peripheral position (Rahman, 1997).

1.1.4. Social Perception of English in Pakistan

Pakistan is a country rich with ethno-linguistic diversity. There are more than 57

languages spoken in Pakistan and the people have multicultural background with varying

outlook towards life. People here have extra liberal westernized thought and way of life.

On the other hand there are rigidly conservative segments who are against any kind of

culture or thought that is imported from abroad especially from the western countries.

According to them it clashes with their local cultural values and Islamic identity.

Corresponsive to their differences in general outlook and diversity of culture people are

divided into different schools of thought so far as the ideological motives for the creation

of Pakistan are concerned. In such circumstances there come diverse factors into play in

order to frame the way English is perceived by the people of Pakistan as a language

representative of English culture and a remnant of colonial legacy. In such circumstances

widely different perceptions of English is but a natural outcome of all this.

The perception of the English language is traditionally divided into two categories

i.e. pro-English and anti-English. However, there exists third category as well and

15

probably the majority of this country and that is of the neutral folk or those who are

unsure about the type of perception they need to have of English language. The greatest

majority of such people live in rural areas of Pakistan who depend mainly on urban areas

for trends, fashions, perceptions and way of life. This is, in the first place, because of the

stronghold of the local tradition resulting in socio-cultural inertia, lack of education in the

second place and in the third place because of the lack of quick means of communication

which keeps these people away from immediate contact with the national as well as

global factors of mobility and change. It is general observation that these people aspire to

keep pace with progress and development in the urban areas of the country. They want to

educate and develop themselves according to the best standards prevalent but lack of

facilities and socio-economic conditions come in the way. Those who could afford send

their children to English medium schools of cities. They are generally the rural elite in the

feudal structure of agricultural economy.

Thus social perception of English in Pakistan may be divided into three categories

pro-English, anti-English and that which neither supports nor censures it. The first

category response comes from the anglicized-elite, the second from the proto-elite and in

the third category come the people who have just been discussed in the preceding

paragraph. It is very ironical to note that even the so called proto-elite who favour Urdu

and the ethno-nationalists who favour local languages do not follow their own - so

vehemently expressed - precept in their practice by ensuring English medium education

for their children. Above all, it is a common practice of those who could afford, among

them, to send their children abroad for education which renders their anti-English stance

to be nothing more than mere lip service or political rhetoric. However in recent

researches a changing trend can be marked (see for example Coleman, 2010). Even the

clergy in Madrassas have expressed a positive attitude towards learning and teaching

English. However, the reasons given by them, for learning English, are strictly religious

mainly to promote Islam by developing the ability to communicate with the rest of the

world. But, whatsoever the aims and reasons for learning English may there be, it is the

recognition of a global role of English. In summary, English is perceived as language of

power, source of social mobility and a guarantee for progress in Pakistan.

16

The province of Punjab is believed to have been a step ahead of the rest of the

provinces in response to and accepting the challenges coming from the global

developments. It has historically shown better statistics even in education and has taken

the lead in implementing English as medium of instruction in public sector schools. This

is why this study was carried out to gauge the attitudes of the teachers towards

introduction of English as language of instruction in education. It was assumed they

would feel at a loss to carry out this task because they do not have adequate proficiency

level. It is because they themselves studied English as a subject and not as a language and

were not given any training for proficiency development in pre-service teacher training.

the next section includes discussion on how English is taught in Pakistan.

1.1.5. Teaching of English in Pakistan

Pedagogical practices play a very important role in developing proficiency in

second language or foreign language which in turn are adopted in response to the aims

and objectives of language teaching. So far as the major aim of teaching English

language in Pakistan is concerned, first of all, the focus has been purely on developing

literacy skills whereas oracy has been ignored altogether. Secondly the pedagogical

techniques followed while teaching oracy have been examination oriented. The

effectiveness of teaching was measured on the basis of scores got in the examinations of

different levels and is considered very important while getting admission in any

educational institution for higher studies or while getting a job because the score in

examination is considered as representing the actual linguistic competence of the

candidate.

The examination system in itself is flawed because it promotes cramming instead

of promoting learning and developing language skills to the creative level. Thus in the

system of English language teaching oracy skills have always been extinct since the

creation of Pakistan. This is the reason why teachers, even after getting adequate

degrees/certificates and professional training, are never proficient and this is what was

17

observed during interviews of the Principals of the secondary schools in rural areas.

Pricipals are generally the senior most teachers either in both qualification and experience

or in certain cases in one of these where some particular reasons – academic or

administrative or any other – may create a different situation.

Grammar Translation Method is the sole technique that is used in all the public

schools of Pakistan including Punjab without any difference on urban and rural basis

(Hussain, 2005 as cited in Asif, 2013). Translation from English to Urdu and vice versa is

taught while in case of explanation, in most of the cases, vernacular (Punjabi in Punjab)

is used (Zehra, 1995 as cited in Asif, 2013). Grammar is taught through purely deductive

approach as is followed in GTM (Grammar Translation Method). Students are required to

commit to memory rules of grammar on the basis of which they are in turn expected to

produce grammatically correct structures. In grammar the focus is mainly on tenses,

active voice and passive voice, and direct-indirect narration which are taught through

memorization of rules instead of their use in any meaningful situation thus rendering the

whole exercise as aiming at cramming without understanding. Exams are also based on

testing the memorization of rules and not the linguistic or communicative competence in

the English language. So all that is taught is not English but about English which in

majority of the cases itself is invalid because the teachers themselves do not have sound

knowledge of English grammar as has been shown in the competence tests conducted for

PEELI (Punjab Education and English Language Initiative) report.

In such conditions not only the training of the teachers - to develop their teaching

skills - is necessary but more important is to develop their own oral proficiency level in

order to bring them in linguistic comfort zone so that they feel easy using it during

instruction. Any system of teaching where oral competence is absent from learning and

teaching the comfort level of learners as well as teachers becomes crucially important.

The success of the plan obviously depends on the willingness of the teachers to use

English as medium of instruction actually in the classrooms.

18

1.1.6. Medium of Instruction Controversy

As it has been discussed that Pakistan inherited linguistic controversies at its

birth, same phenomenon can be observed in case of the selection of medium of

instruction in educational institutions. The choice of language for instruction has never

been consistent. In this case all the successive governments showed shift and change in

the policy with the result that the choice has been oscilating between national language

and English if the struggle for the use of vernacular is overlooked. Thus in the

controversy of medium of instruction three streams of language choice can be marked.

First among these is the choice of vernacular, the second is the choice of national

language Urdu and the third choice is that of English – the official language of Pakistan.

The policy for a uniform medium of instruction in all the schools of Pakistan has

never been possible because of the clash of interests. It was promised by all the

successive governments in the centers for political reasons that Urdu would be

empowered against English in due course of time which remains as yet to be achieved

mainly due to political reasons in the form of pressure and control by the elite of this

country. Rulers have used varying claims with different implications for different people

in order to pacify all the circles. The slogan of empowering national language Urdu was

used for consolidation of different groups into a single nation while claims to introduce

English were meant to be a promise for a uniform education across the country to ensure

equal opportunities for the rich and the poor both and to end the hegemony of elite on

privileged education provided through English medium of instruction. That these claims

were never put into practice has already been discussed.

At present, despite the realization of need for English medium education by

dominant majority of Pakistanis English medium education does not go free of

controversies. There are threats perceived by people in different ways for example the

teachers of government schools feel it a burden while the elite feel it - consciously or

unconsciously - a challenge to their privileged status. In the same way some other people

whose position owes to their anti-English stance oppose its introduction into education

merely as political chicanery. It has already been shown that all such opposition at the

19

end of the day proves to be nothing more than mere catch phrases to wiggle out vested

interests because these opposing voices practically value English medium education

above all the rest. Nevertheless controversy has ever been involved in English as medium

of instruction which hindered a clear-cut language policy being seriously detrimental to

the system of education in this country.

There are some other voices based on theory in education supporting the value of

mother tongue in education which tend to join anti-English narrative. Though they are not

very influential with the public at large but they have their audience in the circles where

language policy is generally hatched. Regardless of the truth these views carry, the actual

situation prevalent in this country as well as in rest of the world bespeaks of different

contingencies where international language has almost got the status of second language.

The situation of Pakistan as a multilingual country unavoidably involves the necessity of

learning a second language which means that people have to develop a bilingual

competence inevitably. In such an environment mother tongue education, even if

theoretically advantageous, is expected to bring a lot of problems at every step for the

students as they move on in their education. In this world where globalization is an

undeniable fact teaching global language as second language is like enabling the students

to avail every opportunity at global level thus ensuring unlimited opportunities for them

across the world (Kamran, 2010).

However, the present step of Punjab government is an effort to give practical

shape to the claim of ending the hegemony of the elite. General perception of this plan

has met with appreciation except for limited criticism from some quarters due to

particular reasons about which much has been said already in the discussion on anti-

English perception. Khan (2002) and Haque (1993) refer to the preference of people for

English medium education in Pakistan. This policy is taken to be a revolutionary step

towards the improvement of public sector education which has always been seen as

inferior to that which is provided by the private sector elite English medium schools

mainly due to lack of proficiency in English. But in the face of all such preferences for

20

English medium education the ground realities in Punjab present rather a disappointing

picture when it comes to the feasibility conditions.

1.1.7. Feasibility Conditions for EMI Implementation

The seamy side of the picture comes into sight when feasibility conditions

existent in public sector education especially in the rural area of Punjab are considered.

Lack of teachers’ proficiency has already been discussed and a grim picture has been

presented in a recent report (2013) prepared by PEELI (Punjab Education and English

Language Initiative) on the proficiency tests conducted on teachers under the supervision

of British Council which showed extremely disappointing results in this regard but at the

same time it also showed bright prospects regarding the attitudes, interest and relatively

better level of proficiency of young teachers. For this purpose computer-based Aptis test

was used which was developed by the British council and is used globally for assessment

of English language proficiency. It assesses all the four skills i.e. Reading, Writing,

Listening and Speaking. The results of the test did not show any promising picture at all

and a lot of discomfort in response to the policy of English as medium of instruction on

the part of old teachers around or above the age of 50.

The situation is so bleak that it is a rare phenomenon to find a teacher who is

proficient enough in oracy skills to be able to deliver a lecture in English. Much has

already been said in the context of teachers’ own education and pre-service professional

training. This is why a lot of importance needs to be given to a lot of in-service training

of the teachers. Punjab government, in this regard, has taken a lot of steps of teacher

training in collaboration with different international organizations but there remains, as

yet, a long way to go. It was found in PEELI report that almost all the old teachers did

not take this language policy positively and were least ready to use it or believed that they

were least ready in terms of their own competence or students capacity to understand

what was taught in English. What is direly required at this level is effective teacher

training and assurance that they work this policy out otherwise it will once again sink into

21

oblivion leaving behind just another bitter memory.

The structure of training with its hierarchical division with offices of different

protocol level i.e. provincial, district, tehsil and local centers taking measures to make it

possible is prima facie effective but the shirkers always find loopholes for whom only

stern measures and appealing incentives as well as fool proof administrative measures

could work. Pre-service training of all the government teachers should aim to develop

English language proficiency of teachers in oracy skills while at the same time they

should be trained how to teach English through English and to teach content subjects

using English. According to PEELI report 94% of the teachers in Punjab do not have the

minimum level of proficiency required for quality teaching through English as medium of

instruction which presents a somber sight of the feasibility conditions for this policy. Asif

(2013) describes the situation in the following words;

“The teachers of English are not properly trained and there is hardly

any interaction between teachers and students in the classroom. English

courses have heavy literacy content but no attempt is made to develop the

productive skills of the language. The spoken component is completely

ignored.” (p. 38)

The discussion now moves on to the situation in Punjab.

1.1.8. The Case of Punjab

Punjab is the biggest province of Pakistan with respect to population. Situated in

the south-western part of Pakistan it consists of 36 districts which have a wide range on

the basis of Human Development Index (HDI). It means that condition of health,

education and economic indicators is not the same in all the districts of this province. The

socio-economic, socio-education and socio-political factors across the province are not

uniform. The rural areas of Punjab vary from extremely underdeveloped and absolutely

neglected to the areas which are much more developed and far ahead of the rest of the

22

rural areas. This is why in the current study care was taken to select a sample that could

be sufficiently representative of the population of the teachers of Punjab.

English medium education is considered a privilege in this province but what is

expected from English medium schools, so far as the use of English is concerned, varies

from the best English medium schools conventionally called elite schools found in urban

areas of Punjab to the so called English medium schools which have nothing matching

their claims. Schools of the latter category are mushrooming everywhere from highly

urban areas to small towns and even rural areas. These so called English medium schools

have only books in English while all the rest of the teaching practices are conducted in

Urdu medium. The teachers in such schools are professionally untrained and are hired

because they accept very low salary. So far as rural areas are concerned, there has been

mushrooming of private English medium schools at village level which are established

generally by the local persons who have got some education but not a job because of

various reasons out of which their own lack of competence makes one possible reason.

In public schools lack of teachers’ interest in their job has always been the biggest

problem. Teaching is generally not taken by choice because of the low socio-economic

status it has in this country. People prefer to join civil bureaucracy or seek commission in

the army so far as government sector is concerned or they would like to become doctors,

engineers or choose any other field. Teaching is generally seen as having least incentives

in terms of social status and economic benefits. Thus one of the serious issues with these

people is that of motivation in such academic environment where teachers neither feel

under administrative pressure nor do they have any extrinsic or intrinsic motivation.

Administrative pressure is absent because to supervise schools in remote areas poses

difficulties due to the issues of transport and communication and to double it the

supervising authorities do not have adequate level of devotion and will to do it.

Corruption also comes in the way. Further the rural folk are mostly uneducated and for

this reason they cannot be expected to exercise pressure on the teachers for performance.

23

1.1.9. General Profile of the School Teachers

The teachers who teach at secondary level need to have minimum education of

intermediate level along with a pre-service professional course. They study English as a

compulsory subject both at intermediate level as well as their pre-service professional

course but do not have any training for English language proficiency. At intermediate

level science subjects are taught through English as medium of instruction. Those who

take science at intermediate level are comparatively better students with better grades at

secondary level and are considered better and more confident in English. However, the

level of qualification and the type of qualification these teachers happen to have received

is widely different. There are highly qualified teachers who have Masters level education

and in certain cases even above Masters level i.e. M. Phil or Ph D. Such diversity in the

education of the teachers ensues different attitude towards the policy of English as

medium of instruction and different perception of it. Majority of the senior teachers are

comparatively less qualified and thus have a negative view of English.

Professional qualification is a must for the government school teachers. It is

traditionally PTC (Primary Teacher Certificate) after SSC (Secondary School Certificate;

10 years of education) in other words called Matriculation in Pakistan, CT (Certificate of

Teaching) after HSSC (Higher Secondary School Certificate; 12 years of education), B

Ed (Bachelor of Education) after Bachelors level and M Ed (Masters of Education) after

Masters level. One thing is important that in these different levels of professional

education English proficiency is not part of the course. Lack of proficiency in English has

always been a serious challenge in pre-service teacher education in Pakistan (Shamim,

2008; Behlol et al. 2011 & Aslam et al. 2010). These pre-service courses are considered

as outdated with the focus mainly on theoretical learning and not on the development of

practical teaching skills (Siddiqui, 2010).

Teachers with such a profile are in no way different from the adult learners of

target language and are expected to show same sort of problems in learning, using and in

showing their attitudes towards target language. These teachers have the only difference

24

with ordinary language learners in the use of language in the classroom that they have

traditionally authoritative role in the class which gives them confidence higher than

ordinary language learners. Despite this there are many factors which make teachers

conscious of their language use. One of these is the realization of their own lack of

proficiency. Having no experience of having meaningful interaction in English hence not

being accustomed to its use is another in this regard. Such factors serve to create a sense

of sounding queer among colleagues or getting exposed to them. These issues ultimately

add to the teachers’ anxiety related to the use of English as medium of instruction while

teaching in the classrooms.

The teachers in public sector schools of Punjab are just English language learners

as is shown in PEELI report mentioned earlier in this chapter (p. 21) and other studies

some of which have been referred to earlier. However at the same time they enjoy an

edge over ordinary learners of language for they enjoy authority of a teacher in the

environment (classroom mainly) where they are to use English language. One more

important point is that the competence of teachers is not based on achieving good grades

but their actual use of English in the classroom while teaching or in other words to

deliver lecture using English language. Socio-educational model and WTC (Willingness

to Communicate) models were used in this study in view of this situation. Socio-

educational model traditionally studies motivation in relation to students’ achievement in

terms of their grades in the target language whereas WTC model measures motivation in

terms of the willingness of the language users to involve in communication using the

target language. Further Socio-educational model deals with motivation in academic

settings mainly by combining both socio-cultural and academic factors in the model

while WTC model is not restricted traditionally only to the academic settings. Thus

combination of both of these models suits this study in view of the expected role of the

teachers.

25

1.1.10. Studying Motivation and Attitudes of the Teachers

The keen desire to study motivation of the teachers came through researcher’s

own experience. Educated up to matriculation (SSC) from a government school of the

same system (government schools in rural Punjab), he has an advantage of understanding

the possible response of teachers towards EMI in retrospective. It was common

observation that teaching English as a subject was considered as one of the most difficult

tasks which only selected teachers could undertake and not everyone despite the fact that

all the teachers happen to have studied English as a subject for, at least, 8 to 12 years.

Teaching grammar through GTM (Grammar Translation Method) would cause a lot of

anxiety and create a lot of problems for the teachers let alone lecturing in English. The

whole pedagogy depended purely on cramming for the exams with no other end in view.

With such a background when English was imposed as medium of instruction without

adequate preparation for the feasibility conditions it offered a sense of complication of

the situation and discomfort among the teachers who were poorly equipped to cope with

the situation.

The condition of teachers participating in this study can be explained through a

framework presented by Pasternak and Bailey (2004) and then by Bailey (2006) for

understanding the situation in a more technical way. They examined the issues related to

language proficiency and professional preparation of the teachers. Using this framework

they developed a model of four quadrants which was used to classify teachers on the

basis of their language proficiency and professional education. Each quadrant is given

one particular category of teachers thus dividing teachers into total four categories on the

basis of their language proficiency and professional education as in the following;

26

Figure: 1

Classification of teachers on the basis of language proficiency and professional

education

Proficient in

the target language Professionally 1 3

prepared Not professionally

as a language teacher Prepared as a

2 4 language teacher

Not proficient in the

Target language

Source: Bailey (2006).

On the basis of this framework teachers falling in quadrant 1 are those who are

both professionally trained as language teachers as well as proficient in the target

language whereas those who come in quadrant 4 are exactly opposite to the ones falling

in quadrant 1. They are neither proficient in target language nor professionally qualified

as language teachers. Similarly, those who fall in quadrant 2 contrast with teachers of

quadrant 3. Teachers of quadrant 2 are professionally prepared as language teachers but

not proficient in target language while those in quadrant 3 are not prepared professionally

but are proficient in language.

Teachers of public sector schools in Punjab mostly fall in quadrant 4 because they

are neither trained as language teachers during their pre-service professional education

except in the case where short term training has been provided in accordance with Punjab

government’s recent policy which is insufficient in adequate professional development

and more so in developing English language proficiency.

In spite of all these difficulties the fact remains to be admitted that developing

limited communicative competence for these teachers is not something very difficult if

effective language training is provided. It is just like activating their competence which is

27

otherwise passive due to lack of use of language in meaningful situations. For this reason

in-service language training is expected to have positive impact on the affective response

of these teachers towards English and the policy of medium of instruction in view of the

importance of English which it claims on utilitarian or instrumental bases. This

improvement is purely a process of language learning and proficiency development

which depends solely on the motivation and interest of teachers to learn the English

language.

Not only this, the actual willingness to use English where it is required to be used

is even more important. By this it is meant that the teachers through their training must

come to know the effective use of English which means in the situations where it proves

to be most effective and in the manner it proves to be most productive for the students as

well as teachers. Language anxiety and the feeling of looking odd keep teachers from

using English while teaching or during general interaction with the students.

The following discussion is on theoretical basis of this study.

1.2. Conceptual Backdrop of the Study

As it has been mentioned in the beginning of this chapter that two theoretical

models i.e. Socio-educational model and WTC (Willingness to Communicate) model

have been used to conduct this study following Hashimoto’s (2002) study that in turn was

a replication of the study conducted by MacIntyre and Charos (1996). MacIntyre has the

credit of founding WTC model and for its first hybridization with Socio-educational

model, in collaboration with Charos, for the study replicated by Hashimoto in Japanese

context. Hashimoto’s replication produced slightly different results in Japanese context

with the result that a path from WTC to motivation, measured through mini-AMTB

(instrument designed and used in socio-educational model), was found to be significant in

Hashimoto’s study which was found to be insignificant in the original study by

MacIntyre and Charos. However, the other results confirmed the correlations found in the

original study. The path that has been tested in this study i.e. from motivation (an

28

aggregate of selected variables from Gardner’s socio-educational model) to WTC, was

hypothesized by Yashima (2002) in Japan but found insignificant.

Socio-educational model emerged in the course of time through the studies

conducted by R.C. Gardner and his colleagues. The first step towards this end was

Gardner’s study for his doctoral thesis under the supervision of W.E. Lambert in 1959

which was followed by a number of studies on language motivation and attitudes. The

results of these studies led to the first formulation of a model by Gardner and Smythe

(1975) which was later slightly adapted by Gardner in 1979. However, its first

presentation that has been most influential up to date was made in 1985. Later on the

structural equation version of the model was given by Gardner in 2006 (as given in

chapter 3 p. 113). Theoretical underpinnings in this model take motivation as a social

psychological construct embedded in a complex of cultural beliefs. Language motivation

is seen as distinguished from general motivation or any other kind of motivation on the

basis of its nature and factors of its causation. It is distinguished from the motivation for

other academic subjects also as it assumes socio-cultural implications in the sense that it

does not involve only gaining knowledge of the subject but also affective response to the

target language and its community.

Motivation is grouped with the factors of individual difference which play a key

role in language acquisition such as Intelligence and Language Aptitude. Achievement in

target language is predicted by motivation in the same way as it is predicted by

intelligence or language aptitude. Thus socio-educational model sees motivation as an

indicator of success in foreign language learning. Numerous studies were conducted to

establish a positive relation between language motivation and achievement. Thus

motivation is considered as a factor of key importance in determining the performance in

any language and in introducing policies related to it.

Socio-educational model stresses two features of second language learning one

cultural and the other educational for which it assumes its present name. It is traditionally

seen as having dichotomized motivation into Integrative motivation and instrumental

29

motivation. An individual is considered to be integratively motivated if he learns the

target language out of his interest in the culture and people of the target language and

instrumentally motivated if language learning is stimulated by practical reasons like

promotion, getting a good job or any other benefit. Sometimes the latter category is

mentioned as Machiavellian orientation. This model is generally blamed for having given

overdue importance to integrativeness in language motivation at the cost of other

important factors. Instrumental motivation is not given its due importance in this model

according to some critics. However, responses have been provided by Gardner to these

and many other such charges in his work published in 2010.

A very influential research instrument was produced by this model (1985) in the

form of AMTB (Attitude Motivation Test Battery) which is still used in a large number

of studies since its development. It consists of above 130 items which are used to

measure language motivation through 11 subtests each representing a construct which is

seen to be contributing ultimately to the overall motivation of the individual. These

subscales can be put together under five major categories to which sixth category was

added by Gardner in his work of 2010. These constructs are given as under;

1. Integrativeness

It is a major construct in the model which is defined by Grdner (2010) as, “a

desire, willingness, or affective ability to adopt features of another cultural community

and make them part of one’s own behavioral repertoire, and it is hypothesized that it can

serve as an important influence on the individual’s motivation to learn a second

language” (p115). Its subscales are as under;

I. Integrative Orientation 4 items

II. Attitudes toward English speaking people 8 items

III. Interest in foreign languages 10 items

From the subtests of integrativeness the first two were assumed to be irrelevant in

this study because the participants are almost never in contact with English speaking

30

people both the local and global. However interest in foreign languages was used because

the participants have been in situation of foreign language learning especially English and

hence their experience with English was expected to make them attach particular

meanings to learning a foreign language.

2. Attitudes toward the learning situation

Gardner found the context of language learning as having potential influence in

disposing the individual towards learning the language. In context he considers all that is

involved in the learning situation e.g. the curriculum, the teacher, individual course, rules

and regulations of the school, materials, time, pedagogy etc. The subtests assumed by this

construct in this model are;

I. English teacher evaluation 10 items

II. English course evaluation 10 items

In this study the situation does not involve language learning instead it involves

its use as medium of instruction while teaching by those who are themselves non-

proficient adult language users. The only difference is that they stand as teachers in front

of their linguistically inferiors which may involve less anxiety and pressure for them.

However, it is still unreasonable to absolutely rule it out. So the situation for this study

was characteristically identified as involving attitudes towards English as medium of

instruction and a scale was designed with 10 items which were reduced to 6 after piloting.

3. Motivation

Gardner uses this construct to show the level of involvement an individual has to

develop his language proficiency. He admits the complexity of this construct and

multiple ways of measuring it through a number of components but he finds it safe to

measure it through three subtests in this model as given in the following.

I. Motivational intensity 10 items

31

It shows the effort an individual is ready to expend in order to learn a language.

II. Desire to learn English 10 items

It shows the level of desire an individual has to improve his proficiency in English

III. Attitudes towards learning English 10 items

It shows whether the activity of learning English is taken positively or negatively

by the learner.

The first and last subtests involve a formal language learning situation which is

obviously irrelevant to the current study. Hence both of these tests have not been

included in the questionnaire used for this study. The second subtest was included

because it would show how far the teachers wanted to improve their own proficiency

while in service which could anticipate their effort to involve in formal or informal

learning to satisfy their desire of improving their proficiency in English. With this view a

scale to show desire was included in the questionnaire consisting of 10 items which were

reduced to 8 after piloting.

4. Language Anxiety

Anxiety is caused through various social psychological factors contingent to the

situation of language learning. It is generally described as a disposition to retreat from or

not involve actively in the situation of language learning out of fear of getting exposed,

due to shyness etc. It is conceived as negatively related to self-confidence with language

and also to language achievement in this model. It is measured through two subtests

given in the following;

I. Language class anxiety 10 items

They are related to the anxiety which a learner has in his formal classroom.

II. Language use anxiety 10 items

32

They are related to the anxiety an individual experiences while using the target

language. It can be compared with communication apprehension used in WTC model.

Language use anxiety has been taken for this study because the participants are never in a

formal classroom situation to learn the language rather mostly expected to make use of

English language. Also, the similarity between language use anxiety and communication

apprehension provide a good point of intersection between Socio-educational model and

WTC model which has been made use of in this study. A scale consisting of 8 items has

been used to measure anxiety of the teachers they face while using English as medium of

instruction.

5. Instrumentality

It shows the practical purposes for which an individual wants to learn a particular

language. It is named as Instrumental Orientation in AMTB as a scale to measure the

construct of instrumentality. It consists of only four items. Socio-educational model

actually does not give much value to the instrumental reasons of learning language in

language motivation research which is totally unjustifiable in the context of the current

study in which instrumentality has every reason to be considered as a very important

factor of motivation for learning English language. In view of this some extra aspects and

situations involving instrumentality have been identified for this study and assumed to

affect the level of motivation among the participants of this study. A 5 item scale has

been designed to measure this construct in the present study.

6. One Additional Measure

It has been included by Gardner (2010) in his latest International version of

AMTB. This additional measure is social environment which is considered to be very

important by Gardner. It has single measurement scale labeled as Parental

Encouragement which is measured through 8 items. This scale is obviously irrelevant for

this study so has not been included.

33

Willingness to Communicate (WTC) is used as a construct that shows the

probability of initiating communication using target language in a given situation. It was

introduced by McCroskey in the situations involving L1 which was later adapted to be

used in L2 and FL situations by MacIntyre and his colleagues. It is conceived as a

personality predisposition to involve or avoid communication in the target language and

is conceptualized in this model as an antecedent of actual communication behavior. This

is why WTC is shown to be the sole immediate cause of communication behavior in the

pyramid representation (vide pyramid in chapter 2, p.100) of this model in which

communication behavior is shown at the top of the pyramid while WTC has been shown

at the second level from the top to imply as the immediate cause of communication

behavior. WTC in turn has been conceived to be the effect of individual and social

context, motivational propensities, affective cognitive context, situated antecedents and

behavioral intentions. Thus WTC is seen as the effect of a wide range of causes while it

serves as a cuase for communication behavior in its turn.

So WTC has been seen as showing the state of potential readiness to use target

language in this study while other motivational constructs used in Socio-educational

model have been assumed to contribute to the level of WTC. It is based on the research

conducted by Macintyre, MacMaster and Baker (2001) in which it was found that socio-

educational model deals mainly with attitudinal motivation and less or almost not with

action motivation. WTC model, on the other hand takes into consideration the dynamic or

action aspects of the motivation. For the fact that this study had to deal with a

characteristic situation involving actual language use, action motivation was given a lot

of importance. This is also one of the major reasons for following the tradition of

hybridization of these two models which was done by many researchers (for example

MacIntyre& Charos, 1996; Yashima, 2002; & Hashimoto, 2002)

For measurement of WTC perceived communicative competence and

communication apprehension have been found relevant factors. However, they influence

WTC in mutually opposite ways so that high level of perceived communication

competence and low level of communication apprehension are considered as indicators of

34

higher level of WTC. Apprehension is conceptualized as affecting perceived

communicative competence negatively which in turn results in reduced WTC. In this

study perceived communicative competence was replaced by Linguistic Self-Confidence

because in most of the cases the participants were expected not to have ever been in a

situation involving use of English for oral communication and thus asking them to report

about something they have never experienced would have been based purely on

imaginary situation. Hence, in order to avoid getting unreliable answers they were asked

to report about their confidence with the English language which all of them have

obviously been involved in learning at different stages in their academic career. This

point provides a rationale for self reporting by the teachers on this construct. EMI

(English as Medium of Instruction) use anxiety was included as a single substitute for

language use anxiety of socio-educational model and communication apprehension of

WTC model.

This study had two main purposes the first being the measurement of potential

readiness of teachers to accept and follow this policy for its successful implementation in

terms of the level of motivation existing among the teachers. The second purpose was to

verify the correlations among different constructs traditionally studied in Socio-

educational model and WTC model as well as through their hybridization. The idea of

using these models on population of teachers was different from the population for which

they were traditionally used. Thus it was to be seen how far the model fitted this new

situation. Structural equation modeling has been used for this purpose. Open ended items

were used in the questionnaire to trace additional factors which appeared as significant to

be used for future modifications in the adopted model and to introduce important

constructs in the current framework to make it better fit for the context of the present

study and other similar contexts. Interviews of the principals of the schools were also

used for the same purpose.

This model was used in numerous language learning situations and has since its

inception been a very influential model triggering a lot of studies. WTC model was

intended by them to make up for the short comings they perceived in Socio-educational

35

model. Both of these models were developed at different times in the history of language

motivation studies. WTC appeared almost half a century after Socio-educational model

which was introduced in early sixties and passed through many stages of its evolution.

For this study adaptations have been made in the models to make them suite the

current situation. The selection of variables for research has been made on the basis of the

situation and the participants. There has been both inclusion and exclusion on the basis of

relevance of the variables in the situation selected for the study. The detail of adaptation

of the models and selection of variables has been given in the chapter on methodology.

1.3. Statement of the Problem

The case of secondary school level teachers in rural Punjab is very weak so far as

the use of English as Medium of Instruction (EMI) is concerned. These teachers suffer

because of the factors related to their academic as well as socio-cultural background.

Academically the majority of these teachers studied in such environment where English

was not used for the purposes of communication in general or for oral communication in

particular. When it comes to their professional training, again, similar problem emerged

because it is not that they had no opportunity to develop adequate proficiency required to

lecture in English but that they have no opportunity to develop proficiency at all. The

teachers in rural areas generally live and belong to such social environment where even

the use of Urdu is discouraged through negative perception let alone the use of English.

In the same social environment the conservative forces regard English as a symbol of

colonial subjugation and above all the language of non-believers and advance every

reason to look at it with serious doubts.

However, on the other side there is pressure of globalization and the emerging

global economy producing a job market with international imperatives. These factors

have definitely forced their way to produce a positive attitude towards English and a kind

of motivation among the citizens of the world to learn it. This same is expected to work

in case of the teachers of Punjab depending on their awareness of the emerging

36

contingencies from globalization. In such environment attitudes towards English are not

only expected to be a mixture of widely different tendencies but to attain a lot of

importance in helping the plan of EMI successful or letting it fizzle out.

1.4. Rationale of the Study

Language motivation theorists give language motivation a place at par with

language aptitude and intelligence which are considered to be the most important factors

in language learning success. Motivation, in this way, is considered one of the core

factors having crucial role in language learning achievement. In view of its importance

for successful learning of a language, the role it plays in the success or failure of

language policies has been endorsed in the existing literature. Therefore, the study of

motivation of teachers in the context of a new language policy in education introduced by

the government of Punjab provided basis for this study.

Motivation related to language learning and its use was selected with focus on

EMI (English as Medium of Instruction) context because the in-service teachers who

were already teaching in the secondary schools of Punjab were non-proficient and

particularly very poor in Oracy skills as has been discussed in the light of PEELI report

and other studies conducted on such teachers. In view of such factors in the background

motivation of teachers was focused in this study. The other important point to focus this

study on teachers was in view of the key role teachers could play in the success or failure

of this policy. Thus motivation of teachers meant a strong probability of success of this

policy while lack of it meant the opposite.

Socio-educational model was used because the study was to be conducted in

academic environment and it was complemented by WTC (Willingness to Communicate)

model because the objective of the policy was to develop oral proficiency among students

by providing education through English medium which obviously needs teachers to be

proficient and motivated to carry out their teaching through English.

37

The position taken in this study with regard to motivation - in the background of

theoretical models followed – has been stated in the following sentence. Motivation is

viewed here as; “A goal oriented psychological energy caused by a complex of strictly

situation-specific factors which in turn happens to be a direct or an immediate cause of

action or behavior”.

The view has been developed on the basis of existing literature on motivation

particularly as it is seen in the selected models. The first part related to the form and

causation of motivation owes mainly to socio-educational model and depends on the

conceptualization through this model while the second part is outcome of the motivated

state i.e. potential readiness to behave or act is derived from conceptualization of

motivation in WTC.

1.5. Objectives of the Study

Following are the objectives of this study;

1. To determine the attitude and motivation of teachers in public sector secondary

schools in Punjab towards English as medium of instruction.

2. To test the models selected in this study on the bases of the relations demonstrated by

different motivational variables involved in this study.

3. To reckon the probability of the use of English as medium of instruction at present

through motivation level of the teachers.

4. To predict about the future prospects of this policy on the basis of affective response

of the teachers towards the policy of English as medium of instruction.

5. To predict about the future of English proficiency among these teachers on the basis of

their motivation to learn English in view of its importance.

6. To make recommendations regarding policy implementation as well as the use of

selected models for research in future.

38

1.6. Research Questions

In keeping with twofold purpose of this study (i.e. to explore the motivation level of

teachers on ground and to determine the relationship among different motivational

constructs of the selected models) two main research questions - each followed in turn by

its subordinate questions – were framed as given below.

Research Question 1:

How far are the teachers ready to accept and motivated to use English as medium of

instruction in their classes while teaching?

1A:

How do the teachers view English as Medium of Instruction (EMI) and EMI policy in

terms of its positive or negative evaluation?

1B:

What is the level of teachers’ readiness to use English as Medium of Instruction in terms

of their attitude and motivation?

1C:

How far do age, gender and qualification influence motivational constructs adapted for

this study from Socio-Educational and WTC models?

Research Question 2:

What types of relationship are demonstrated among various constructs adopted from the

selected models in the process of hybridization for model-testing?

39

2A:

To what degree do the motivational constructs taken from Socio-Educational model

cause Willingness to Communicate?

2B:

How does English Language Learning Experience (ELLE) relate to Motivational

constructs taken from socio-educational model and to Willingness to Communicate in

English (WTCE) adapted from WTC model?

2C:

How do Linguistic Self-Confidence (LSC) and language anxiety (ANX) affect WTCE

and motivation (as an aggregate of the constructs from socio-educational model)?

2D:

To what extent can a path from motivation to WTC, as hypothesized by Yashima (2002),

be established/ confirmed through Structural Equation Modeling?

1.7. Significance of the Study

This research will provide knowledge of ground realities pertaining to the

situation - where the policy of EMI is to be implemented – by exploring the way status of

English is perceived by very important but equally neglected stakeholders in the plan of

EMI. A positive perception and desire to learn English is critically important for the

success of EMI and a substantial knowledge of such factors is necessary while making

decisions in the context of any policy related to EMI.

40

The study will focus on the possible causes of both the positive and negative

perception of EMI by evaluating the nature of responses by the teachers to the

questions/statements which will be adapted from AMTB (Attitude, Motivation Test

Battery) according to the situation and sample of the study. The study will help the policy

by finding affective response of the teachers towards use of English as a language of

communicating concepts related to different subjects. The nature of the responses of

teachers will indicate the future of the policy of EMI. The study will provide valuable

information in the light of which future planning can be made. It is tended to find

shortfalls of the policy, to measure the extent to which further steps are needed and to

identify the direction of these steps. Furthermore, it is the first study of its kind – in terms

of its situation, context and the matter it is dealing with - and so is sure to open up vistas

for researches in Pakistan.

Secondary level education plays a foundational role in education and it does have

inevitable and significant effect on later studies. Present research will contribute in this

regard by guiding effective planning at the foundational level. Finally and in no way less

importantly, the study will facilitate and invite further ventures which could be very

effective for the solution of long lasting problems faced by the public sector education in

the context of the policy regarding English language.

This study introduces the social psychological perspective in studying English in

Pakistan. Hence, its socio-cultural issues and the response of Pakistanis triggered or

caused by their social psychological perception of English thus opening a new avenue for

fresh studies in Pakistan. It is very important because of complex attitude of Pakistanis

towards English as a natural outcome of its socio-cultural and historical realities. So the

area introduced by this research will remain a fertile field of studies in Pakistan with very

interesting information.

At the end this study was aimed to make theoretical contribution to the field of

language motivation studies by testing the applicability of the models developed abroad

especially in Canada and, though, used and tested in many other countries but not in

41

Pakistan. Additionally, these models were used in a different setting with the participants

having different academic and socio-cultural setting of the study than they were used

earlier on. The case marks the difference through its involvement of some distinctive

features of the situation where this study is to be carried out. They exist in the academic

and socio-cultural status of the participants in this study who are to develop English

proficiency in order to use it as medium of instruction for teaching. In contrast, the

previous researches were conducted on the participants who had to develop proficiency in

order to use it in their status as learners thus standing in a different socio-cultural and

academic stead.

The teachers in this study are similar to language learners in two respects 1) that

their proficiency level in 94% (PEELI, 2013) of the cases is that of a beginner 2) that the

characteristic situation creates an issue of affective response towards English for them.

The important contribution of this study would be the development of model on the basis

of this study through structural equation modeling which would have its utility in further

replication for effective studies of language motivation in similar environments after

modifications - if felt necessary. However, the significance of detecting and identifying

extraneous factors has not been completely overlooked. To deal with such factors

analysis of qualitative data will be used to mark important factors to enhance the depth of

the current study and to guide the future researches in order to explore the areas missed

out of limitation of the study although important otherwise.

1.8. Delimitation of the Study

This study is delimited to the exploration of motivation and attitudes of teachers

teaching in the secondary schools of rural areas of Punjab both male and female. It is

delimited to the motivation of teachers to use English while lecturing. So the focus of the

study is on the oral use of the language indicated through their willingness to

communicate and other related factors as have been listed in the section of Research

questions. It is to be admitted, in view of complexity of motivation, that any kind of

factor extraneous to the models being used and extra to the variables selected after

42

adaptation of these models is declared to be not a part of this study. Further with regard to

the area and sample this study was delimited to the schools selected from six districts of

Punjab. In this selection only the high schools of rural areas of Punjab were part of the

study.

1.9. Methodology

The study was a mixture of qualitative and quantitative approaches based on the

multi-method approach towards data collection. It was conducted through survey design

as questionnaires and interviews were used to collect data across the province of Punjab

(Pakistan). Survey was conducted through six districts of Punjab which are spread north-

east to south-west across whole province. Further, the ranking of districts on the basis of

HDI (Human Development Index) was used in the selection of districts. The sample for

this study consisted of secondary school level government teachers from rural area of

Punjab who were selected to fill the questionnaires. Principals of schools were selected

for interviews from each of the selected districts. At least three were interviewed from

each of the districts. Mainly the sampling technique was convenience based, however, it

was preferred and tried that proportionate number was selected from every Tehsil (an

administrative sub-unit within a district) of each district. Following the hybridization of

socio-educational model and WTC (Willingness to Communicate) model questionnaire

was designed. Data was analyzed using SPSS version 21.0 and Amos 21.0 was used to

develop a model through Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). They were used for being

the latest versions available. Data gathered through open-ended items was analyzed by

developing thematic categories. Interviews were critically analyzed for thematic trends in

the light of conceptual framework based on the selected theoretical models. Finally

significant findings were derived from the analyses which provided the basis for

conclusion.

The next chapter reviews the related literature in the area of language motivation studies.

Chapter 3 discusses in detail the methodology used in the study. Chapter 4 gives the

indepth analysis of the study whereas chapter 5 concludes the whole work.

43

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter reviews the available literature on different topics which provide

theoretical grounding to the concepts of language motivation and attitude. It traces the

socio-cultural bases of these constructs and the way they are formed through beliefs

which are enlivened in the collective conscious of any particular society. The symbiotic

relationship of individual and society is an essential part of discussion in the somewhat

newly emerging perspective on language learning and teaching generally referred to as

acculturation perspective to language learning. This part of the review has been included

to emphasize the value of socio-cultural sentience as the bedrock for language attitudes

and motivation. They are considered as points of individual difference, naturally, because

the responses to something social are not uniform across the individuals. Thus, these

constructs are socially learnt and individually expressed.

Then, available literature on defining attitude and motivation as psychological or

social-psychological – to be more specific – constructs has been sifted in order to

establish an argument about the formation, function and significance of these constructs

in the teaching and learning process of a language. Socio-educational model introduced

by Gardner has been discussed with a focus on its emergence and contribution as a

framework for research in the area of language motivation and attitude as well as other

important frameworks which have been influential in this field for research studies.

Emergence of the construct of Willingness to Communicate (WTC) in the

existing polity of researches on language motivation has been traced through the

available literature because it is part of the framework used in this study along with

44

socio-educational model. The studies on merging these two models and finally a working

definition or concept has been developed by the researcher in the light of reviewed

literature to show the conceptual grounds of this study.

2.1. Socio-cultural Basis of Motivation and Attitude

Significance of culture in language learning is not a newly developed topic. It has

a long history so far as importance of environment and the role of culture in language

learning are concerned. Piaget (1918) as cited in Pass (2004) advocated its importance at

the beginning of twentieth century. Vygotsky (1978, 1986) is seen as very influential in

putting the matter across through his seminal works so far as the importance of socio-

cultural perspective on language learning is concerned. Language learning involves

unavoidably learning the culture of that language. (Schumman 1978, Kramsch 1993 &

Todd 1995) Thus learner’s reaction, originating from his perception of the target

language and culture as well as his own cultural beliefs that he inherits from his own

culture play a significant role in setting the dispositions and moods of the learner.

(Weiner 1992) It is involved not only during the learning stage of a learner but also when

he makes choices whether to use target language or not in a given situation which is

technically referred to as Willingness to Communicate (WTC) in second or target

language. Barraclough, Christophel and McCroskey (1988) find the involvement of a

number of predispositions and the expected reaction to their manifestation as very

important in the choice of a person to talk or not to talk in a cross-cultural situation.

This is all that remains important in motivation of individuals in learning the

target language as well as using it. Therefore, in the following a recently developed

model has been discussed in order to show the cultural roots of motivation in learning a

language. An overview of existing literature shows that cultural learning was initially

viewed as social or group phenomenon which later on was viewed as an individual and

social psychological phenomenon. The purpose of this discussion lies in the fact relevant

to current study. It is that this study conceives motivation and attitudes as having their

roots embedded in the foundational ground of social psychology and in this study -

45

because it is motivation and attitude towards language - they are conceived to have been

embedded in Social Psychology of Language an area acknowledged by a list of

researchers and scholars to have made itself distinct in Sociolinguistics.

Acculturation Model in language learning is a recent development which grows

on the researches dealing with significance of culture of target language in the linguistic

development of L2 learners. Learning culture of the target language as part of language

learning procedure has caught attention of the scholars over time. Language learning in

these approaches is seen as a cross-cultural phenomenon in which it is not merely a

matter of learning sounds and structure of the target language but needs an entrance into

the cultural habitat of target language at psychological plane. The concepts of adaptive

behavior, ethnic identity and assimilation occur very frequently in the existing literature

on the importance and role of culture in language acquisition. (Tony 1995). Gordon

(1964) refers to the adaptive changes made by learners during their learning process in

which they develop the linguistic habits of the other group as part of their culture as

acculturation. The idea of acculturation as being a ‘process’ than an event is a single

unifying thread in almost all the researches according to Teske and Nelson (1974). In

keeping with this approach of the model motivation to acculturate becomes essential to

keep the process going.

According to Tony (1995) acculturation theories entered in the field of

Anthropology as early as 1980. However during this early phase of their development

acculturation was taken as social or group phenomenon. It was in the later researches that

acculturation theories became individualistic and psychological in their approach.

Redfield, Linton and Herskovits (1936) in their definition of acculturation designate it as

a social or group phenomenon overlooking its individualistic as well as psychological

aspects. Teske and Nelson (1974) trace the entrance of psychological and individual

aspects in the studies conducted by Mcfee (1968).

Schumann (1978, 1986) introduces acculturation model in language learning

phenomenon. According to him the success in second language learning corresponds to

46

the degree an individual is successful in acculturating himself to the socio-cultural

environment of target language. The choice and decision of the learner to acculturate puts

language attitude of the learner on positive track and enhances his motivation level which

is ensued by an accelerated progress in language learning process. He makes a list of

some variables of individual variation which according to him happen to be very

important in acculturation and the resultant positive attitude and increased motivation. He

includes amount of time in the culture, relative status, number of individuals in a group of

the learners and cohesion among the members of adult learners. He distinguishes two

types of acculturation in one, according to him, the learner attempts to integrate himself

in the target culture while in the other he tends to use target culture as a reference point

for himself.

So far it has been seen that language learning has a lot to do with cultural beliefs.

The process of learning is not merely a progress in having command over the structure

and sound system of that particular language but there is a whole set of culturally

involved phenomena which are at work in configuration of psychological traits of

individuals as well as groups which determine the nature of response towards TL (Target

Language). Available literature on cultural orientation in language learning gives a lot of

importance to acculturation of learners in the socio-cultural perspective of target

language. This progress of learners in absorption of cultural input attached with target

language makes their attitudinal and motivational preparation thus making them ready for

appropriate investment in the learning process. The purpose of reviewing literature on

this topic was to establish the fact that socio-cultural plane serves as the foster ground for

social psychological constructs used in this research.

It has been established in the theories and models which have been followed as

operational framework for this study. Social beliefs and perceptions, afloat in a society,

work to modulate dispositions and the attitudinal responses to these vary at individual

level. Berrin, et al. (2011) states that due to the awareness of the role of social aspects

involved motivational psychology as a situated construct has become significantly

recognized in the research conducted in this field for the current time. These remarks

47

throw light on the importance of cultural and social element in second language learning

motivation as it was recognized in the development and conceptualization of socio-

educational model which examines language learning motivation in the combined context

of social and educational environment.

2.2. Social Psychological Background of Affective Constructs

It has already been discussed that affective variables are constituted by a

collective social and cultural conscious of a people. Social psychology is a field which

exists where sociological and psychological studies overlap. It provides a perspective to

the investigations carried out on affective variables. It takes into account the role of social

forces in the way people develop impressions of each other, they pass judgments about

one another as well as the factors that are involved in interpersonal attraction. According

to Ward (2006) social psychology investigates how the feelings, behaviours and thoughts

of a particular person are influenced by the thoughts and characteristics of another people

who he comes across in a particular real or inferred or imagined social context.

In the field of language acquisition researches were pioneered by very influential

figures around the beginning of twentieth century who claimed social psychology as the

foundational ground for the affective constructs related to language. It was time when

research in the area of language attitudes started which ushered into a new era of defining

motivation with linguistic orientation. Agheyisi and Fishman (1970) provide a list of the

pioneering researchers on language attitude which includes Lambert and Gardner (1959),

Fishman (1968), Ervin (1967), Barker (1978), Herman (1961) and many others who came

during the time which can be considered as the nascent phase of social psychological

perspective on affective variables related to language studies. Gardner (1985) proposes

that ‘Second Language Learning is a social psychological phenomenon, and it is

important to consider carefully the conditions under which it takes place” (p. 2).

According to Gardner (1979) and William (1994), even those items of language

which could be explicitly taught like lexical items and grammatical rules are culturally

48

bound this is how language learning is considered as a social event. This view has been

endorsed by large number of researchers thus adding social dimension to the constructs

involved in language learning motivation which makes it easy to understand why social

psychologists were the first to conduct studies in the field of language attitudes and

motivation. Coupland and Jaworsky (1997) recognize Social Psychology of Language as

a subfield in sociolinguistics which deals with affective factors involved in cross cultural

linguistic phenomena. It deals with stereotyping and perception building on the basis of

linguistic identities constituted by the normative forces within collective conscious of a

society. They put the matter in the following words;

“This psychological dimension of language in society has been quite extensively

studied within a sub-branch of sociolinguistics usually referred to as the social

psychology of language. The main tradition of research in this area is language

attitudes studies”. (p. 267)

Forgas et al. (2011) expounds that attitudes have been the central concern in

social psychology right from the beginning of this field. It studied the nature of attitudes,

their formation, attitude stability, the process and causes of their change and their

measurement. Thomas and Znaniecki (1928) observed that social psychology as a science

has become now a little older than a full century but through this long period it had

remained essentially the study of attitude.

The traits of group psychology at play within the cultural fabric of a society are

the shared norms which serve to pool the individual’s social cognition together. However

it never results in a complete loss of individuality instead individuals sufficiently differ

from each other in their affective responses to the issues related to a language. This is

why attitudes and motivation are considered as factors of individual variation.

49

2.3. Attitudes

Attitude is generally seen as a latent psychological construct which is indirectly

related to behavior. Mckenzie (2010) cites Bohner and Wanke (2002) having view of

attitudes as being determinants of behavior. Behavior is just an expression of attitude or

the distinction between attitude and behavior may be seen as internal and external forms

of the same thing. It remains an attitude till it is translated into behavior through

externalization which definitely needs many other appropriate cognitive, affective and

situational factors. So attitudes are not necessarily changed into behaviors but they may

or may not be depending on the favorability of the feasibility factors. However, there is a

good quantity of research that considers attitude as part of behavior itself and hence overt

in existence. The later view about attitudes is maintained by behaviourist approaches

towards attitudes. Cooper and Crano (2011) highlight the role of active human cognition

working on external social factors in order to extract internal dispositions from such

interactions with the external environment. They view human mind as blessed with

unique capacity to distill social experiences into permanent internal representations of

these experiences which play a role to determine future behavior of the individual.

Attitudes are considered as complex constructs and hence difficult to define

(Jonassen, 2001). They were generally confused with other constructs by different

scholars and researchers in the history of attitude studies. Scholars tended to confuse

attitudes with feelings for example Thurnstone (1929) defined these as showing how far

an individual can be favourable or unfavarourable towards any particular issue. Likert

(1932) defines attitude in terms of range of responses. Allport (1935) finds a compromise

between the positions of Thurnstone and Likert by viewing attitudes as a state of

readiness used to respond to thought experiences and in directing behaviour which is

mental and neural in nature.

This definition advocates the nature of attitudes as latent constructs and shows the

way how attitudes stand relevant in directing behavior. Various theorists and researchers

have defined attitudes variously. Some important attempts in defining attitudes were

50

made by Allport (1935), Nelson (1939), Cambell (1947) and DeFleur and Westie (1963).

However the dominant theme takes attitudes to be mental state of readiness and stand as

antecedent to behavior.

Agheyisi and Fishman (1970) distinguish mentalist and behaviourist approaches

in the literature devoted to defining attitudes. According to them former views attitudes

as subjective and latent which need to be inferred through the observable behavior

whereas the later views them as actually existing in the overt response itself or behaviour.

They identify another problem faced in the definition of attitudes related to the issue of

structure of attitude i.e. whether attitude has got unitary structure or it has multi-

componential structure. The concepts based on multi-componential structure of attitudes

view three parts of attitude i.e. cognitive, affective and conative while those based on

unitary structure of attitudes view it as having no distinguishable subcomponents.

Generally those scholars who see it as internal or implicit in nature consider

attitude as a multi-componential construct. (Rosenberg, 1960; Rokeach, 1968 & Lambert,

1964). Same line was followed by Rajecki (1982) while defining the concept of attitude

when he says that it consists of the way a person thinks (cognitive), feels (affective) and

intends to behave (conative). According to him it is the summation of these three

components which is determined in measurement of components and not each of them

separately. Baker (1992) contributes to the debate by defining attitudes as “a hypothetical

construct used to explain the direction and persistence of human behavior” (p.10).

Rokeach (1968) views attitude as consisting of beliefs and each belief in turn

consists of cognitive, affective and conative elements. Thus he further increases the

complexity of the structure of attitude. Fishbein (1966), holding difference with Rokeach,

makes belief distinct from attitude and finds the later to be consisting only of affective

component while belief according to him consists of the other two namely the cognitive

and conative components.

51

Still there is another dimension given to attitudes in the attempts to explain the

nature of this construct. Attitudes are considered as evaluative by a large number of

researchers (Rhine, 1958 & Azjen, 1988 as cited by Mckenzie 2010; Fishbein & Azjen,

1975; Bazerman, 1997; Eagly & Chaiken, 1998; Maio & Haddock, 2010; etc). For

example Fishbein and Azjen (1975) define it as a general feeling that ranges from

positive to negative or it is the evaluation a person makes of an incident, object or any

other person or people. Eagly and Chaiken (1998) add to this view of evaluative nature of

attitude by seeing attitude as a psychological tendency that is expressed in showing

certain degree of favour or disfavor towards an entity. In this view psychological

tendency can be seen as a state or predisposition while the expression of favour or

disfavor can be seen in the context of conative or behavioural part of an attitude

according to multiple-components view of attitude. Eagly and Chaiken (1998) consider

attitude as a psychological tendency with an evaluative element in it which is expressed

both in favoring or disfavoring the particular target object or the entity. They further

elaborate by explaining psychological tendency as something that implies anything

existing at the internal plane of mind whereas evaluative according to them refers to all

kinds of evaluative responding whether overt or covert, affective cognitive or

behavioural. It may be seen, according to them as a bias which directs the behavior of an

individual in a particular direction.

Some have even defined attitude as a ‘hypothetical construct’ (Doob, 1947;

Green, 1954; Chein, 1948 & Mckenzie, 2010) having direct relationship with explicit

behavior or verbal responses to stimuli. Reid (2003) discusses knowledge, feelings and

behavior as to be the basis of attitudes and sees attitudes function as guiding or directing

the future behavior.

The figure in the following shows composition of attitude and the relationship

between attitude and behavior at the same time.

52

Figure 2

The Theory of Planned Behaviour

Source: Adapted from Eagly and Chaiken, 1993 (p. 187)

It is easy to see after going through the literature on the definition of attitudes that

the idea of their being latent and a kind of predisposition to behavior has been the

dominant strain in the discussion on this topic. Thus far it has been seen that attitude is

psychological construct residing within an individual and finding its expression in

appropriate social situations (overt or covert). It is distinct from behavior but has strong

role in originating and constituting it. Overt situations hereby are assumed to be those in

which there exist explicit stimuli to generate attitudes while by covert situations it is

assumed that the stimuli exist in the mind of the person in the form of cultural norms

which work to set the disposition of an individual. The researches which consider it as

existing actually in behavior itself did not prove to be very influential among the

researches on attitude. Even those who showed behaviourist tendency in defining attitude

never denied their latent nature entirely but they only differed in their view from the

mentalists in finding their presence within behavior itself in addition to their latent

existence.

To bring the discussion on what an attitude fundamentally is to a conclusion two

definitions are mentioned here which synthesize the views developed in different

researches. One of these is the definition by Pratkanis, Breckler and Greenwald (1989)

Behaviour

Subjective

Norm

Attitude

towards the

behaviour

Perceived

behavioural

contrcontrol

Intention to

behave

53

which views attitude as an evaluation that aperson has of an object of thought. This

definition according to him has two advantages; first that it is minimally loaded with

excess meaning and second that it lays emphasis on evaluative nature of attitude as it was

done by many researchers before him. Bazerman et al. (1997) equate attitudes with

evaluations of particular entities which according to them are referred to as attitude

objects in technical terms employed in attitude theory. They further explain attitude

objects as being anything which makes itself distinguished in the mind of an individual.

2.3.1. Structure and Formation of Attitudes

It has already been discussed that attitudes are socio-psychological constructs.

Differing views regarding the structures of attitudes have already been reviewed briefly.

However the focus of discussion was on showing the social psychological nature of

attitudes. Here the concern is to provide comprehensive account of the literature on

structure and formation of attitudes. Researches, conducted over time, in the field of

attitudes show beliefs to be the cultivating ground for attitudes which in turn come from

socio-cultural environment and social cognition.

Pratkanis et al. (1989) present concept of basal-peripheral model of attitude

structure according to which attitude exists in circular shape consisting of two parts. One

lying at the core is considered as the stable part whereas the other is seen as annexed

loosely to the core at its outer most part and liable or open to change. He gives an account

of the previous researches throwing light on this matter and explains this model of

attitude structure which admits of inertia, change and recovery in original state regarding

attitude. According to this idea the stable basal component resists change and also tends

to pull the peripheral part back to original state after the influencing factor of change has

been removed.

Attitude can be conceived as having tripartite structure on the basis of definitions

given by many scholars (Breckler, 1984; Rosenberg & Hovland, 1960; Kothandapni,

54

1971 & Ostrom, 1969). Researches belonging to this category conceive attitude as

consisting of three components i.e. cognitive, affective and conative as discussed earlier

in this chapter. As distinct from tripartite model behaviourist approach to attitude

structure sees attitude as an intervening factor between stimulus and response in S-R

connection. Influential figures among the behaviourist scholars in the field of attitude

studies were; Thorndike (1935), Doob (1947) and Rhine (1958).

Another group of studies may be described as expectancy-value theories. The

theorists in this group (Fishbein & Azjen, 1975; Rosenberg, 1956) took attitudes to be

consisting of a multi-attribute structure. In cognitive perspective on attitude structure

constructs like proposition, set of beliefs, image, knowledge structure and schema are

used in contrast to terms describing S-R connection in behaviourist perspective.

Spielberger (2004) discusses structure of attitude as multiplicative function of two things;

(a) – the beliefs held by an individual about an attitude object and (b) an evaluation of

each of these beliefs.

Bazerman (1997) categorizes attitude structure as intra-attitudinal and inert-

attitudinal structures. The former is used to label the organization of componential parts

in an attitude whether they may be representative impressions of experiences in the mind

of individual or anything else. Basically it denotes the composition of an attitude or what

components an attitude is made up of. The later label is for molar structures of attitudes

which show the relationship between attitudes. This view sees attitudes having

hierarchical structures in which through the process of generalization certain attitudes

subsumes certain other attitudes by getting abstracted to a higher level. In this method

subordinate attitudes come together through associations formed among them and then

are fused together to give rise to more general and more complex constructs or attitudes

which exist above their component attitudes in the hierarchical order of their existence.

So far it has been seen that attitude structure has been viewed differently in

different approaches, theories and researches. However it can be found that multiple

component theory of attitude has ever remained more popular with the researchers of

55

attitudes. They may differ on the nature of links between different components of attitude

or even the nature of components themselves but, somehow they are alike in attributing

multiple components to attitude structure.

In attitude formation experiences, beliefs and other socio-cultural input has a very

important role. Attitude formation needs active involvement on the part of individual.

The inner processes of selection, perception and evaluation are involved collecting

content for attitudes and then shaping and organizing it to construct an attitude. Bazerman

(1997) gives an account of the way attitude is framed. According to him an attitude is

virtually not formed till an evaluative aspect comes about related to the entity or the

object of attitude, thus making evaluative component as a necessary part of attitude. This

evaluative element plays its role in the formation of psychological tendency for future

response, whether overt or covert to the particular object of attitude. This evaluative

response is repeated in subsequent situations till it is established. This is the stage

according to them when an attitude has actually been formed.

2.3.2. Characteristics and Classification of Attitudes

Gardner (1985) lists five characteristics of attitudes: i – attitudes have cognitive

element (which means that they are part of the thought content of an individual) and

affective element (which means that feelings and emotions are attached to them) ii –

attitudes have dimensional existence rather than bipolar (which means that they vary in

the degree of favourability and unfavourability) iii – attitudes work to predispose a

person so that he acts in a certain way iv – attitudes need to be learnt and are not inherited

V – attitudes tend to persist but are not resistant to change. Gardner (1985) classified

attitudes on the basis of the nature of correlation they maintained with success or

achievement in learning a language. He found bases for this classification in the way

indices on language achievement correlated with measures on attitude scales. He enlists

three distinct grounds of classification and other related factors as in the following.

56

1. Specificity or Generality

As per this idea (Gardner, 1985) attitudes have specificity when they are shown to

anything narrowed down in its aspects. Thus, according to him, the attitudes shown

towards learning French are specific while attitudes towards learning foreign languages

have generality. This basis of classification is important for current study because

attitudes which are focused here are specifically in response to the status of English as

Language of instruction or English as medium of instruction in public schools.

2. Relevance

Classification in this case (ibid) is done on the basis of relevance of attitude to the

kind of achievement in the language. Obviously some attitudes happen to be more

relevant in the task of language learning than the others. Gardner makes it clear with the

help of an example that attitude towards learning French language and syllabus selected

to be taught definitely be more relevant in case of learning French language than the

attitudes towards the French speakers. This idea is also very useful in guiding the current

research because it focuses on the attitudes of teachers relevant to the state policy of

imposition of English as Medium of Instruction and its effect on their willingness to

practically use English for this purpose. It also focuses on relevant attitudes of students

towards English as medium of instruction.

3. Educational or social

Third way of classification takes into consideration either educational or social

reasons for the classification of attitudes. For instance educational reasons can be related

to teacher or course or learning the language while social reasons may include socio-

cultural implications of learning the target language. Current research involves attitudes

having characteristics identified in both of these ways.

57

2.3.3. Attitude Change

Attitudes are dynamic in the sense that they stand open to change. Various

experiences keep on exercising transforming influence on attitudes and they keep

constantly going under change. However it never detracts from the concept of attitude

stability but that needs not to be seen in the sense of stagnation or a perfectly static

condition. They are stable enough to be distinctively understood but have the inherent

tendency to change in response to emerging circumstances.

Substantial studies of attitude nature endorse the idea of attitude change. Baker

(1995) supports the idea by Gardner (1985) when he avers that attitudes are modified

through experiences. Gardner laid stress on improvement of different factors related to

language learning and teaching environment which according to him make the language

learning experiences better. Such experiences according to him definitely lead towards

more positive attitudes towards language learning. In the same regard Rajecki (1990) sees

persuasion as goal of either establishing an entirely new attitude in an individual where

none existed earlier or that of changing and modifying any existing attitude. In the

context of Pakistan persuasion for teachers and students in order to change their attitudes

towards English as medium of Instruction will be in different ways because the factors

relevant for teachers will definitely differ from those which will be relevant for the

students.

Kelman (1971) describes three different factors as sources of attitude change. The

first of these is compliance which according to him works when an individual decides to

meet perceived standard in order to achieve favorability. For this reason the individual

accepts the influence for change. Identification is the second aspect of attitude change.

According to this an individual becomes open to the influence for change because he is

interested in getting identified with the object of his interest to a certain level that proves

to be satisfactory for him. The third and the last aspect is internalization according to

58

which a person accepts the influence because the content of the affecting factors matches

his own internal value system.

Attitude change in basal-peripheral model of Pratkanis (1989), as discussed under

attitude structure heading, admits attitude change through the peripheral part of attitude.

The core according to this model exercises control by bringing it to the original state

while the peripheral part shows tendency towards inducing change under the effect of

attitude-relevant factors. According to this model attitudes need sufficient force to be

exercised by these factors to overcome the inherent power of resilience of attitude. Thus

the influence on periphery needs to overweigh the retrieving effect of basal part of

attitude otherwise the initiated change will not be actualized.

It has been seen in the literature reviewed that attitudes are fairly stable constructs

but not permanent. They are changed, replaced, reconstructed or reconstituted under

special circumstances. Exposure, experience, persuasion and cognitive development play

a very important role in attitude change.

2.3.4. Relationship between Attitude and Behavior

Constructs related to social psychology have always proved hard nuts for the

scholar because it has never been easy to make them distinct from each other. There have

ever been controversies and confusions regarding this matter and generally agreements

among scholars and researchers in this regard are relatively fewer. The same is true in

case of attitude and behavior as well regarding the distinction which holds them apart and

the relationship which makes them as two mutually distinct but related constructs. There

have been controversies over the nature, formation, function and interrelationship of both

of these constructs. However, certain renderings have naturally carried greater weight

compared with others and proved to be more influential for that matter.

59

Traditionally researches trying to make attitude and behavior distinct from each

other have faced problems naturally because of the level of abstractness involved in both

of these constructs. Certain researches have tended to find no distinction between the two

and have considered them as two different names of the same concept. Forgas et al.

(2011) explains the constitution of attitudes as latent and complex psychological

constructs showing, at the same time, their relationship with the behaviour. According to

him attitudes are a reliable source of predicting future behaviour.

There appeared criticism of the relationship between attitude and behavior in

1960s which found that attitudes were poor in predicting behavior (McGuire, 1969 &

Wicker, 1969). However, LaPiere (1934) found congruence in the expressed attitude

and the behavior attached to that. The idea of unpredictability of behavior by attitude

was expressed by some others also during this period as Azjen (1988) puts forth that

every kind of human action is determined by a set of factors that is unique in nature.

According to him, even slight changes in the environment result in different kinds of

behaviours.

Behavior according to this view is conceived as having contingent nature and

developing on the spur of the moment. Thus behavior is not considered as being

consistent corresponding to the stable nature of attitude so has no direct relationship

with attitude or the origin in it. However Baker (1992) furnishes a two-point answer to

this observation about unpredictability of behavior. First he finds it unjustified to ignore

all the experiences accumulated in attitude and solely focuses on external behaiour and

also that single acts may not suffice to infer complex internal patterns developed

through variegated experiences. Second, Important point regarding attitudes is

generality and specificity and the level of predictability is in direct proportion to the

level of generality-specificity match between attitude and behavior.

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2.4. Language Attitudes

Social Psychology of Language has been discussed as a new field developing and

making itself distinct in the field of sociolinguistics. Language attitudes have been largely

the primary concern of this field. Language attitudes are psychological constructs of

essentially same psychological composition and origin as general attitudes and are

different only through their specificity (as in afore mentioned views of Gardner).

Language attitudes are shown specifically towards any language or in technical terms;

language itself is attitude object in language attitudes. Socio-cultural implications of

language learning and teaching have been very important themes in researches in social

psychology of language. This is where attitude studies in the context of language learning

and teaching becomes a very significant concern for the studies in applied linguistics.

McGroarty (1988) argued that the applied linguists need to understand the way

social contexts of language acquisition affect the learning and teaching process. Bernard

Weiner (1992) which conceived a set of influences which grow out of sciocultural

environment and not within the individual. After a lot of social awareness entered into

motivational psychology, L2 motivation was started to be considered as a situated

construct.

Language attitudes have attained a lot of academic importance and have been in

focus for long in language pedagogy now. Attitudes important for language are not

necessarily attached to language specifically but they may have any indirect bearing on

language. This is what traditionally the research in this area has been looking for. It has

been important concern of the researches to discover all those constructs which could

possibly have implications for language pedagogy. The role of attitude in positively

disposing learner toward target language and its impact on the efficacy of learning

process is enunciated by Schuman (1978). He holds that the learner learns target language

more efficiently if his/her attitude towards the people of Target Language (TL) is more

favourable than in case of normal attitude.

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The period of 1950s and 1960s can safely be called as the time of inception and

development of studies in language attitudes. There is a long list of the researchers who

conducted seminal investigation in the field of social psychology of language. Among

these researches the works started by Lambert and his Ph. D supervisee Gardner were the

most influential. Gardner consistently worked in this field for over a half century and

during this time his efforts culminated in the development of socio-educational model

(1985) which is till date considered as the most influential model for researches on

language attitude and motivation. Luckily Gardner still lives to develop and modify his

model in order to refine it in the light of criticisms made on it as well as in the light of

new development and contributions in this field by other scholars and researchers.

Languages are socially and culturally bound (as has been evidenced in the

literature reviewed on acculturation theory) therefore any activity related to language is

expected to have significant socio-cultural implications. There is no dearth of researches

endorsing social stereotyping and ascription of identities on linguistic grounds. These

researches have clear evidences that languages are responded to on the bases of

established beliefs about those languages as well as target language community and the

culture upheld by that community.

Curtin (1979) considers languages as the functions of those cultures and the

related environments in which they develop and observes that they cannot be treated in

isolation. He argues that the learners of any language need to adapt themselves according

to native environment of the target language regardless of the fact whether it is spoken in

the country or not where they are learning.

2.4.1. Importance of Studying Language Attitudes

Baker (1992) finds attitudes to have crucial importance for language in order to

remain alive. According to him attitudes play an important role in the ‘restoration

preservation, decay or death’ of a language. Language attitude has a lot of importance in

language policy and studies according to Lewis (1981) as cited in Baker (1992) any

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educational policy in order to be successful needs to take care of one of the three things.

The first according to him is that the policy should be attuned to the expressed attitudes

of those who happen to be the stakeholders in the implementation of that policy. The

second to be done is to convince those who have negative attitudes about fairness of the

policy and the last to be done is to address the causes of negative attitudes and remove

them. He concludes with the note that in all the choices available knowledge of attitudes

is must in order to formulate a policy as well as to execute it successfully.

McKenzie (2010) sees language attitude study to be very helpful in knowing

about the second language acquisition process. Dornyei and Skehan (2003) speak of

positive correlation between success in language learning and having positive attitudes

towards second language and its speakers. Attitudes and motivation have been considered

as among the core factors responsible for success in language learning in a large size of

empirical research. These affective factors are treated independent of ability and aptitude

in a great number of researches in the field of language learning. The most influential

among these researches were those conducted through socio-educational model

developed by a Canadian researcher and his colleagues which has motivation and attitude

at its core and sees motivation and attitude typically parallel to language learning ability

and aptitude.

Language attitudes and motivation are considered among the most important

factors correlated with the success in target language learning as well as likelihood to use

it. Both of these constructs have been dealt with elaborately in two influential

frameworks, that is, socio-educational model introduced and developed by Gardner

(1985) and willingness to communicate (WTC) model initiated or introduced by

McCroskey (1985) and then taken up and advanced by McIntyre et al. (1998), McIntyre

(2007) and others. These concepts have been used in a large variety of contexts involving

different factors and with different orientations. Researches produced through these

models have been very influential in this area.

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2.6. Attitudes towards English as Global Language

The colonization in which Britain stood as the leading power constituted new

realities and identities for the colonial as well as the post-colonial world. The political

influence through military might created new possibilities for the English language.

English remained language of the masters during the rule while it became language of the

center of power which was exercised through control on means of economics in the post-

colonial world. Thus it had a prestige status spread over almost centuries and the result

was its global spread and a wide acceptance. English became language of global import

and a lingua franca worldwide. As David Crystal (2003) observes;

The British Empire may be in full retreat with the handover of Hong Kong. But

from Bangal to Bezile and from Las Vegas to Lahore, the language of the

sceptred isle is rapidly becoming the first global lingua franca (p.1).

The consequence of this globalization according to Crystal is that there is a drastic

change in the sense of hegemony or ownership on global language. According to him

global language needs to be neutral so far as ownership is concerned. It stands to be

property of none. This idea has strong implication for the language learners, teachers and

policy makers. Globalization can be seen as loss of language-related prejudices. Thus this

statement has implications for the attitudes towards global language that is English thus

making the matter of attitude study important in the developing or rather prevailing

scenario of globalization. This status of English and the resultant implications for the

people across the globe may create two opposite feelings. On one side they may be

motivated to learn it because it could help them come in touch with more people than any

other language can bring them in touch with while on the other side the realization of

difficulty involved in learning it may create apathy towards English. He states further that

in case the learner feels his own language threatened by the success of English he may

hate and feel jealous of English.

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Oakes (2001) traces the use of English as a global language to seventeenth and

eighteenth centuries which was the result of military might and then in eighteenth and

nineteenth century it was owing to industrialization procured by Britain and the economic

power resulting from it.

Phillipson (1999) finds the global forces compelling and irresistible. He attributes

the idea to the supporters of English as a global language that English is vehicle of

modernity and tends to assimilate in the world at large along with it. According to Smith

(1991) in modern world the ‘service society’ has overleapt the national boundaries as a

result of computer knowledge and development of technologies and has pervaded across

the globe. In this view the idea of movement towards globalization is clear. Oakes (2001)

speaks in the same vein when he highlights the role of telecommunication and

transnational economic corporations in facilitating globalization. However, Holsti (1985)

and Hettne, Sorlin and Ostergard (1998 as cited in Oakes 2001) have a different view.

They see globalization as yet to complete and see the global arena existing at the present

as a playground for the nation-states and their cultures vying against each other.

Luk (2005) raised the issue related to the topic in terms of local and global selves

of the learners and supports that to facilitate learning local selves should be allowed to be

expressed through English. Basically he wants English to be able to or to be made to

carry the load of local culture so that learners can express the content imbued in their own

culture through the medium of English. Same line is followed by Lin, Wang, Akamatsu

and Riazi when they discuss their experiences of foreign language learning.

Pennycook (1994) discusses global aspects of the language which apply to the

situation existent in Pakistan. He sees English as assuming a very powerful role in the

world which threatens the very existence of other languages. The global importance of

English has created new socio-economic situations in different countries of the world in

which English has acquired the status of a prestige language. In view of this importance it

has become a crucial gatekeeper to the progress both in social and economic terms in the

present day world. It plays its role in the constitution and distribution of power in the

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local power structure of the countries of the world as a result of its use in different

professions which makes access of particular people easy to particular professions while

keeping others from them. They feel its role as an international gatekeeper as well which

regulates the flow of people internationally. English according to them plays a global role

in developing the relations among the people across the world and is linked both to

national as well as non-national forms of culture.

This discussion points to the role of English in developing a sense of global

community which necessitates for the people to have a sense of this importance of

English in the world of today. Thus the studies on motivation and attitudes towards

English gain their significance in this idea of relevance of English for all and sundry in

the globalized world with English as global language.

This topic has been discussed here because the current investigation has its

relevance in the sense that Pakistani masses are affected by global aspects of English. It

plays a crucial role in distribution of political power and ascription of social status. The

status of English as global language is denied in precept, ironically, by a particular school

of thought against their own practice. It is because even those who emphasize its

abandonment in educational system prefer to send their children to English medium

schools. Whatever the reason; whether they feel helpless or are hypocrites in their support

for Urdu or vernacular medium they flow with the flux instead of stopping it or being

able to stop it. In this situation the implications of English as a global language and a

global force or in a way global determinant of local realities makes itself a relevant

background for explanation of motivation and attitudes of the learners as well as the

teachers and all the rest of the stakeholders. In the current study global aspects are not

part of the research but their discussion helps in conceptually situating the current study.

2.5. Relationship between Attitude and Motivation

Motivation and attitude are two distinct construct as in their content, structure,

origin and function. They have been treated as mutually distinguished in most of the

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studies in the field of social psychology. However, it has never been that simple an issue.

At times they were confused and found difficult to be distinguished mutually which finds

its expression in many discussions. For example the difficulty in dealing with this issue

has been discussed in the following words by Chamber (1999);

Research into motivation and foreign language learning reflects some difficulty

with the distinction between motivation and attitude. To treat them as one and the

same thing, however, is unhelpful (p. 26).

The necessity to differentiate between motivation and attitude is evident. Present

study also relies on the literature that makes these terms mutually distinct while at the

same time finding a relationship between them. In the light of literature reviewed a

tripartite relationship has been conceived to exist between these terms i.e. state-product-

vehicle. It means that attitudes exist like states as antecedents to particular behaviors but

in order to be converted into behaiour from attitude the energy required is motivation. So

motivation for this study is seen as vehicle of converting internal states or predispositions

into external actions.

Schiefele (1963) as cited in Chambers (1999) distinguishes between motivation

and attitude in his model and shows attitude as subsumed by motivation which signifies

this position for attitude as being a cause for motivation.

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Figure 3

Formative components of motivation

Motivation

Motives

Attitudes (immediate, stimulate,

justify,

Determine)

(disposition, habit,

Idiosyncratic,

Relatively stable) Tension of purpose Situational

(spontaneous motive) attraction

(reactive motive)

Source: Adapted from Schiefele (1963)

Newcomb (1950) offers two fold differences between attitude and motive. First

motive have an existing drive state, attitudes do not, although attitudes may produce

drives. Second, attitudes are object-specific, motives are goal specific. Baker (1992)

agrees with Newcomb over difference between attitude and motives. He also sees the

difference in two aspects. According to him first motive has an inherent drive state which

is found existing in motive whereas attitude may lead to or produce drive but there does

not exist any, as such, in it. In the second attitudes according to him are object specific

while motive goal specific.

Theorists have differed in their understanding of attitude and motivation in the

field of bilingualism as well as the field of language acquisition. But Baker (1992) finds

similarities in both the terms when they come to their use in language planning and

dealing with the problems related to language policy making. McGuire (1985) holds

maintenance of differences justified only if the variables to be made distinct influence a

third variable in two different ways. It means that the study of the outcome of particular

variables or construct provides reliable guidance in drawing a line between two related or

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mutually confuse constructs. If they procure different results of their influence on the

same variable they need to be made distinct while, on the other hand in case of similar

results they need to be deemed as two names of the same thing.

Schumann (1978), Gardner (1985) and Brown (1981 as cited in Chambers 1999)

differ in the use of these terms. Ellis (1985) concludes that there exists no general

agreement among these authors regarding the definition and interrelationship of these

terms after reviewing their works dealing with this issue. In the researches in the area of

language learning attitudes and motivations are mostly used as related variables.

Attitudes are generally at the center of affective variables involved in language learning

(MacIntyre & Gardner, 1994) along with personality of the learner (MacIntyre, 1999;

Dewaele & Furnham, 1999) as well as motivation (Dornyei, 2000). Gardner (1985) is

quoted here to sum up the literature reviewed so far, related to this topic;

When the desire to achieve the goal and favourable attitudes toward the goal are

linked with the effort or the drive, then we have a motivated organism (p. 11)

Desire here means willingness to struggle for achievement the goal/s and attitudes

stand for predisposition towards this end. According to Spolsky (1989) for Lambert and

Gardner the source of motivation is attitude. Then, Wilkins’ (1978) also advances almost

similar idea when he says that lack of motivation and hostile attitude go hand in hand

with each other. These ideas besides showing the relationship between motivation and

attitude lays stress on the need to study attitudes for the success of language learning.

Luciani (2010) differentiates attitude and motivation in almost in the similar vein. He

sees attitudes as serving the role of antecedents to motivation. He sees motivation as only

the energy that is required for sustenance of attitudes. He makes use of analogy to clarify

the relationship between motivation and attitude. He says that if attitude is seen as a fire

then motivation is that which fans this fire. So motivation is the energy that keeps

attitudes alive, invigorates them and provides the kinetic component required to

transform attitudes into actions. Thus a concept can be developed on the bases of this

discussion about motivation a stage intermediating between attitude and behavior and is

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used to convert attitudes into behavior under suitable circumstances. Again Gardner

(1985) can be referred to move the issue towards conclusion;

Motivation refers to the combination of effort plus desire to achieve the goal of

learning plus favourable attitudes towards learning the language (p.9)

The relationship between attitude and motivation has been highlighted so much

by researches in this field that they are used in collocation. Attitudes are considered as

inevitable part of motivation studies in the researches. This study has depended on the

relationship founded through these researches and has made use of the terms as inevitably

attached to each other. It is because in the light of literature reviewed it has been seen that

motivation and attitude have a cause and effect relationship in which former is the effect

and the later the cause. Therefore, motivation does not exist if there is no attitude or

positive attitude to be more specific. However, the level of motivation may vary

depending on the strength of attitude. This is why a person may be called highly

motivated or not motivated at all. Motivation for this study is conceived as the

accumulated energy produced by attitudes which compels or leads to certain actions or

behavior. Thus in this study attitude and motivation have been often used together.

Studying motivation and attitude towards English in the foreign contexts with its

current status across the globe has many implication and many factors need to be taken

into account. It is not same as it would be in the case of any other language that does not

enjoy its status. Globalization and English as established lingua franca of the world

creates different situation for English making it more a universal need for the people

across the globe than anything else. Thus when studies are conducted in foreign contexts

on English in general and on motivation to teach/learn English in particular the global

aspects of English cannot be overlooked. In the next heading issues related to English as

global language have been discussed with the focus on proving that status of English as

such is recognized in voluminous literature.

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2.7. Motivation

Motivation has always been a very baffling concept for the researchers and social

psychologists. The evidence of it can be found in the existence of a whole plethora of

researches defining it in multifarious ways. Scholars working in diverse discipline have

taken interest in it. Therefore in the definition of motivation as a construct disciplinary-

biases a natural cause for the diversity in definitions and the perception of complexity in

its nature as a construct. In addition to subfields of psychology like general, cognitive,

social and educational psychology; the fields of neurobiology and physiology have also

dealt with this complex construct (Dornyei, 2000 & 2001). Kleinginna and Kleinginna

(1981) famously presented 102 statements which referred to the concept of motivation.

Thus naturally the lack of general consensus on the exact meaning of motivation is not

because of dearth of studies in this field but simply because of the profusion of the

studies.

The word motivation was derived from Latin word Movere (to move) and it is

something that makes us start moving, keep moving, and get jobs done. In dictionaries

motive finds definition as ‘a reason for action’, while motivation as ‘a state of being

motivated.’ Therefore in general motive is conceived as a factor while motivation as a

psychological state (Pintrich & Schunk 1996 as cited in Nakata 2006).

Motivation is seen as hypothetical construct by some researchers which cannot be

seen or felt but can be observed through its effects and by-products that indicate about the

level of motivation that exists (Kanfer, 1990 as cited in Jex & Britt 2008). According to

Pinder (1998) motivation is related to work-behavior and it determines the intensity, form

and direction of this behavior. Steer, Mowday, and Shapiro (2004) define motivation in

the terms very close to the concept of motivation followed by current research derived

from Gardner’s socio-educational model that has been presented by him in his latest work

published in 2010. The researcher got knowledge about this publication through email

contact with Gardner himself. The above mentioned scholars see motivation as “factors

or events that energize, channel and sustain human behaiour over time” (p.379).

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Lunenburg and Ornstein (2011) present almost similar explanation of motivation

in the three definitions of motivation from which they extract three characteristics of this

construct. The first definition sees motivation as internal processes which give birth to the

behavior and provide it a channel. The second sees it as forces which rise from within

and act to give willful direction to a person’s efforts in order to achieve the set goals. In

third definition they divide motivation into three characteristics which a motivated person

assumes i.e. he works hard, continues working hard, and tries to direct his work towards

decided goals. The three characteristics which these definitions render in common are

effort, persistence and direction.

It is to be noted that in reality motivation is not something that simply rises when

the moment calls for it but it involves a whole complicated process which can be divided

into different stages involving a series of mental processes. It starts with attitude

formation through various categories of experiences, goal-setting, intention-formation

under the influence of energy contributed by the attitudes, identification of tasks,

prioritizing the tasks and then enactment of the intention. Thus motivation as a whole can

be divided into three parts i) a complex of decision making ii) action controlling

processes iii) energy sources fuelling the action (Dornyei, 2003).

Gardner (2010) also agrees with others so far as the complexity of motivation as a

construct and difficulty in defining it is concerned when he says that it is a multifaceted

construct and has been defined in a number of different ways by psychologists and

researchers in other disciplines of social sciences. Motivation is multifaceted, and it has

been defined in many different ways by different researchers in psychology and other

scientific disciplines. Keller (1983) defines motivation in terms of choices people make

both in selecting goals and experiences as well as in avoiding these plus the degree of

effort they put in order to approach or avoid the goals and experiences. Gardner (2010)

gives a tripartite definition of motivation that is to a great extent in line with the one

given by Keller. He makes a reference to socio-educational model and discusses the way

motivation is seen in this model. He defines it in the following terms;

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In the socio-educational model of second language acquisition we assess

motivation in terms of three components, the desire to learn the language,

attitudes towards learning the language, and motivational intensity (i.e. the effort

extended to learn the language) (p. 9)

According to Gardner (2010) motivation has very broad basis as a construct and

has educational and cultural components which become important when it comes to

language learning and teaching situations. He believes that it consists of the three factors

which are traditionally considered as components of attitude i.e. cognitive, affective and

behavioural or conative.

Motivation has got a very important and influential position among the factors

affecting language learning achievement and performance. These factors include

aptitude, language learning age, general ability, learner’s beliefs and his preferences.

Language motivation is the field that has been profusely productive in researches for

which its importance for all the stakeholders in language matters has been great, be they

teachers, learners or policy makers. Despite this importance given to motivation a general

consensus on the definition of motivation is yet to be reached. (Oxford & Shearin, 1994).

This issue is attributed to the complexity involved in motivation as a construct enunciated

by Dornyei (1998). Dornyei (2001) says that despite the use of this term i.e. ‘motivation’

both in research as well as education, general disagreement as to the exact meaning of

this term is surprisingly high.

At another place Dornyei (2001b) holds it as an umbrella term that includes a host

of the concepts which according to him are poorly linked with each other. However, all

the concepts which have been used to explain or have been seen as linked with

motivation converge on the point of finding basis of external behavior. This common end

in the studies on motivation somehow provides a line of unification to the varying

definitions of motivation in different studies (Dornyei, Csizer & Nemeth, 2006).

Moreover, it is on the basis of the observations made by Dornyei (2001b) that for most of

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the scholars motivation was a source of energy required to perform an action, persist with

it and the effort to be expended on it. Dornyei (2001) does not see direct relationship

between motivation and achievement because both are intermediated by behaviour as

according to him motivation, at the maximum, can lead to an action required for the

achievement thus making achievement the result of the action caused by motivation and

not a result of the motivation itself.

A negative counterpart to motivation emerged on the scene in the studies

conducted during 1990s. It remained ignored, earlier on, in the studies conducted on

motivation in which only motivated behavior remained in the limelight while this concept

of demotivated behavior was not paid any attention at all. Dornyei (2001b) described

demotives which were in conflict with his own description of internal and external

demotivating factors (Dornyei, 2007) given by him later. Dornyei and Ushioda (2013)

dealt with the same concept of demotivation placing it on the opposite end with

motivation. Significantly, it can be inferred from the descriptions of demotivators

provided by Dornyei that their formation as psychological constructs is similar to the

motivating factors the difference lies only in the direction of the pull applied by these

factors which is naturally opposite to that of the motivating factors. This construct has

every reason to be seen as based on negative attitudes as antecedents or predispositions to

demotivation in the light of description given above. Similarly, Sakai and Kikuchi hold

both internal and external factors responsible for demotivation. Therefore demotives can

be seen as “forces which subtract from the overall motivational basis of intended or

ongoing action.” (Pigott, 2008; p.43) and on the basis of this demotivation can be seen

as, “the state of a learner whose level of motivation is lacking enough to severely restrict

learning.” (Pigott, 2008; p.43)

Still a distinct concept both from motivation and demotivation has been

introduced by Deci and Ryan (2000) called by them as amotivation. It signifies absence

of intention to take action because either of lack of interest or belief of inability. Thus it

may be perceived as a state of apathy in which there is no goal-setting on the part of the

person nor there is extrinsic or intrinsic motivation required for the particular action.

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2.7.1. Motivation as a Social Psychological Construct

The area of language motivation has been rich in researches and very dynamic in

terms of the tug between already existing and newly emerging approaches and theories

explaining the conceptualization of motivation as a construct, and models challenging the

existing research techniques and introducing the alternatives with varying claims about

validity in producing results. However, overall the social-psychological approach can be

considered as most influential which held its sway till 1990s which generally base

motivation in social cognition. The most widely used and the most influential model of

research during social-psychological period, by far, remained socio-educational model

introduced by Gardner (1985). Then their came cognitive turn which was followed by

mushrooming of theories and approaches in this field (Dornyei, 2001, 2005 & Dornyei &

Schmidt, 2001). There developed different orientations on conceptualization of language

learning motivation which naturally resulted in the introduction of new research

techniques in the field. But the fact that language cannot be isolated from the culture,

social cognition, group norms and collective thought of its native speakers, never allowed

these theories entirely exclude the social psychological factors from their frameworks.

Keblawi (2011) expresses the prevalence of social-psychological perspective in

language learning motivation research. According to him, research in this area was

initiated by social psychologists and these studies lead towards the development of a

number of models which emerged at different points in the history of the study of this

construct. He sees Krashan’s (1981) monitor model and Schumann’s (1986) acculturation

model as the outcome of this among many others. Bernard (2010) refers to the social-

psychological period and finds that language learning according to the theories practiced

during this time was not socio-culturally neutral as the other content subjects like science

and mathematics etc. According to these theories it was influenced by cultural

stereotypes, language attitudes and the considerations of the situations involving

geopolitics related to second language learning.

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2.8. Language Motivation

Language motivation has been subject of empirical studies for over half a century

now as it was said by Noels et al. (2001) more than a decade ago. So the point to be

emphasized in the first place is that study of language motivation is not new. However, it

is important to mention that learning language happens to be altogether different from

learning school subjects because in language learning it is not only the content that is to

be mastered but a whole culture represented by the language which gives it socio-cultural

dimensions. Language learning is not considered simply a matter of explicit teaching and

learning of certain structures and sounds but is conceived as a social event which is

culturally bound (Gardner, 1979 & Williams 1994). This is where affective variables

attain their importance and language learning motivation does not only become a relevant

factor but a crucial one, almost as important as aptitude, so far as the success in the target

language is concerned (Gardner, 1985 & Noels, 2001). However, unlike aptitude social

environment is considered to be having a strong role in motivation.

These views about L2 motivation have been endorsed by a large number of

researchers in the field and the result of such keen and large-scale interest was that a

number of social dimensions were brought under empirical studies in relation to language

motivation. Among such issues which were researched into in relation to L2 motivation

multiculturalism, language contact, language globalization, and power relations stood

prominent (Dornyei, 2003). Almost all the researchers in the field of language motivation

studies have found the measures on attitudes and motivation positively related to each

other and also with language achievement. As an example studies by Dornyei (2001a,

2001b), by Gardner (1985) and by Masgoret and Gardner (2003) can be reviewed.

According to Dornyei (2003) research on language learning motivation was

initiated by social psychologists. It was because of their awareness about the importance

of social and cultural factors L2 learning process. The keen interest taken by such

scholars resulted in the appearance of a number of models of researches the aim of which

was to deal most effectively with language-learning motivation research. Very influential

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models like Gardner’s Socio-educational model (1985), Krashen’s Monitor Model (1981)

and Schumann’s (1986) Acculturation Model became the natural outcome of the studies

conducted in this area.

Language has a multifaceted nature and for this reason multidimensional role to

play which makes language motivation equally complex and multifaceted. Language

plays the role of a communication code, it contributes heavily in carving identity for an

individual, and serves as a channel of social organization as rooted in the culture of that

particular language community. Thus language motivational researches need to include

various personality traits as well as social factors in order to achieve reliable results in the

researches. Thus for the sake of adequacy L2 motivation construct needs to be eclectic

using factors from different fields of psychology (Dornyei, 1994). Chambers (1999)

makes nine point difference between motivation in general which is involved in learning

any subject and specific motivation which is required for foreign language. Significance

of his points is in two ways; (i) in making language learning different from learning a

content subject and, (ii) in considering language learning motivation having different

basis than general motivation.

Different streams of studies in language motivation stand distinct on the basis of

conceptualization of motivation as a construct. Mainly they can be divided in terms

singularity or multiplicity of constructs so far as the formation of motivation is

concerned. The theories which fall in the first category considered motivation as a single

construct which was followed in the research conducted under goal-setting theory (Locke

& Latham 1984), need-achievement theory (Atkinson, 1974) and attribution-theory

(Weiner, 1985). Studies belonging to the second category can be subcategorized into

further two stream; those which considered motivation consisting of multiple factors

hence involving multiple measure and those which conceived it as consisting of multiple

constructs. In the first category Krashen’s (1981, 1985) studies are seminal which fuse

different kinds of motivation under the single construct of affective filter. Schumann’s

(1986) acculturation model also belongs to the same category in finding the construct of

acculturation as single super-ordinate for all the factors contributing to achieve the end of

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acculturation. In the second category then there comes the most influential model in this

field i.e. the socio-educational model introduced by Gardner (1985, 1989).

Gardner (2007) finds similarity in the concept of motivation as it exists in

different models developed by different researchers at different times each one of which

proved to be very influential in the L2 motivation studies. Language learning motivation

according to him is that which comes into play when a language is to be learnt or

acquired. He finds many influential models to have an agreement on this point which

according to him include Socio-educational model (Gardner, 1985), the social context

model (Clement 1980), Self-determination model (Noels & Clement 1996), the extended

motivation framework (Dornyei, 1994) and Willingness to Communicate model

(MacIntyre, Clement, Dornyei & Noels, 1998).

The important point in the above given extract is the similarities which Gardner

finds in all these different models. He has discussed these models in his book

“Motivation and Second Language Acquisition; the socio-educational model” published

in 2010. It is a venture to explain the status of the model proposed by him in the light of

newly emerging models and researches conducted in the field. He tries to answer the

questions raised by other scholars like MacInyre, Dornyei etc on his model and tried to

show how other models are similar to socio-educational model in their approach towards

language motivation. Again Gardner (2010) divides language motivation into two aspects

which are treated as mutually related in his famous socio-educational model;

The concept of motivation is applicable to many situations and contexts. In the

area of second language learning, we can distinguish between two aspects of

motivation, language learning motivation and language classroom motivation (p.

9)

He sees language learning motivation as the major component in his socio-

educational model. Motivation according to Gardner is the result of collaboration of a

number of factors and coexistence of corresponding features. Without such a relationship

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among component-factors motivation remains non-existent. According to this view

different factors like interest in foreign languages, attitude towards learning a foreign

language in general, attitude towards learning situation etc count in developing an overall

motivated state for learning the language. Thus motivation according to Gardner is an

aggregate of a proportionate existence of a number of features considered by him to be

essential components of motivation. He believes that motivation consists of cognitive,

affective and behavioural components and the reason for language learning cannot count

as the whole for motivation. Motivation for language learning according to him stands

distinct from the reason for learning it. Reasons according to him can be instrumental

when a person learns a language in view of its material benefits or they can be integrative

when a person learns language in order to be able to mix with target community.

However in both the cases it is not motivation according to him because they do not show

the characteristics of motivated individual.

2.8.1. Motivation of EMI Teachers

Motivation of teacher is generally considered as an area that has been neglected

by researchers dealing with language motivation (Dörnyei, 2001). There was a clarion

call over the last decade for studying language teacher motivation but still the motivation

of EMI teachers in the contexts where teachers themselves are non-proficient has not

found much attention. However, some important attempts have been made by researchers

in those countries where English exists as a foreign language and the teachers face

problems of proficiency when state has imposed English as medium of instruction. These

researches share the context with the current study. Before reviewing those studies an

argument needs to be advanced related to the importance of language teachers’

motivation. A lot of researches have confirmed a positive relationship between teacher

motivation and student motivation and the ways teacher motivation can be increased

(e.g., Dinham & Scott, 2000; Smithers & Robinson, 2003; Pelletiar, Levesque, &

Legault, 2002; Roth, Assor, Maymon, & Kaplan, 2007; Addison & Brundrett, 2008). It

has also been established that motivated teachers only manage to motivate their students

(Atkinson, 2000; Guilloteaux & Dörnyei, 2008; Bernaus, Wilson, & Gardner, 2009). The

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important point drawn from these views is that teachers’ motivation predicts the success

of such programmes as immersion in the context of present study in which teacher

motivation definitely has a crucial role.

A study conducted by Pandian and Ramiah (2003) in Malaysia had very

significant findings which are adequately relevant to the current study. Malaysia shifted

to English as medium of instruction in Mathematics and Science at school level as

imposed by the state in view of global developments and the emerging needs as a result.

This study aimed to examine teachers’ perception of the new development through a

survey in which both interviews as well as questionnaires were used. It was found that

teachers perceived the policy to be in the right direction but they needed required

preparation in terms of their own proficiency in English language. Another study was

conducted by Mansor et al. (2011) in Malaysia in similar context but with a different

focus made use of multiple regression analysis. It aimed to examine the impact of the

environment of class and home, school, attitude of the teachers and the methodology

applied in teaching. It was found in this study that all the variables were significantly

related to students’ achievement.

Ibrahim (2004) in a study on university students and teachers highlights the

importance of proficiency for teachers in order to successfully teach through English as

medium of instruction. In Philippine a study was conducted by Vizconde (2006) on

teachers attitudes towards English as medium of instruction in teaching science and

mathematics. The results found were in no way different from those found by the

researchers in Malaysia and Indonesia. The teachers acknowledged the importance of

English but at the same time expressed their reservation concerning the problems faced

by teachers and students when it comes to its practical implementation in the class.

It has been seen that generally teachers realize the importance of English as global

lingua franca and the need to learn it in order to become a part of global community and

receive the benefits attached with it. However, at the same time, their awareness of the

difficulties involved in it can never be overlooked. Doiz and David (2012) traced these

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problems in their research on the attitudes of prospective EMI teachers towards getting

registered in a language course. It was found in this study that despite having strongly

positive attitudes towards registering in the course these teachers were, nevertheless,

conscious of their low proficiency. Similar problems were pointed out by Braine (2010)

in his study on the teachers who were expected to teach content subjects through EMI

while they got their education in the local medium.

2.9. Language Learning Anxiety

Language anxiety is a construct that has always been highly relevant in language

motivation studies. It is conceived as a psychological state that affects performance or a

particular behavior tendency negatively. Studies of anxiety and the attempts to define it

have taken into account a wide range of characteristics attributed to this psychological

phenomenon from the overt behavioural which could be studied empirically to

epistemologically inaccessible characteristics. (Casado & Dereshiwsky, 2001). According

to Spielberger (1983) it is the subjective feeling of apprehension, tension, worry and

nervousness that is associated with nervous system.

According to MacIntyre (1998) as well as Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope’s (1986)

language anxiety is situation-specific anxiety and research on this construct should focus

on the anxiety aroused in a particular linguistic context or situation of language use. He

viewed language anxiety as, “the worry and negative emotional reaction aroused when

learning or using a second language” (p. 27). In the same way Horwitz and Cope (1991)

believe that language anxiety is a “distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings,

and behaviours related to classroom language learning arising from the uniqueness of the

language learning process” (p. 31). Language related anxiety is conceived as

communication apprehension that appears when an individual talks to other people in a

real situation (Horwitz, 1986; & McCroskey, 1997) or in a situation of anticipated

communication (McCroskey, 1997). Anxiety is theorized to exist at all the three levels in

Krashen’s (1987) input model i.e. input, processing and output. According to Lightbown

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and Spada (2006) affective filter should be lower for higher level of success in language

learning process which implies language anxiety.

Anxiety has been divided into three categories on the basis of its nature i.e. trait

anxiety, situational anxiety, and state anxiety. The difference between these is based on

the variation between stability and transience. Trait anxiety is considered as the most

stable form of anxiety and state anxiety as its most transient form while situational

anxiety is considered at the middle level on the basis of stability. Scovel (1978) further

distinguishes between facilitating and debilitating anxiety. The first according to him

exists when a person becomes concerned about doing something and it is low in its

intensity which according to him becomes the second category when its intensity level is

heightened. The first was found by him to be productive whereas the second as counter-

productive. Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope (1986) conceived language anxiety as existing

independent of other anxieties.

A cyclical relationship between anxiety, cognition and behavior was found by

some researchers. According to them a linguistic challenge posed by situation may create

apprehension in the individual which may enfeeble the concentration at the cognitive

level and result in poor behavior. And then poor behavior leads to negative self-

perception or evaluation which leads to future problems in performance of behaviours

thus going on in cyclical chain. They represented it in the following diagram (Leary,

1990 & Levitt, 1980; as cited in MacIntyre, 1995).

Figure 4

Cyclic chain of relationship between anxiety, cognition and behaviour

Anxiety

Cognition

Behaviour

Source: MacIntyre 1995 (p. 93)

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It has been established in voluminous researches that anxiety is related to

achievement in second or foreign language (Horwitz & Young, 1991). Language anxiety

was considered as a social anxiety by MacIntyre (1995) because according to him it

emerged in social situations where linguistic performance was required which in case of

failure brings embarrassment. There are researches which treat anxiety as just a single

component of linguistic self-confidence but a negative one which has adverse effect on

linguistic self-confidence leading ultimately to failure in language learning and

communicative performance (Clement & Kruidenier, 1985). According to Gardner

(2010) the perception about anxiety that it could have both positive and negative effect on

success in language learning or performance in second or foreign language but now it has

changed and it is generally believed that anxiety procures negative effect only.

2.10. Language Teaching Anxiety

Language teaching anxiety is, though, a different concept in certain respects from

language learning anxiety or general teaching anxiety but is still relevant to both of these

concepts. According to Horwitz (1996);

“Even if this anxiety had no impact on the effectiveness of the language

instruction, it would seem to be a substantial detriment to the mental well-being

and job satisfaction of foreign language teachers.” (p. 367).

Language anxiety was considered a part of problems faced by language teachers

by Numrich (1996). His study was based on analysis of diary entries through which he

came to know that teachers experienced anxiety when they felt insufficient in teaching

grammar or when they had to give instructions in the class.

Kim and Kim (2004) enlist the situations in which student teachers face anxiety.

They are anxious when they teach English using English as medium of teaching; when

they face questions they do not expect; when they are teaching speaking; when students

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do not show interest in what is being taught; when they teach such students who have

been abroad to any English speaking country. Causes of foreign language anxiety were

found to be low level of English proficiency, low level of self-confidence, limited

knowledge of linguistics in particular and of education in general, no proper preparation

of lesson, the idea of negative evaluation and limited teaching experience.

Ipek (2007) conducted a research in Turky on non-native foreign language

teachers with the aim to develop a foreign language teaching anxiety scale for which data

from a sample of 32 teachers was collected. The data showed six different sources of

anxiety among which the important were low level of proficiency and a fear of facing

failure. A scale on five point Likert pattern was developed on the basis of this research.

Horwitz conducted seminal and very influential studies in the field of language anxiety

both language learning as well as language teaching anxiety (Horwitz, Horwitz & Cope,

1986; Horwitz 1992 & 1993; Horwitz, 1996; Horwitz & Garza 1999). She developed

language anxiety scales which have been widely used for researches in this field.

Merç’s (2004) studied anxiety among pre-service teachers and reported it to be

one of the serious problems affecting performance of the foreign language teachers.

Following models, Yuksel (2008) conducted studies in line with those conducted by

Horwitz et al. (1986) and İpek (2007). The findings revealed that pre-service teachers

suffered from anxiety however learning anxiety in this study was found not to be

correlated with teaching anxiety. Significantly there was no difference in anxiety between

male and female teachers which means that anxiety was not determined by gender. El-

Okda and Al-Humaidi (2003) conducted research for which they developed two foreign

language anxiety scales “Foreign Language Student Teaching Anxiety Scale” and

“Foreign Language Student Teaching Anxiety Scale”. The results of the study proved

that the teachers suffered from moderate level of teaching anxiety while a negative

correlation was found between perceived self-efficacy and teaching anxiety.

The concept of foreign language student teacher has as yet not been clearly

explained. However there are many researches which have been conducted on general

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teaching anxiety and the construct exists as well established. There is a common

assumption that teachers do not face any anxiety because they stand at a higher pedestal

than their students regarding knowledge. Horwitz’s (1996) assumption, that teachers of

any subject are experts in that area, is generally referred to in favour of this point.

However this point sounds difficult to be agreed with as it is situation dependent

and the whole truth is neither in this point nor in the opposite. Further, it has been found

in numerous research studies that teaching anxiety is phenomenon faced by teachers at

different levels starting from elementary school level up to university level (e.g., Preece,

1979; Orton, 1981; Gardner & Leak, 1994; Ameen, Guffey, & Jackson, 2002; Chou,

2003; Liu, 2008; Widmer & Chavez, 1982). Teaching anxiety is believed to have been

reported for the first time by Hicks (1934) as it has been cited by Coates and Thoresen

(1976). The characteristics of anxiety reported in this research were menstrual disorders,

fatigue and situational reactions. Horwitz mentions self-consciousness, reticence, panic or

fear as the characteristics of teaching anxiety. Gardner and Leak (1994) found palpitation

and dry mouth as physical and upset, apprehension or distress as psychological reactions

which indicate anxiety among teachers.

For the current study the idea of Horwitz (1996) about anxiety of a language

teacher is very important. She considers non-native teachers of English or any other

target language as having features similar to advanced learners of that language for which

they stand at the same plane with learners regarding their affective reaction to that

language. Thus proficiency level is seen to decide about the affective response of a

person in both language teaching as well as language learning situation. In this way those

teachers who do not happen to be that proficient as advanced learners are similar to the

students whose proficiency level is low in their affective reaction to English. The

important point is that there is similarity between non-native teachers and language

learners so far as their feelings towards English are concerned because they were

themselves learners in the same environment and their own proficiency varies between

highly proficient and highly non-proficient levels. Thus affective constructs of such

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teachers become a very important study because of the issue of communicative

competence and linguistic confidence with such individuals.

2.11. Anxiety among Teachers Using EMI

Research on language teachers’ motivation is not much but even worse is the

condition when it comes to those teachers who use English as medium of instruction and

do not teach it purely for language purposes. This is almost in all the third world

countries which used to be colonies of English speaking people in the past. However,

these, once colonized states, differ from each other on the basis of their proficiency in

English. Those states where typically English language is not in good condition,

whatsoever the reason may be, introduction of English as medium of instruction creates

testing conditions for the teachers and they take it as a challenge academically which

definitely leads to their affective reactions to the policy as well as English itself. The

studies of teachers’ motivation in particular and their affective reactions in general

become very important in this regard.

Franklin (1990) reported that teaching a subject in second or foreign language

happens to be very difficult in case of a teacher who happens to share mother tongue with

the students because the temptation to switch to mother tongue is very high in this case.

In his findings out of the four reasons for not maintaining use of foreign language in the

class, while using it as medium of instruction, one was the confidence of the teachers in

using the target language. The situation is further complicated when the teacher has to

deal with students of different language proficiency and then, of course, students of

different academic strength (Ovando and Collier 1998). The teacher in this case,

according to Met (1994), has the task of developing both the linguistic proficiency as

well as academic strength of the students.

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2.12. Linguistic Self-Confidence

According to Bianco et al. (2009) the concept was first introduced by Clement

and his associates in 1977 in a work which aimed at examining beliefs of language

learners in showing results, achieving goals and performing specific tasks competently

while learning English language. It was found primarily in the literature on L2 motivation

and was considered as related to self-concept in applied linguistics (Mercer, 2011).

Clement (1980) does not give a precise definition of the construct except indicating that

how it could be defined in terms of perceived proficiency in the second language and

anxiety faced while using the language. Perceived proficiency was treated as cognitive

factor while anxiety was considered an affective factor. Later, Clement et al. (1994: 422)

offered an operational definition of the construct as, “a low anxious affect and high self-

perception of L2 competence” which again highlights the presence of affective and

cognitive elements in the construct. The construct was typically used in the researches

carried out in Canadian contexts of language learning mainly on the topics like identity,

language motivation and WTC (e.g. Clement et al. 2001; Labrie & Clement, 1986; Noels

& Clement, 1996).

Two distinct trends can be seen in the literature defining Linguistic self-

confidence; on one side there are researchers who relate it with language use while the

others consider it as self-perception of competence in learning the target language.

Clement and Kruidenier (1985: 24) definitely mean language use and not language

learning when they define this construct as, “the individual’s self-evaluation of second

language proficiency.”

Gardner and Tremblay (1995) took a slightly different perspective when they

found Clement’s concept of linguistic self-confidence as somehow resembling two other

constructs i.e. expectancy and self-efficacy (Mercer 2011). Bandura (1997), however,

finds linguistic self-confidence not to be that domain-specific as self-efficacy which

means that self-confidence is more general compared with self-efficacy. According to

Gardner and Tremblay (1995) the difference between self-efficacy and linguistic self-

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confidence resides mainly in the introduction of anxiety component in self-confidence

which is absent in self-efficacy.

Dornyei (2001) draws boundries among self-confidence, self-efficacy and self-

concept. Self-efficacy according to him is always related to a concrete task at hand while

self-confidence is a perception of one’s more general potential. Chen (2007) refers to a

number of researches to conclude that self-efficacy is related to but similar to self-

confidence. Self-perception is referred to as self-perception of global competence. Thus

they give linguistic self-confidence both cognitive and affective dimensions whereas self-

efficacy exists only at cognitive plane. Dornyei et al. (2006) see linguistic self confidence

as a key component in measuring L2 motivation and attitudes.

There exists sufficient literature that associates anxiety with self-confidence or in

certain cases anxiety is even defined in terms of low confidence (e.g. Cheng et al. 1999;

MacIntyre & Gardner 1991; MacIntyre et al. 1997). Linguistic self-confidence has been

found to share some aspects with the construct of self-concept while at the same time it

differs in certain other respects from it. So far as the domain specific beliefs are

concerned both of the constructs resemble to certain extent but when it comes to affective

aspects self-confidence is characterized by the feeling of anxiety while self-concept

involves an evaluative perception of one’s ability in the specific domain. Mercer (2014)

sees this construct as embedded in social psychology and stresses its bi-componential

structure as consisting of self-perception of communicative competence and a

concomitant low anxiety.

According to Bianco et al. (2009) linguistic self-confidence was typically

perceived as a determinant of attitude towards learning a language as well as the effort

expended in learning that language. They assign this role to linguistic self-confidence

both in multicultural settings (Clement, 1980; Clement & Kruidenier 1985) as well as the

settings of foreign language classrooms where students face difficult learning conditions

(Horwitz & Young, 1991; Foss & Reitzel, 1988; Horwitz, 1986; Clement et al. 1994).

Same idea was given by Clement et al. (1994) that Linguistic self-confidence is not only

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relevant in multicultural contexts but in unicultural contexts as well. This view clearly

stipulates the role that self-confidence plays in language motivation.

Self-confidence serves as a cause both to attitudes and motivation. By some

researches Linguistic self-confidence has been examined as a result of language learning

(e.g. Yashima, Zenuk‐Nishide, & Shimizu, 2004; & Gao, Zhao, Cheng, & Zhou, 2005).

Gao et al. (2004) in his research included linguistic self-confidence as a dependent

variable which was seen as a result of the success in language learning. This research was

conducted in Chinese EFL context in which it was found that despite very limited contact

with English culture a very high value was attached to English language.

2.13. Important Theories of Language Motivation

The relationship of language motivation with language achievement, willingness

to use target language, and language learning strategies has been established through a

plethora of research in this field (Gardner, 2001; Oxford & Nyikos, 1989). In this section

an overview of theoretical development in the field of language motivation studies has

been given. It is interesting that this field is considered as involving complexity and

difficulty in defining different constructs not because of the lack of literature but because

of the excess of literature existing in this field. So there are a lot of developments and

theories which emerged over time in this field which can be divided mainly into four

categories on the basis of their similarities and differences in their approach towards the

conceptualization of this concept as well as its operationalization for the sake of

empirical studies. The discussion starts with socio-educational model, moves to cognitive

turn and process-oriented period in the study of language motivation following the

divisionmade by Dornyei (2007).

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2.13.1. The Canadian Socio-Psychological Camp

The researches falling under this category or coming in this period proved to be

the most influential and highly valuable for introducing the tradition of empirical studies

in the field of language motivation research. It was based on extensive studies conducted

by Garner and his associates. The idea for this study can be traced to the concepts

developed by Mowrer (1950) related to the effect of relationship with a great person on

the development of an individual (cited in Skehan, 1989). This point led Gardner and

Lambert (1959, 1972) to conceive integrative motive in case of language learning. They

extended the idea of relation with a person to the contact or disposition towards a

particular group representing a particular culture and speaking a particular language.

Instrumental motive was conceived being aware of the difference this construct

could make in case of second language learning because the instrumental reasons of

second language learning have always been obvious. Thus socio-educational model

conceived integrativeness and instrumentality as two major reasons of motivation for

second language learning while anxiety was seen as a construct having negative effect on

motivation. Integrativeness was identified as learner’s purpose to learn language as being

the desire to be able to have contact with the native speakers of target language while

instrumental purpose was conceived as linked with the utility of learning target language

in material terms. Attitudes were considered as predispositions towards motivated

behaviour.

This model went through many phases of its development and contribution, in this

regard, was made by a lot many researchers but it maintained its core idea that a complex

of cognitive, affective and social factors which define integrative motive predict success

in second language learning (Gardner, 1985; Gardner & MacIntyre, 1992; Gardner &

Lambert, 1972; Gardner, Tremblay & Masgoret, 1997). After a series of studies Gardner

and Smythe (1975) were able to put forth a prototype of this model. This model included

four possible categories of the characteristics related to motivated behavior inducing

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learning effort by the L2 learners i.e. Motivational indices, attitudes specific to a group,

characteristics related to the course and general attitudes.

However, it was modified later by Gardner (1979) in which he made a distinction

between different components essential to the study of L2 learning motivation. These

included Individual differences, the context of second language acquisition, Social milieu

and outcomes. In this version of the model he showed attitudes affecting motivation level

which in turn had an effect on language learning achievement. He also asserted that

success of the learners can be manifested both in linguistic as well as non-linguistic

consequences which would affect attitudes and attitudes again would bear on motivation

thus giving a cyclical relationship between attitudes, motivation and achievement. The

model has gone through a number of revisions and explanations (Gardner, 1985; Gardner,

2001; Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993; Gardner, 2006; Gardner, 2010).

Later Gardner (1985) made further modifications and the concept of social milieu

in earlier model was replaced by external variables. The efforts of the researchers of

socio-educational model developed along with this model a very influential research

instrument i.e. Attitude Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) which has been widely used

across the world in many countries and in many different situations for many different

forms of English. It consists of hundred and thirty items and has been tested for its

validity and reliability in many different research contexts after modifications or

adaptations where required. Gardner (1985, 2004 & 2010) attempted to develop its

international versions which ware meant to be used in the countries where English is not

used as language of communication by any social group or community which might

happen to be in contact with the learners of English thus creating an EFL (English as

Foreign Language) situation for the learners. A brief version AMTB has also been

introduced by Gardner with single measure items following Guilford’s (1954) approach.

This version has been named mini-AMTB with only twelve items (Gardner, 2010).

Gardner (2001) presented the findings from different researches which were used

to establish the importance of integrative motive in language learning. It was found by

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Clement, Smythe and Gardner (1978) that learners who scored higher on their integrative

motive proved to be more persistent in their language learning behaviour. They paid

greater attention to learning, made greater effort and liked to continue learning language

for longer time and were less likely to drop out. Gardner and Smythe (1981) argued that

motivation, attitudes towards learning situation and integrativeness were different

constructs but they significantly correlated in case of language learning and motivation

was directly related to language achievement. It was reported by Gardner and Lysynchuk

(1990) that motivation helped students retain the skills they learnt for longer time which

helped them in showing greater progress in the task of language learning.

In spite of the fact that the findings of Gardner and his colleagues corresponded to

the experiences of language learners in most of the cases many researchers (Crookes &

Schmidt, 1991; Dornyei, 1994; Oxford & Shearin, 1994) showed their interest to include

variables from educational psychology in the framework of second language learning

research. In order to respond to this demand Tremblay and Gardner (1995) added some

new variables relate to motivation like self-efficacy, expectancy, valence, goal setting and

causal attribution in the consideration of the construct of motivation. After this the

relationship among these variables was examined through Gardner’s socio-educational

model developed in 1985. It was tried to know how the measures in psychology

developed through other models fit into the studies conducted through socio-educational

model and it was found that many of these variables coming from other models mediated

the relationship between attitudes and motivational behaviour established in socio-

educational model. The most important mediators among these were found to be valence,

goal salience and self-efficacy. It was shown that specification of goals and then frequent

references to the goals had a positive effect on motivation. Self-efficacy was found to be

influenced by language attitudes and then influenced motivational behavior in its turn.

Tremblay and Gardner did not observe a direct relationship between language

motivation and achievement and concluded that achievement was direct outcome of the

effort put in learning the language or the motivated behavior which in turn was found to

be the result of language motivation. Besides the researches by Gardner and his

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associates there is another group who worked in Canada on language motivation the

major contributor being Richard Clement who have considered many other factors in the

conceptualization of language motivation. The major factors that they examined for

correlations in their researches were attitudinal/motivational factors, social contextual

variables, language identity, Self-confidence and L2 acquisition/process of acculturation

(see Clement & Gardner, 2001; Dornyei, 2001).

Self-confidence was found to be the most important factor by Clement and his

associates in their studies. Clement with his colleagues gave evidence (Clement, 1980;

Clement & Kruidenier, 1985) that self-confidence worked as the most important factor in

the language learning environments where two or more communities lived together and

the target language was learnt in the situations where the learners would come in direct

contact with each other. Self-confidence in such environments according to them

depended on the quality and quantity of direct contact with the target language

community. They see self-confidence having key importance in shaping the future

interest and motivational behavior towards learning the target language and the desire to

identify with target language community. The important thing is that self-confidence was

defined as a construct with social aspects distinct from cognitive aspects which were

attached to self-efficacy thus both of these constructs have been sufficiently made distinct

through these studies.

However, the situations where the target language is learnt as a foreign language

and people cannot have contact with target language community the perceived L2

competence has been examined by Clement, Dornyei, and Noels (1994) to perform a

significant role in affecting the language learning motivation of the FL learners. As for

example it has been seen to play its role in the context of Taiwan (Chu, 2008). It is

generally agreed that the studies conducted by Gardner and his colleagues have helped in

characterizing and describing the motivational patterns involved in L2 learning with

respect to larger communities of L2 learners. It is argued that their studies have helped in

inferring intercultural communication, feelings towards target language communities and

language contact (Chu, 2008).

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The value of generalized constructs and their relation based on general situations

started being seen as lacking perfection in its treatment as far as language motivation was

concerned which resulted in approaches which focused on making language motivation

studies more situated. In these researches relationship between learners and their

immediate social context was examined which could have facilitative, neutral or

inhibitive effect on learners’ motivation (McGroarty, 2001). It has been found through

many researches that variables related to particular courses of language play a very

important role in L2 motivation of the learners. The study conducted by Nikolov (2001)

can be used as an example to support this point in which she found that the participants

despite having a positive attitude towards learning foreign languages could not achieve

good proficiency in their language skills. This lack of success with target language

proficiency was found related to the negative perception the learners had of pedagogical

techniques and the kind of assessment used to evaluate learners’ success.

Thus the variables of immediate environment started weighing heavier in

language motivation research than the attitudes towards target language in the situations

of FL. Similar results were found related to learning of Arabic in Israeli context where

the best predictor for the continuation of learning Arabic were factors related to the

quality of instructional programme being taught (Inbar, Donitsa, Schmidt, & Shohamy,

2001; Donitsa-Schmidt, Inbar, & Shohamy, 2004).

These developing trends in language motivation research with their increasing

focus on situating motivational studies related to L2 learning ushered into a new phase of

research in this field which is categorized as the cognitive-situated approach of studies.

There were conducted many studies under this umbrella which varied in their influence

and there emerged different theories as well under this umbrella term. However, the most

influential among these were self determination theory by Deci and Ryan (1985, 2002)

and Dornyei’s (1994) model of distinct phases of motivation which have been discussed

in the following.

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2.13.2. Self-Determination Theory

Self-determination theory focuses intrinsic and extrinsic motives and their various

types as well as their role in providing people with autonomy, competence and

relatedness. Intrinsic motive plays a role when an activity is done for its own sake or in

other words it is considered as an end in itself not a means to the end that lies out of that

activity. According to Deci and Ryan (1985) it is based on an individual’s feeling of need

for competence and the resultant autonomy. It was hypothesized by them that people

would involve in that activity more willingly which they would find more interesting. It

was assumed that individuals develop a sense of competence by meeting challenges

successfully. Three subtypes of intrinsic motivation have been made distinct by some

researchers (Vallerand et al. 1989; Vallerand et al., 1992, 1993; Vallerand, 1997 as cited

in Chu, 2008). The first out of these is intrinsic motivation resulting from knowledge

which implies that individual participates in an activity with the expectation of getting

knowledge or gaining new ideas. The second is that it is the result of a sense of

accomplishment which entails the desire to achieve a goal or master a task. The third

relates to the aesthetic gratification one finds after accomplishing a task. The common

element among these three types is the satisfaction which individual gets from

accomplishing the task.

In contrast to intrinsic motive, extrinsic motive works when a person is concerned

with either getting a reward or avoiding punishment. However it never means that this

type of motivation lacks the involvement of self-determination in the behaviours

performed. Significantly, Deci and Ryan (1985) observed that extrinsic motivation can be

categorized on the basis of the level of internalization of the categories made distinct.

They identify four levels of extrinsic motivation; external regulation, introjected

regulation, identified regulation and integrated regulation. External regulation is

generally equated with Gardner’s (1985) concept of instrumental orientation and is

conceived as having the source of motivation outside the person such as expected

benefits or costs etc. the second type i.e. introjected motivation is relatively more deeply

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rooted in the self-concept and is found in the beliefs and pressures which somehow have

become part of their self-concept.

Despite that the source of pressure exists within the individual but still it is due to

any external demand for which internal pressure is felt which makes it a part of external

regulation. In identified regulation people react to any situation on more personally

relevant factors. Among all integrated regulation is the most autonomous for of extrinsic

motivation. It occurs when all different kinds of regulations have fully assimilated into

the self of the individual which happens only when all the regulations assimilated have

been found in line with the internal value system of the individual (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

In the extensive studies conducted by Noels and her associate (Noels, 2001a,

2001b; Noels, Clement, & Pelletier, 1999, 2001; Noels, Pelletier, Clement, & Vallerand,

2000; McIntosh & Noels, 2004) - the leading experts in self-determination theory - in

1990s it was found that identified regulation and intrinsic motivation had a very strong

relationship with Gardner’s concept of integrative orientation. Instrumental orientation

was found to highly correlate with external regulation on the other hand (Noels 2001a).

Thus in these researches it was found that the feedback of teachers mattered a lot

for intrinsic motivation of those learners who were learning English voluntarily and

almost did not matter for those who were studying in order to fulfill certain requirement.

Wu (2003) has made further contribution to the self-determination theory through a study

conducted on Chinese learners of English in the context of China. The research was

conducted to examine the effect of immediate classroom environment on the intrinsic

motivation of the learners. It was found that certain strategies in the immediate classroom

environment proved very effective in enhancing perception of L2 competence.

2.13.3. Process Models of Second Language Learning Motivation

According to this approach motivation is not a static feature but a dynamic factor

that undergoes a lot of changes during its history. Even within a single class motivation

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can be seen fluctuating all the way through the class time. Therefore fluctuation of

motivation during a language class can very easily be understood. Language learning

takes a long time so it is natural to see this lengthy process taking place in different

phases with each phase involving a particular nature and level of motivation. Williams

and Burden (1997) for this reason conceived language motivation into three phases along

the continuum of language learning process. The first stage involves finding reasons to

learn the language the second involves taking decision to start learning it while the third

stage involves the persistence in continuing the effort required to learn.

Similar observation was made by Ushioda (1996, 2001) regarding the classroom

motivation. She saw classroom motivation as a flux and not as a stable form. Process

information model was used by Manolopoulou-Sergi (2004) while conducting study on

motivation of foreign language learners. The model is typically divided into three stages

input (first exposure to new material), central processing (creating connections between

the new and the existing knowledge) and output (demonstration of the knowledge

acquired). Dornyei and Otto (1998) described the way how motivation evolves through

the process of doing or accomplishing something. They described how desires and wishes

are transformed into goals and the goals are operationalized to become intentions and

then intentions are enacted in order to achieve those goals. Finally, the whole process is

evaluated for future influence of the process. In this process they identify three phases

namely pre-actional stage, actional stage and post-actional stage. The first being the

identification of desires and wishes and their transformation into intentions, the second

being the enactment of intentions and the third being the evaluation of the process after

the achievement of the goals.

This model has limitations in its applications as it can be applied only where the complex

of interacting goals and intentions involves both the aspects of academic and social

nature for the learners (Juvonen & Nishina, 1997; Wentzel, 1999).

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2.13.4. Willingness to Communicate (WTC)

It is believed that the origin of the construct of Willingness to Communicate

(WTC) can be traced to the literature on interpersonal communication more specifically

from the work of Burgoon (1976) giving idea of unwillingness to communicate. The idea

was followed by McCroskey and Richmond (1987, 1991) later, who assumed a regular

pattern existing in the avoidance of communication and other tactics through which an

individual devalued the act of communication. They traced the causes of avoidance of

communication to both the social and individual factors. However, the major contribution

was yet to be made by MacIntyre (1998) who conceptualized WTC in his famous

heuristic model more typically known as pyramid model. In this model he organized the

diversity of factors influencing second language WTC. The model captures a wide range

of intrapersonal, intergroup, communication, linguistic and situational factors which

contribute in the ultimate decision to either communicate in second language or desist

doing so.

After entering into the arena of language related studies WTC primarily was used

as a construct related to communication in L1. It was seen as the tendency of individuals

to involve or keep from communicating in L1 when they were free for both the choices

(McCroskey & Baer, 1985). It was believed that people generally differ in their

communication behaviour regardless of the language. Some are very talkative while

others reticent and also that people vary in their communication behavior while talking to

different people, an individual feels free and talks much with some while to others he is

reserved. It was conceived that WTC is a construct based on personality which happens

to be very consistent with an individual so far as his communication behavior is

concerned (McCroskey & Baer, 1985; McCroskey & Richmond, 1987, 1991).

MacIntyre (1994) discovered perceived communicative competence and

communication apprehension as the two most important antecedents of WTC. Then it

was found through other researches that L1 WTC could incorporate both trait (stable) and

state (transient) properties of WTC (MacIntyre, Babin, & Clément, 1999). MacIntyre and

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Charos (1996) used a combination of both the socio-educational model by Gardner

(1985) and the path model by MacIntyre (1994) in order to study the influence of

personality variables, attitudes and motivational variables on L2 communication and it

was justified that WTC construct is applicable to SLA as well L2 contexts. in the model

forwarded by MacIntyre et al. (1998) linguistic, social-psychological and communicative

variables were synthesized and were rendered as precursors of real communication

behavior of the individuals or their actual language use. It was proposed that L2

communication was dependent both on situational as well as enduring influences which

means that WTC encompasses both trait-like as well as situation-based influences. WTC

was conceptualized as “a readiness to enter into discourse at a particular time with a

specific person or persons, using a L2” (MacIntyre et al. 1998: 547).

WTC model is traditionally divided into two phases so far as its evolution is

concerned. The first phase was led and dominated by McCroskey while the second was

lead by MacIntyre. In the following both the models have been described for the sake of

making them distinct and at the same time explaining their conceptual bases.

2.13.4.1. McCroskey’s Willingness to Communicate Model

It traces its origin in the early works of Philips (1965, 1968) which dealt with the

concept of reticence, later it was found in the works of Burgoon (1976) and Mortesen,

Arntson and Lustig (1977) on unwillingness to communicate as given above which

focused on the predisposition of a person toward verbal behaviour. WTC was introduced

by McCroskey and his associates for the first time in case of L1 communication

(McCroskey & Baer, 1985; McCroskey & Richmond, 1987). WTC was found to relate

positively with self-perceived competence and self-esteem while it was found to

negatively correlate with introversion, communication apprehension, anomie and

alienation (McCroskey & McCroskey, 1986a, 1986b). Further it was found by Chan and

McCroskey (1987) that those students who scored higher on WTC were more willing to

participate in the discussion or initiate talk in the class while those who scored lower

behaved otherwise. Later on, in the researches of other scholars it was found that both

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communicative anxiety as well as communicative competence was strong predictors of

WTC (Baker & MacIntyre, 2000; MacIntyre, 1994; MacIntyre et al., 2001).

2.13.4.2. Clement’s and MacIntyre’s Willingness to Communicate Models

Though McCroskey’s model was working as a framework for the study of WTC

however there were many critics who raised the issue of WTC as being trait like

construct. According to them it had situation-specific attributes and also that it was non-

transferable from L1 to L2. Therefore they desired the existing model to respond to the

demand which was met by MacIntyre later by the introduction of his own version of

WTC model. Clement and MacIntyre both were the proponents of the concept of WTC

presented in this model. Clement (Clement, 1980; Clement & Kruidenier, 1985) showed

correlations among L2 confidence, intergroup contact, L2 identity and L2 competence in

his social context model. He observed that the frequency of the individual’s contact with

the target language community would affect L2 confidence. He found L2 confidence

dependent on combination of L2 anxiety and perceived L2 competence. It is important to

note that this model does not deal with the use of L2.

Clement’s model was developed further by MacIntyre and his associates

(MacIntyre, Dornyei, Clement, & Noels, 1998) and they included writing skills in their

model. They also included the comprehension of both of spoken and written

language.They explained the concept further by tracing its relationship with linguistic,

communicative and social psychological factors. These factors were found to be

important by them in case of individual, social group as well as L2 community. In their

model six layers have been made in which the top three layers in the pyramid present

situation-specific constructs while the lower three present more enduring and trait like

construct which influence the WTC behavior while remaining in the background. WTC

has been given at the second level from the top after L2 use which stands for actual

language use in any situation. Thus WTC in this conceptualization has been seen as

readiness to use language. The desire to communicate with a particular person and the

state of communicative self-confidence emerged as the most immediate antecedents to

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WTC. Thus in the figure the constructs placed in the upper layers are the effects for

which the causes are provided by those placed in the lower layers. The figure given in the

following presents the conceptualization of this model.

Figure 5

Heuristic model of variables influencing WTC

Source: Macintyre, Noels, Clément and Dörnyei 1998, (p. 547)

The top layer (box 1) includes single item that is actual language use in a

particular situation. The second layer (box 2) also includes only one item WTC which is

considered as acting a single driving force to lead an individual to action or language use

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which in turn is shown to be influenced by two immediate factors (boxes 3&4) working

as antecedents to arouse it. After these three layers then starts the zone of more endurable

factors out of which interpersonal motivation (box 5) implies an individual’s willingness

to talk to a person using L2 whereas intergroup motivation (box 6) implies a person’s

willingness to communicate with a group using L2. Slef-confidence (box 7) is considered

as comprising of perceived L2 competence and L2 anxiety.

Intergroup attitudes (box 8) implies factors similar to Gardner’s (2010) concept of

integrativeness and fear of assimilation or subtractive bilingualism (Lambert 1978) as

well as intrinsic motivation (Deci and Ryan 1985). Social situation (box 9) subsumes five

different factors the topic, the purpose, the setting, the participants and channel of

communication which lead a person to decide whether to be a part of interaction or not.

Communicative competence (box 10) implies linguistic, strategic, sociocultural and

actional competence of an individual. Intergroup climate (11) and personality (box 12)

present the factors which are most distal in the model to WTC and exist out of the control

of individual.

Through important researches it has been established that WTC of any individual

is influenced by variables related to social context (MacIntyre et al. 2001), academic

context (Baker & MacIntyre, 2000), and by the differences between learner’s culture and

the target language culture (Freiermuth, 2006; Wen & Clement, 2003).

2.14. Synthesizing Socio-Educational and WTC Models

It can be easily seen from the literature reviewed that the field of language

motivation has been fertile so far as studies in this area are concerned. A number of

theories developed over time through many researches conducted in the field. Every new

theory had its own contribution which led to realization of new needs for language

motivation studies and combining different frameworks and theories to make studies

more effective has been in trend always. Many studies have been conducted by

combining socio-educational model of Gardner and WTC model of MacIntyre. In this

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case the first step was taken by MacIntyre and Charos (1996) who combined Gardner’s

model with MacIntyre’s (1994) path model to see whether attitudinal, motivational

factors used in socio-educational model bear any effect on L2 communication or not and

it was found that WTC model applies to the situations of SLA as well as to the situations

of L2 communication.

Yashima (2002) combined both of these models in a research on Japanese

students with the aim to examine the relationship between L2 learning and its use for

communication. It was found in this study through structural equation modeling that

motivation, as conceived in socio-educational model, influences self-confidence of

communication in L2 which in turn affects willingness to communicate in the target

language. Kim (2005) conducted study similar in the framework to examine the effect of

other affective variables on willingness to communicate among Korean students. The

study was conducted on university students and it was found that the measure of these

students on WTC scale was a strong predictor of the performance of these students in

English.

The link of language learning motivation with L2 WTC has been confirmed

through many researches. Some researchers find its role in merely extending the

construct of motivation (Dörnyei & Skehan 2003). It was seen as only a new angle

provided to look at language motivation study by MacIntyre, MacMaster and Baker

(2004). They found in a study based on factor analysis that L2 learning motivation was

strongly correlated to L2 WTC. Dornyei and his associates (Dörnyei & Kormos, 2000;

Kormos & Dörnyei, 2004) used WTC as a background variable in their research on

language motivation.

Socio-educational model has been applied to many WTC researches but the

results have not been uniform in all the cases. The paths postulated by MacIntyre and

Charos (1996) in their study based on Clament’s contextual model were not statistically

supported. Similarly in the study by Yashima (2002) which was conducted following

MacIntyre et al.’s (1998) model the hypothesized direct path from L2 WTC to language

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learning motivation was found missing in the model developed through structural

equation modeling. This relationship was not confirmed in some of the qualitative studies

as well (Kang, 2005).

However, the studies conducted by Hashimoto (2002) show converse results. In a

study in Japan on 56 students a significant path was confirmed leading from L2 WTC to

language learning motivation or motivation as conceived in Gardner’s model in a.

Structural equation modeling was used in this study to identify the existing path. Some

studies by MacIntyre and associates (MacIntyre et al., 2002, 2003), which are very

important in providing ground to the current study were dealt with motivation and L2

WTC in immersion programmes. A significant correlation was found between integrative

motivation and L2 WTC in these researches. The inconsistent findings may be attributed

to varying contexts of the studies and different socio-cultural as well as academic

backgrounds involved in the studies conducted in different environments.

Gardenr’s model must be given credit in terms of its accommodative capability

and expandability. One of the major points of criticism on this model was the need to

expand it for which various theorists developed new theories as an attempt to fill the slots

perceived to be left vacant by this model. However, for this Gardner adequately responds

by explaining that socio-educational model has its own characteristics and applies in

measuring motivation in the contexts delineated by the theoretical explanations provided

in the case of this model which need to be considered while criticizing this model. All

these objections and new trends have been properly answered and accommodated by the

founder of this model. Wherever it was found that criticism genuinely could contribute

they were constructively used to make new absorptions in the model or otherwise

adequate explanations were made to clarify the misunderstandings. In this context the

latest work by Gardner is his book published in 2010 which aimed to vindicate the

position of socio-educational model and clarify certain misunderstandings.

Many researches, over time, have been conducted which introduced different

variables to see their impact on other constructs within the model (see Gardner 2010). In

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various ways researchers conducted their studies using this model. The constructs and

variables used in this model were tested for their correlations in different frameworks

guided by socio-educational model. New variables were also included and the resulting

models were put to tests for their structural validity through Amos in structural equation

modeling which proved the adaptability and viability of this model see (for example

MacIntyre & Charos 1996; Yashima, 2002; Hashimoto 2002).

2.15. Position of Current Study

Teaching of English language creates characteristically different situations for the

teachers in different regions of the world. It is owing to the factors of difference varying

in their kind and relative importance in different parts of the world due to the status,

importance, acceptability, knowledge etc of English specific to the part of the world

where it occurs. Teachers differ from each other across the globe on the basis of their

relationship with English and the nature of their engagement with English as teachers.

For example there are teachers of English who are native speakers of this language and

are involved in teaching this language to those for whom it is second or foreign language.

Then there can be teachers who are not native speakers of English but have native-like

proficiency in this language engaged in teaching this language to the people with

different mother tongue from their own or with the same mother tongue. Sill there can be

teachers who are totally non-proficient and have to teach English as a school subject or to

use it as medium of instruction to teach other content subjects.

The literature reviewed in this study shows scarcity of researches on language

teachers’ motivation (see section 2.10 of this chapter). This dearth of studies on language

teachers motivation has been enunciated by many researchers. The researches which exist

traditionally deal with the proficient teachers aiming mainly to see the way language

teachers’ motivation affects learners’ motivation. Non-proficient teachers who have been

made to teach English regardless of their own lack of proficiency have been neglected

even more in these studies. This issue is rather more serious because the ratio of non-

native teachers and among them non-proficient teachers is much higher than the native

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teachers of English. Though nativeness in the context of English language is itself subject

of much debate and controversy in its global role which seems to have redefined its status

and the issue of its ownership according to many scholars. It is because the ownership of

English and nativeness now is considered not to be limited only to England, America,

Australia, South Africa or Canada but still it has not solved the problem of lack of proper

proficiency in majority of those countries which have adopted it. Therefore it is serious

that the teachers who are dealing with English without being proficient have been put to

oblivion in the studies conducted on teachers’ motivation.

Researches on motivation of non-proficient teachers to use English as medium of

instruction are no doubt rare but there exists no research in Pakistan which has dealt with

motivation of teachers to use English as medium of instruction. This study moves

forward to fill such gaps in existing literature first of all by dealing with the teachers

whose proficiency is not above learners of different levels (consult ‘General Profile of the

Teachers’ chapter 1, p. 24). Level is different because all the teachers vary in their

proficiency depending on the quality of their own education, level of qualification, nature

of exposure etc. Secondly the models used for this study have been traditionally used

with the learners and not the teachers of low proficiency level. This study has made

theoretical contribution by testing the applicability of hybridization of the selected

models on teachers who are dealing with English as Medium of Instruction (EMI). Earlier

each of these models was used separately to gauge motivation of learners and even in

case where hybridization was used it also dealt with language learners and not the

teachers who were not above learners on the basis of their proficiency.

Qualitative data was also included for understanding the situation/phenomenon in

greater depth for possible expansion or modification of the selected models to suit the

setting of the current study. It was mainly done to trace those factors which did not exist

in the models but could be significantly related to the motivation of the teachers in this

context and could be generalized or applied, surely not without certain limitations and

modifications, to teachers across the world.

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CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1. Introduction

This chapter presents the methodologies and statistical tools used in this study. It

also attempts to justify these particular statistical tools and the method adopted for the

collection of data. The study sample, the construction and structure of the questionnaire,

the aims of methods used in this study and the techniques employed in data analysis as

well as interpretation have been discussed.

3.2. Type of Research

This study was conducted following both quantitative and qualitative approaches.

Quantitative studies are used typically while collecting large scale data from a vast area.

On the other hand, qualitative studies are used for a deep insight and elaborate

understanding of a limited phenomenon through collection of almost exhaustive

information or data (Gay et al. 2009). Thus in case if a study involves a large area and a

range of phenomena then in view of feasibility regarding time limitations and the large

size of data close ended questionnaires are used which save time and effort.

The usefulness of quantitative studies for survey researches is a widely

acknowledged fact. As Dornyei (2007), a veteran in language motivation and attitude

studies highlights the value of quantitative techniques in producing quality research into

language motivation and attitudes. While discussing comparative value of quantitative

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and qualitative inquiries into the matter he finds quantitative research to be ‘systematic,

rigorous, focused, and tightly controlled, involving precise measurement and producing

reliable and replicable data that is generalizable to other contexts’ (Dornyei, 2007) while

at the same time he finds a downside in quantitative inquiry because of its tradition to

average out the results across the whole sample where significant discrepancies have a

chance to be overlooked. MacIntyre (2007) has also favoured quantitative approaches

towards the study of language motivation and attitudes.

The models of inquiry selected for this research typically follow quantitative

techniques. Both SE (Socio-educational) model and WTC (Willingness to Communicate)

Model use standardized scales for collection of data which are in nature Likert type scales

with choices of response varying on the basis of the degree of intensity in agreeing or

disagreeing with the given statement. This study made use of a questionnaire developed

through the adaptation and fusion of both of these scales i.e. AMTB (Attitude Motivation

Test Battery) of socio-educational model (2010) and WTC scale based on WTC model of

MacIntyre (1996). Thus a close ended questionnaire was prepared based on the selection

and adaptation of constructs from both the scales for the collection of quantitative data.

It is mainly a descriptive study which aims to describe the existing situation. The

statistical correlations which have been used to determine the relationship between

different variables aim ultimately to describe the level and characteristics of motivation.

Regression analysis and structural equation modeling have also been used for a similar

purpose. However, an important purpose, in the second place, was to test the

relationships among different variables hypothesized in some studies conducted earlier in

this field. The aim was also to test applicability of the selected models in the context of

this study.

Therefore, this study involves both descriptive and correlational purposes. It

attempted to describe an existing condition through correlational analysis (Gay et al.

2009) of selected variables in a context. Correlational study is used to confirm the

existence of correlation between two or more distinct variables and to describe the nature

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of the existing correlation. Thus typically the major role of correlational study is to deal

with the ‘what’ and ‘how’ of the existing correlations among the variables leaving and

not to provide the answer of ‘why’ of the correlations among the variables or anything

extra that is not directly involved in influencing the correlations but can be used to

explain the nature of correlations. In order to explore the matter in greater depth and to

respond to the emphasis laid on the use of qualitative methods along with quantitative

ones in motivational studies by MacIntyre and Dornyei qualitative techniques were as

well employed in this study. For this purpose four open-ended questions were added at

the end of each questionnaire while structured interviews were conducted from the

Principals of different schools ensuring that at least two interviews were conducted from

each of the selected districts. Thus multi-method approach was followed in this research.

3.3. Design of the Study

It was a survey research in which data was collected from six districts of Punjab

using questionnaires and interviews. One hundred questionnaires were distributed among

teachers from each district. It was preferred that the questionnaires were filled by the

teachers from the rural areas coming within the jurisdiction of different Tehsils

(administrative sub-division within the jurisdictions of a district), where possible, in order

to cover the diversity to the maximum. However, it could not be strictly followed

because it was not feasible keeping in mind time constraints and resources available.

Some schools were visited by the researcher himself in order to distribute questionnaires

but in most of the cases a reliable person from each of the districts was requested to get

the job done. All the six persons selected thus were thoroughly briefed about the task

they were to undertake. For interviews the researcher met each principal in person and

conducted a strictly structured interview and its justification has been provided in

instrumentation. All the principals were found to be very cooperative but hesitant at the

same time to be interviewed in English. Therefore, they were provided interview

questions in advance to help them feel comfortable.

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3.4. Theoretical Framework

3.4.1. Selected Theoretical Models

Theoretical grounding for this study was derived from the conceptualization of

motivation in socio-educational model of Gardner and the WTC model of MacIntyre.

Former among these evolved as a result of continuous researches by Gardner and

colleagues in different phases whereas the later was introduced by MacIntyre et al. (1994,

1998). A hybridization of both of these models was used by MacIntyre and Charos

(1996) which was in turn replicated by many researchers afterwards. Current study

followed the same tradition of hybridization of both of these models. Traditionally in

WTC model three constructs are seen as strongly related. They are Perceived

Communicative Competence, Language Use Anxiety/Apprehension and Willingness to

Communicate. The last among these is taken as dependent factor while the first as its

positive cause and the second its negative cause. However, the relationship that was

empirically established showed that Anxiety/Apprehension influenced Willingness to

Communicate through Communicative Competence proving that there existed no

significant direct path from Anxiety to WTC. It was also found through a number of

researches that willingness to communicate quite reliably predicted the frequency of

language use in actual situation.

MacIntyre (2007) explains willingness to communicate as a volitional process

which means that the speaker is free to make a choice either to speak or not to speak. He

also emphasized that the all the kernels of wisdom resulting from different researches in

the field of language motivation have been integrated in the WTC model while at the

same time stressing the need to benefit from socio-educational model (for detailed

explanation of WTC model refer to chapter 2 of this study). The important thing to be

mentioned here is that WTC model is considered as an extension of motivation model

itself assimilating and growing on leading models of motivational studies.

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Socio-educational model passed through different phases in its evolution. In its

development the factors important in language learning were divided into two categories

as ability factors and affective factors. Intelligence and aptitude were considered as

ability factors while motivation was considered as affective factor. Through researches on

the relationship of ability and affective factors with language achievement it was found

that motivation stands to be almost at par with ability factors in predicting language

learning achievement. Thus motivational studies, started in Canadian immersion

programmes in view of their importance, resulted finally in the development of socio-

educational model. Motivation in this model was conceived as a drive to learn a language

and continue expending effort required to make it possible.

Motivation in this model was dichotomized into integrative motivation and

instrumental motivation both of which could vary in their importance or role in motivated

behavior depending on the context but were seen as combining to produce the sum of

language learning motivation. There were other constructs as well which were conceived

as contributing to language learning motivation. This model was based on twelve

constructs (Gardner, 2010) which on theoretical basis have important role in language

learning motivation endorsed by continuous researches conducted for a period of more

than half a century. These twelve constructs could be placed under six broader categories

according to Gardner (2010) as in the following;

Integrativeness

1. Integrative orientation

2. Interest in foreign languages

3. Attitudes toward speakers of English

Attitudes toward the Learning Situation

4. Evaluation of the language instructor

5. Evaluation of the language course

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Motivation

6. Motivational intensity

7. Desire to learn the language

8. Attitudes toward learning the English

Language Anxiety

9. Language class anxiety

10. Language use anxiety

Instrumentality

11. Instrumental orientation

Parental Encouragement

12. Parental encouragement

To put it simply, researches conducted through this model confirmed a positive

correlation between motivated behaviour toward language learning and the positive value

of all the constructs except the Anxiety construct which was found having a negative

influence on motivation. In the following structure of socio-educational model has been

given that was developed in 2006 using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) and has

been given in Gardner’s book published in 2010. Gardner informed the researcher - when

contacted through email – that this work was his latest discussion on the matter carrying

latest developments in the model and the latest version of the Attitude Motivation Test

Battery (AMTB). The model, as given on the next page, shows relationship between

motivation and language achievement on one hand while on the other it shows

relationship between motivation and the factors causing it. Anxiety has been shown as

having direct effect on language achievement which is definitely opposite to that which

motivation has on achievement. Thus the role of anxiety is to block the way of motivation

in facilitating and enhancing language learning achievement. The figure below shows

socio-educational model developed after structural equation analysis.

112

Figure 6

Structural equation version of socio-educational model

Source: Gardner (2010)

Abbreviations:

INS: Instrumentality

IO: Integrative Orientation

IFL: Interest in Foreign Languages

AFC: Attitude towards French Canadian

MI: Motivational Intensity

ALF: Attitudes toward Learning French

3.5. Adaptation of the Framework for Present Study

First of all the adaptations were made in response to the situation selected which

involved English as Medium of Instruction (EMI). The statements in the questionnaire

IO IFL AFC

INS

Teacher Class

MI Desire ALF

Use Class

Integrativeness

Attitudes to

learning

situation

Motivation

Language

Achievement

Language

Anxiety

Aptitude

Instrumentality

113

and rest of the modifications were made as required. The adaptations made in each of the

selected models are as under;

3.5.1. Adaptation from WTC Model

In the adaptation of WTC (for the pyramid model of WTC refer to the heading

2.15.4. in chapter 2) model Perceived Communicative Competence was replaced by

another distinct but related construct of Linguistic Self-Confidence (LSC) which was

found in existing literature as positively related to motivation (Gardner 2010). MacIntyre

(2007) labels it as L2 Self-Confidence and conceives it as a product of low anxiety and

high Perceived Communicative Competence.

These constructs differ only in their orientation so that Perceived Communicative

Competence is oriented towards perception of one’s competence related to actual use of

language in meaningful interaction in the given situation. Linguistic Self-Confidence, on

the other hand, does not imply that. It simply indicates the extent to which one believes

that he or she is able to learn or perform in that language. The later was selected for the

current study because the participants’ chances of getting into interaction through English

had been rare in their real life. So, their answers were expected to be based on remote

assumptions owing to this fac. For Willingness to Communicate in English (WTCE) in

this study the response choices provided in the scale were frequency based (see Appendix

A). It was different technique from the source (Hashimoto, 2002) where the choices were

provided in the form of percentage of the chances to use English in the situation specified

(see Appendix E). Thus both the scales measured probability of using English in a

situation through distinct response categories. This is how the scale from Hashimoto

(2002) was adapted with situations specified from the context of this study.

3.5.2. Adaptation from Socio-Educational Model

While adaptation of socio-educational model two constructs subsumed by

Integrativeness i.e. Integrative orientation and Attitude toward English speaking people

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were found to be irrelevant in the context of the study where the participants had no

contact with the international or local English speakers as to be in the position to report

their feelings related to it. From integrativeness only interest in foreign languages was

selected. Attitude towards the learning situation (as in socio-educational model) was

conceived as including participants’ attitudes towards the policy of introducing English

as medium of instruction, and their evaluation of status of English as medium of

instruction in the schools where they were taught.

From the components of the construct labeled as motivation in socio-educational

model (see the list given above) only ‘Desire to Learn the Language’ was selected. It was

expected to show the level of interest teachers had to improve their skills in English. It

was done because the participants were not involved in an explicit or formal exercise of

language learning and to avoid making the questionnaire too prolix. From the construct of

anxiety ‘language use anxiety’ was selected and class anxiety was omitted again in order

to fulfill the criteria of relevance and economy in instrumentation. Anxiety was common

between both the models so it was not used for each model separately but as point of

overlap between both the models. Instrumentality was selected as it was found to be the

most important reason for learning English in the context of the study. The idea of

including English Language Learning Experience as an additional construct came from

Dornyei (2004) and Nakata (2006). The figure below shows the conceptual framework

developed for this study through adaptations discussed above.

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Figure 7

Conceptual framework based on socio-educational model and WTC model

developed for the study.

Figure 3.2,

3.6. Types of Variables

Variables are sorted out into different types on the basis of their nature and/or on

the basis of the nature of their relationship with other variables. The types of variables

specified here are based on the criteria that apply in each case.

Reearch question 1A

The variable in this research question is the attitude of teachers towards English

as Medium of Instruction that is reflected through their evaluation of EMI. It is

continuous/quantitative variable.

Attitudes

towards;

-English as Medium of Instruction - Policy of English as Medium of Instruction -English Language

English

Language

Learning

Experience

Motivation:

-Interest in

Foreign

Languages

-Desire to Learn

-English

Language

-Instrumentality

English

Language Use

Anxiety

Linguistic

Self-

Confidence

Willingness to

Communicate

in English

A

c

h

i

e

v

e

m

e

n

t

116

Research Question 1B

Readiness to use EMI implies level of motivation. It is also a

continuous/quantitative variable.

Research Question 1C

So far as nature of the variables is concerned age, gender and qualification are

discrete variables while motivational constructs are continuous variables. However, on

the basis of the nature of their relationship age, gender and qualification are independent

while motivational constructs are dependent variables.

Research Question 2A

Here by nature all the variables are continuous variable. But, as far as the nature

of their relationship is concerned Interest in Foreign Languages, Desire to Learn English

Language, Instrumentality and Attitude towards English as Medium of Instruction are

independent variables while Willingness to Communicate is a dependent variable.

Research Question 2B

All the variables involved here are continuous variables so far as their nature is

concerned. However, on the basis of their interrelationship English Language Learning

Experience (ELLE) is conceptualized as independent while motivation and willingness to

communicate as dependent variables.

Research Question 2C

The variables involved here are continuous so far as their nature is concerned.

However, their interrelationship makes Linguistic Self-Confidence and Anxiety as

independent while motivation and willingness to communicate as dependent variables.

Research Question 2D

Both motivation and willingness to communicate are continuous variables.

However, on the basis of their interrelationship the former is conceptualized as

independent and the latter as dependent variable.

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3.7. Sampling

The technique used in the selection of sample involved planning and selection at

multiple levels in order to make the sample sufficiently representative. In the procedure

employed first of all districts from the province of Punjab were selected on the basis of

HDI (Human Development Index). For this purpose a report published by SPDC (Social

Policy and Development Center) in 2007 was used wherein all the districts of Punjab

were ordered on the basis of their HDI (vide Appendix G for the list). The list consisted

of 34 districts ordered from 1 to 34 in the order of their HDI value. For the sake of

selection they were divided into three groups of high (first 11 in the list), medium (12 to

22 in the list) and low (23 to 34 in the list) HDI as under;

Table 3

Districts selected for the survey

Sr. No District Order in the List HDI Group

1. Sahiwal 6 High HDI

2. Rawalpindi 8 High HDI

3. Faisalabad 17 Medium HDI

4. Okara 18 Medium HDI

5. Bahawalnagar 25 Low HDI

6. Bahawalpur 33 Low HDI

The selection of districts was made systematically in such a way that two districts

were selected from the group of high HDI, two from that of medium and the last two

from the group with low HDI. In this way, six districts were selected for survey. It was to

assure the representativeness of the sample to an optimal level.

The index of human development is measured on the basis of condition of health,

education, and economic status of the people. From each district schools were selected

preferably from each Tehsil of the district but where it was not feasible. So, mainly the

technique of convenience sampling was employed in this study. Ultimately the

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questionnaires were distributed among the teachers on the basis of their availability and

willingness to participate.

The focus was that at least one hundred teachers should fill the questionnaire from

each district in this way making the expected sample size of the teachers to be 600. In

case of principals the minimum number to be interviewed was 18 three from each of the

selected districts. But it exceeded the minimum number and 25 interviews were

conducted practically (for detail see the list in Appendix F). To get the questionnaires

duly filled by the teachers from the selected districts an adequately educated person from

each district was given the responsibility. Each one of them was given a thorough

briefing in this regard before he went about doing it. All of them were directly known to

the researcher. Their detail can be found in the table below;

Table 4

List of the persons who assisted in the survey

Sr. No Name Qualification District

1. Khyzer Abbas Shah M.A. (English) Sahiwal

2. Zahoor Akhtar B.A, B. Ed Rawalpindi

3. Muhammad Ashraf B.A, B. Ed Faisalabad

4. Mansoor Ahmad B.Sc Okara

5. Azhar Ahmad M.phil Bahawalnagar

6. Muhammad Naeem B.A, B. Ed Bahawalpur

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The table below has detail of the distribution of questionnaires in the districts;

Table 5

District wise distribution of the number of questionnaires

Sr. No District Questionnaires

filled/Tehsil

Total Qs

distributed

Total Qs

returned

1 Sahiwal Sahiwal=90 100 90

2 Rawalpindi Kallar Syedan=21 100 61

Rawalpindi=22

Kotli Sattian=18

3 Faisalabad Tandlianwala=37 100 52

Samundri=15

4 Okara Okara=38 100 56

Renala Khurd=18

5 Bahawalnagar Bahawalnagar=05 100 53

Minchinabad=42

Pakpattan=06

6 Bahawalpur Bahawalpur=51 100 95

Hasilpur=33

Ahmadpur=11

Total questionnaires distributed=600 No of questionnaires returned=407

3.7. Instrumentation

Instrumentation is the process of selection or preparation of instrument to collect

relevant data from the selected setting. It is one of the core activities in any research

study for the quality of instrument in terms of its suitability, reliability and validity

decides about the quality of research. Instruments are either selected from the already

existing instruments, or adapted from them or created anew by the researcher in case if

either of former do no work or apply (Gay et al. 2009).

120

3.7.1. Construction of the Questionnaire

The instrument for this study was adapted from two standardized scales which

have been used by a large number of researches as it is and also after adaptation. AMTB

and WTC measurement scales were adapted to suite this study. It was done through

selection of relevant constructs and selection as well as adaptation of the items used to

operationalize the constructs in these scales by modify wording of the items as to suit the

participants in the particular situation involved. It was also done by introducing new

items where necessary.

The questionnaire thus designed had 70 close-ended items having seven point

likert scale (as suggested by Gardner 2010) options to respond to the given statements

which ranged from strongly agree to strongly disagree while there being agree, slightly

agree, neutral, slightly disagree and disagree in between these extreme points. WTC scale

was adapted to suit other parts of the constructed questionnaire by converting anticipated

frequency of using English to communicate from frequency scale divided into levels of

frequency on percentage of chances to use English to seven point frequency scale

designed on Likert style. The percentage scale ranged between 0% chances to 100%

chances of using English while the scale constructed for the study ranged between

chances of using English always to that of using it never.

3.7.1.1 Adaptation of AMTB (Attitude Motivation Test Battery)

Regarding selection of constructs in the attempt to adapt AMTB discussion has

already been made in theoretical framework. It only remains to be said that wording of

each item selected from AMTB was modified for suitability. The construct ‘English

Language Learning Experience (ELLE)’ was operationalized through analysis of this

construct into its component parts (variables) and then by devising an item to state each

variable. Learning experience in English was conceived as a constellation of following

variables;

1. Past scores in English

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2. Evaluation of English in terms of favourite or otherwise subject

3. Appreciation of English teacher

4. Difficulty in English when learning as a student

5. Evaluation of learning English as a student

6. Evaluation of having EMI as a student

7. Statement opposite to no 4 in this list

3.7.1.2. Adaptation of WTC Scale

In adaptation of WTC the conversion of scale has already been referred to above. In

regard of the constructs used anxiety was selected from AMTB after modifying the

language of items as to suite EMI situation and the participants. Linguistic self-

confidence was conceived as constellation of following variables and to be expressed

through self-reporting on;

1. Effort the individual requires to learn English

2. Self-confidence about its use,

3. Evaluation of difficulty involved for the individual in learning it,

4. Self-confidence about the ability to lecture in English

3.7.1.3. Integrating AMTB and WTC Scales

The merging of the scales from both the models can be found in adaptation of

WTC scale to suite seven point likert scale used in AMTB by conversion from percentage

frequency to semantically graded frequency. It is also done by taking anxiety as common

factor for both the models in the instrument.

3.7.2. Piloting of the Questionnaire and Reliability

The questionnaire designed was piloted on a sample of 50 teachers from the

district of Okara. The sample was convenience based. It included 70 close-ended items

which were reduced to 57 for the final study. The 13 items affecting reliability coefficient

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were excluded from the final questionnaire. These items were mostly negatively worded

items. The excluded items were numbered as 10, 16, 17, 26, 27, 28, 38, 43, 44, 45, 48, 53

and 57 in the pilot questionnaire. Cronbach Alpha was found for reliability test of the

questionnaire. Overall Alpha value of the questionnaire used for final study was found to

be .82 which is quite high. Coefficients of the sub-scales designed to measure respective

constructs were also measured which were different. Alpha values of the sub-scales are

given below.

Table 6

Cronbach Alpha values of subscales of the questionnaire

Construct Cronbach’s Alpha

IFL

.76

DLEL

.70

INST

.75

ELLE

.72

ATEMI

.46

ANX

.75

LSC

.44

WTCE .85

It can be seen that alpha values for six out of eight subscales are very high. Only

two sub-scales have low value but it does not affect the overall reliability of the

questionnaire. The case in point can be the study conducted by MacIntyre and Charos

(1996) as cited in Hashimoto (2002) where the sub-scale of Language Anxiety had only

.48 as its alpha value. It provides sufficient justification for the sub-scales showing low

alpha value.

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3.7.3. Designing and Conducting the Interviews

Interviews were designed to be strictly structured. It was done in view of the

problems principals of the schools could face in unstructured discussions due to their lack

of proficiency and practice in oral communication through English. Additionally, the

pressure caused by being conscious of getting involved in an interview which could

potentially expose their academic strength made them hesitant and faltering. It was found

in a couple of pilot interviews that the participants either refused or preferred to know

questions in advance. They reported to be most comfortable if they were allowed to pen

down a rough sketch of their answers and this preference of theirs was respected. Even a

researcher who was Masters in English faced a lot of anxiety while answering the

questions. This is why the participants were made as much comfortable as possible by

conducting the interviews in the way they preferred in order to elicit reliable responses.

The interviews were conducted on weekends as it was not possible for the

researcher owing to his commitment as a lecturer on working days. The participants were

contacted by the facilitators (mentioned in table no 4) to arrange their meetings with the

researcher. All the interviews were arranged at the venues somewhere other than schools

except that of Mr. Shafique from Okara who was contacted on the working day in the

school. Interview questions were sent in advance to all the participants as part of the

procedure. It was used as a strategy to minimize the anxiety that was faced by the

participants while getting their interviews recorded in English. All the interviews were

recorded in audio form.

Eleven questions were selected for the interview in which care was taken to include

such questions which would help in enhancing the understanding of trends in data from

the questionnaire as well as to cross validate them. The questions included in the

interviews dealt with different constructs related to motivation as given in the designed

questionnaire. Interview included the issues listed below;

1. Evaluation of EMI Policy

124

2. Teachers’ feelings in response to the policy

3. Motivation of teachers to lecture in English

4. Evaluation of EMI-teacher training arranged by the government

5. Report on worries of teachers related to EMI

6. Strategies which can be followed to make the policy successful

7. Introducing proficiency exams and certificate system for the teachers

8. Evaluation of teachers’ confidence of lecturing in English

9. Anticipation of teachers’ preference to lecture in English if given free choice

10. The instrumental importance given by teachers to English

3.8. Data Analysis Techniques

SPSS version 21.0 was used for the analysis of quantitative data for findings

related to hypothesized correlations among different constructs investigated in this study.

Amos 21.0 was used for the model showing correlations among the constructs selected

for the study. The versions of both of these statistical packages were the latest available.

For the analysis of qualitative data gathered through interviews technique of thematic

analysis was used. The answers provided by the participants were studied and important

themes were identified. The emerging themes were classified under different labels which

were used later on for the sake of findings and interpretations. Interviews were also put to

thematic analysis. The responses were critically interpreted in the light of theories

followed and the context of the study.

3.9. Summary

This study was based on triangulation method. Both quantitative and qualitative

approaches were used in it. Quantitative data were gathered through a questionnaire

designed on the basis of socio-educational model and WTC model while qualitative data

were collected through structured interviews with the Principals/Heads of the schools.

AMTB and WTC scale were adapted for the construction of the questionnaire.

125

Techniques of convenience sampling were followed in the selection of the sample.

Different steps were involved in this process, first of all the districts were selected on the

basis of HDI (Human Development Index) report and then the schools were selected on

convenience basis from different Tehsils of the selected districts. Teachers, from these

schools, who were available and willing to participate, were handed over the

questionnaires. Interviews were conducted too following the same principle. Ultimately

the data gathered were analyzed through SPSS version 21.0 and for designing the model

on the basis of the trends in the data Amos version 21.0 was used. For the analysis of the

interview data, the technique of thematic categorization and labeling was used for

significant findings.

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CHAPTER 4

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1. Introduction

This chapter includes analysis and interpretation of the data. It has been divided

into three main parts. First part includes analysis of data gathered through close-ended

questions in the questionnaire. Second part consists of analysis of data gathered through

open-ended questions and the third includes analysis of the data collected through

interviews. Further, the questionnaires were filled by the male as well the female

teachers. The teachers were divided into three categories on the basis of qualification i.e.

undergraduates, graduates and postgraduates. They were divided into three categories on

the basis of age as well i.e. <30, 30 – 50 and >50 years of age. Interviews were conducted

from the principals of the schools only who are mostly the senior most among all the

teachers. Analysis of data through close ended items was further divided into four parts.

1. Percentage analysis of data collected on each item separately to see variation on

the basis of three demographic factors i.e. Gender, Age and Qualification.

2. Construct wise analysis of data showing in percent the number of the respondents

with high, medium and low level of intensity with each construct.

3. Regression and correlation analysis to determine the nature of relationship among

different constructs used in this study.

127

4. Structural Equation Modeling to see the nature of cause and effect relationship

among different constructs as an attempt to verify and design a model

representing such relationship. It has also been used for comparative study of the

nature of relationship yielded by this study in its characteristic context with those

procured by other researchers like MacIntyre and Charos (1996), Yashima (2002)

and Hashimoto (2002).

Open-ended questions were used responding to the emphasis by Dornyei (2001) and

other influential scholars (Crookes & Schmidt, 1991; and Ushioda, 2001) on the need of

qualitative techniques (as mentioned in chapter 3 on Methodology) in research on

attitudinal and/or motivational variables. It is recognition of the importance given by such

influential scholars in this field to the qualitative techniques as well as to use the data

gathered thus in substantiating or cross validating the results from close-ended items.

Interviews were used in the same spirit to explore the matter from the view point of those

who hold a position of higher responsibility, happen to be the senior most and supervise

the whole academic activity. Above all, they are not subject to the policy in the way the

other participants (teachers) happen to be. Therefore, they were expected to have a more

neutral judgment and the least biased opinion.

128

4.2. Demographics

Table 7

Demographic information

Frequency Percentage

Gender Male 342 84

Female 65 16

Total 407 100

Age <30 111 27.3

30 – 50 249 61.2

>50 47 11.5

Total 407 100

Qualification UG 13 3.2

Graduate 102 25.1

PG 292 71.7

Total 407 100

Gender: The table shows that the sample size used for this study to fill the close-ended

questionnaire was 407. The male participants were 342 which makes them 84% of the

total sample size while females were only 65 with the percentage as 16% of the total

sample. The proportion between male and female is definitely uneven but it could not be

helped in the feasibility conditions of this study where getting data from female

participants hinged on social constraints. However the effort made could provide some

glimpse into the gender difference though minor but not insignificant enough to be

negligible as 65 is a good sample size which is double the minimum size (30)

traditionally required for a reliable pilot study or even in case of research papers

involving quantitative studies.

129

Age: Out of the total sample of 407, 111 belonged to age group 1 (below 30 years of

age), 249 belonged to age group 2 (between 30 to 50 years of age) and 47 belonged to

age group 3 (above 50 years of age). So far as the distribution is concerned each age

group has a number quite sufficient to be a reliable sample size.

Qualification: Only 13 are undergraduates among total sample size of 407 which is

too low as a sample size for the minimum requirement of a quantitative study. But this

demographic factor lies purely out of the control of the researcher and was also not one of

the primary needs in the purpose and plan of the survey conducted for this study.

However, the number is quite against the expectations of the researcher and a valid

reason for such a low representation of this group can be found. The reason might not be

their low ratio in the population but an understandable tendency among them not to return

the survey questionnaires distributed among them. Both the other qualification groups i.e.

graduates and postgraduates have their number much above the level of sufficient sample

size (generally 40 - 50) for a quantitative study of the kind.

4.3. Analysis of Close-Ended Part

The purpose of analysis in this part was to look at micro-level into the constructs

in order to find any systematic variation among different groups of the participants

divided as such on the basis of following three factors;

A. Gender

B. Age

C. Qualification

Mostly sums of the percentages in different response categories have been used in

description of the numeric data. As the scale was 7-point likert wherein neutral point was

found at point 4 in the scale while all the three positive response categories of high,

medium and low intensity came on 7, 6, and 5 points in the scale respectively. On the

other side, three categories of negative responses with high, low and medium intensity

130

stood at points 1, 2 and 3 respectively. In the description of relative value of each

response category against others, values in response categories of high intensity were

given higher weightage over the categories of low intensity.

In case of the Willingness to Communicate in English (WTCE) a seven point

frequency scale was used where each point marking a particular frequency level was

represented by natural numbers from 1 to 7 so that the lowest frequency level was

represented by the number of lowest numeric value and the highest with that of the

highest value. While describing the numeric values got in the data on WTCE sums of the

percentages of high frequency response categories and that of the low frequency response

categories were used to indicate the level of willingness. Three response categories i.e.

Always, Usually and Frequently having numeric representation as 7, 6, 5 respectively

were used as high frequency while Sometimes, Occasionally and Rarely having numeric

value as 4, 3, and 2 respectively were used as low frequency responses. Pearson Chi-

square has been used to know the significance of the differences on the bases of

demographic factors. Significance of chi-square depends on Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) value.

The level of significance differs with its value as under;

i. > .10 is Insignificant

ii. > .05 and < .10 is significant to * (Significant)

iii. > .01 and < .05 is significant to ** (Highly significant)

iv. < .01 is significant to *** (Highly significant)

There were negatively worded items in almost each construct. The data received

on such items were entered in reverse order to keep it in line with the data gathered on

other items thus to avoid possible problems in statistical analysis.

131

4.3.1. Single Item Analysis

I. Interest in Foreign Languages (IFL)

Table 8

Gender-based variation in the responses to IFL 1 (Questionnaire item 1)

Gender Percentages Chi-square

SD D STD N STA A SA Total

8.819

Male 3.2 5.6 2.6 11.4 14.3 27.5 35.4 100

Female 3.1 7.7 3.1 13.8 20.0 35.4 16.9 100

Total 3.2 5.9 2.7 11.8 15.2 28.7 32.4 100

Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) = .184

It can be seen that in total 77% of the male participants agree with the given statement

against 72% of the female. On the other side almost 11% of the male disagree with the

statement while the female who disagree are 14% of the total. Chi-square shows the

difference to be insignificant.

Table 9

Age-based variation in the responses to IFL 1 (Questionnaire item 1)

Age Percentages Chi-square


19.006*

< 30 1.8 2.7 3.6 9.0 14.4 30.6 37.8 100

30 – 50 2.8 8.4 2.8 13.3 14.9 26.5 31.3 100

> 50 8.5 0.0 0.0 10.6 19.1 36.2 25.5 100

Total 3.2 5.9 2.7 11.8 15.2 28.7 32.4 100


132

37.8% of those who strongly agree are below 30 years of age and those who agree have

36.2% of respondents above 50 years of age. 8.5% of those who strongly disagree belong

to age group 3 while the highest %age of those who remain neutral belong to age group 2.

The difference is significant as shown by the value of chi-square.

Table 10

Qualification-based variation in the responses to IFL 1 (Questionnaire item 1)

Qualification Percentages Chi-square


31.285***

UG 23.1 7.7 0.0 23.1 23.1 15.4 7.7 100

Graduate 3.9 8.8 5.9 9.8 13.7 28.4 29.4 100

PG 2.1 4.8 1.7 12.0 15.4 29.5 34.6 100

Total 3.2 5.9 2.7 11.8 15.2 28.7 32.4 100


The post graduates have the highest percentage in strongly agree and agree response

categories i.e. 34.6% and 29.5% respectively. The second highest in both the response

categories is that of the graduates i.e. 29.4% and 28.4% respectively. Overall, the

aggregate of percentages of those who agree with the given statement is almost 76%

against almost 12% of those who disagree. The difference is found to be highly

significant on the basis of chi-square.

Discussion

Results demonstrate a strong wish of the participants to learn foreign languages.

However, the percentage of neutral responses is significantly high. In negative response

to the given statement gender difference remains unimportant however in positive

response greater percentage of males has shown strongly positive response while greater

percentage of females has shown greater positive and moderately positive responses. The

percentage of neutral responses is significant which have higher ratio of females

133

compared with males. Highest percentage of strongly positive response is from those who

are below 30 years of age while positive and moderately positive is highest by those who

are above 50 years of age. Thus age shows relationship with the interest in learning

foreign languages with the young being above the old in this regard. In case of

qualification strongly positive and positive responses are directly proportional to

qualification while moderately positive response is shown by the undergraduates. On the

other side strongly negative response is shown to be inversely proportional to

qualification. Thus qualification has emerged as a significant indicator of interest in the

ability to speak foreign languages. Age has also shown to be a significant indicator but

less than qualification.

Table 11




11.794*

Male 3.5 5.8 4.7 16.4 24.0 29.5 16.1 100

Female 3.1 15.4 6.2 9.2 24.6 33.8 7.7 100

Total 3.4 7.4 4.9 15.2 24.1 30.2 14.7 100


16.1% of those who strongly agree with the statement are males against 7.7% of females.

In response category showing simple disagreement females are 15.4% against 5.8%

males. Those who remained neutral are 16.4% males against 9.2% females. Chi-square

value shows the difference to be significant.

134

Table 12




6.130

< 30 2.7 5.4 4.5 15.3 27.0 28.8 16.2 100

30 – 50 3.6 8.4 4.8 14.1 22.9 30.5 15.7 100

> 50 4.3 6.4 6.4 21.3 23.4 31.9 6.4 100

Total 3.4 7.4 4.9 15.2 24.1 30.2 14.7 100


Table shows that the aggregate of the percentages showing agreement with the given

statement is almost 72% of age group 1, 69% of age group 2 and 62% of age group 3. On

the other hand, the aggregate of those showing disagreement are 12%, 17% and 17% of

age groups 1, 2 and 3 respectively. The difference is insignificant on the basis of chi-

square value.

Table 13

Qualification-based variation the responses to IFL 2 (Questionnaire item 2)



20.94*

UG 15.4 15.4 0.0 7.7 38.5 23.1 0.0 100

Graduate 5.9 7.8 3.9 15.7 27.5 31.4 7.8 100

PG 2.1 6.8 5.5 15.4 22.3 30.1 17.8 100

Total 3.4 7.4 4.9 15.2 24.1 30.2 14.7 100


The aggregate of the percentages of postgraduates showing agreement with the given

statement is almost 70%, that of graduates is 66% and undergraduates are 62%. On the

other hand among those who disagree 31% are undergraduates, 17% graduates and 14%

135

postgraduates. Overall, the aggregate percentage of those who agree with the statement is

almost 69% against 16% of those who disagree. Chi-square has significant value.

Discussion

It can clearly be seen that the participants give a lot of value to their ability to read

newspapers in many foreign languages which is an expression of their strong interest in

learning foreign languages. Neutral responses have a significant percentage. Somewhat

significant difference on the basis of gender is to be found in strongly positive response

where males have higher percentage than females i.e. 16.10% against 7.70% and in

negative response where females have higher percentage than males i.e. 15.40% against

5.80%. Slight differences can be found in positive as well as negative responses on the

basis of age. Though the differences overall are insignificant but moderate trend of

decrease in the percentage of strongly positive response can be seen with increase in

number of years which is counterbalanced by opposite trend in positive and moderately

positive responses. Negative responses, on the other hand, have direct proportionality

with age though the difference is minor. Qualification stands to be directly proportional

to the percentage of strongly positive responses and positive responses while moderately

positive show an opposite trend. Strongly negative and negative responses show inverse

relationship with qualification. Here again qualification emerges as the strongest

indicator of wish to be able to read in foreign languages while gender remains to be the

second most important factor.

Table 14




7.748

Male 6.5 6.2 10.9 13.8 21.1 24.6 17.0 100

Female 1.5 7.7 6.2 13.8 30.8 29.2 10.8 100

Total 5.7 6.4 10.1 13.8 22.7 25.4 16.0 100


136

The aggregate of the percentages of the females who agreed with the statement is almost

70% against that of the males i.e. 63% while among those who disagreed almost 23% are

males and 16% females. Value of chi-square is not significant.

Table 15




9.462

< 30 9.9 5.4 9.0 10.8 22.5 26.1 16.2 100

30 – 50 3.6 6.9 10.9 14.1 22.2 26.6 15.7 100

> 50 6.4 6.4 8.5 19.1 25.5 17.0 17.0 100

Total 5.7 6.4 10.1 13.8 22.7 25.4 16.0 100


Table shows that 19.1% respondents belonging to age group 3 remained neutral against

14.1% of age group 2 and 10.8% of age group 1 respectively. It can be seen that only

17.0% of age group 3 agreed with the statement against almost 26% belonging to the

other two age groups. On the other hand 9.9% respondents from age group 1 disagreed

with the statement. Chi-square has insignificant value.

Table 16




20.278*

UG 15.4 23.1 15.4 15.4 7.7 15.4 7.7 100

Graduate 3.9 10.8 11.8 13.7 25.5 23.5 10.8 100

PG 5.8 4.1 9.3 13.7 22.3 26.5 18.2 100

Total 5.7 6.4 10.1 13.8 22.7 25.4 16.0 100


137

The aggregate percentages show that among those who agree with the statement

postgraduates have the highest percentage i.e. almost 67%, graduates with 60% as the

second highest while undergraduates come at the bottom with 30%. On the other hand

undergraduates and graduates have the highest i.e. 54% and the second highest aggregate

i.e. 26% respectively. Overall, the aggregate percentage of those who agree is 64%

against 22% of those who disagree. Chi-square is significant here.

Discussion

Strong interest in foreign languages is clear because the percentages on the

positive side of the scale preponderate over those on the negative side. Percentage of

neutral responses is significant. It can be seen that males have higher percentage of

strongly positive response while lower in positive and moderately positive response.

Therefore gender difference has proved to be insignificant through mixed trend in

positivity. However, strongly negative response clearly shows males to be more

negatively disposed to learning foreign languages. So far as age is concerned no

significant difference can be found on the basis of age both in positivity as well as

negativity shown towards the idea of learning foreign languages. However, overall

teachers are more positively disposed towards learning foreign languages than being

negative. Qualification does make the difference again in making strongly positive

response to be positively related to the qualification. Positive as well as moderately

positive responses also show the same trend. Negative evaluation of the idea of learning

foreign languages is clearly found to be negatively related to the qualification. Thus

qualification stands to be the most important positive indicator of interest in learning

foreign languages while age is found to be insignificant. Gender though shows some

difference but overall is found to be insignificant.

138

Table 17




9.980

Male 1.8 3.8 5.3 13.7 14.3 30.4 30.7 100

Female 6.2 4.6 4.6 7.7 6.2 36.9 33.8 100

Total 2.5 3.9 5.2 12.8 13.0 31.4 31.2 100


It can be seen that 36.9% of the female respondents agree with the statement against

30.4% of the males while 14.3% of males slightly agree against 6.2% females. Then

again the aggregate percentage of the female who disagree is 15% while that of male is

11%. Chi-square shows insignificant value.

Table 18




11.245

< 30 0.9 5.4 7.2 17.1 13.5 27.0 28.8 100

30 – 50 2.8 3.2 4.4 10.8 12.0 32.5 34.1 100

> 50 4.3 4.3 4.3 12.8 17.0 36.2 21.3 100

Total 2.5 3.9 5.2 12.8 13.0 31.4 31.2 100


The aggregate percentage of age group 1 who agree with the statement is 69%, that of

age group2 is 79% and that of age group 3 is 75%. Among those who disagree with the

statement aggregate percentage of age group 1 is 14%, that of age group 2 is 10% and

that of age group 3 is 13%. Chi-square shows insignificant value.

139

Table 19




13.787

UG 0.0 15.4 7.7 15.4 15.4 23.1 23.1 100

Graduate 2.9 2.0 4.9 18.6 15.7 31.4 24.5 100

PG 2.4 4.1 5.1 10.6 12.0 31.8 33.9 100

Total 2.5 3.9 5.2 12.8 13.0 31.4 31.2 100


Table shows that greatest percentage (33.9%) is of postgraduates among those who

strongly agree with the statement. Little difference is to be found between the graduates

and the undergraduates. In neutral responses the highest percentage i.e. 18.6% is of

graduates. Overall, the aggregate percentage of those who agreed with the statement is

76% against 12% of those who disagreed. The value of chi-square is insignificant.

Discussion

A strong interest is expressed by the participants in learning the language of the

country of their stay, if they ever happen to go abroad to live there, which demonstrate

their high level of interest in foreign languages. Percentage of neutral responses is

significant. Data shows that slight difference is shown by the respondents on the basis of

gender in their strongly positive as well as positive response i.e. 33.80% against 30.70%

and 36.90% against 30.40% with the females being more interested in learning the target

language if they happen to stay in any country abroad. Males have higher percentage in

moderately positive response i.e. 14.30% against 6.20%. However, females have higher

percentage than males both in negative as well as moderately negative response whereas

in strongly negative response males are greater in number than females. No significant

differences can be seen on the basis of age. However it can be seen that percentage of

responses in positive plane is higher than those in the negative plane in all age groups. As

for qualification it can be seen that over all positive response is related positively to the

140

qualification while negative evaluation is related negatively to the qualification. But chi-

square shows all the demographic indicators to be insignificant.

Table 20




14.855** Male 4.1 9.6 14.0 7.9 21.3 22.2 20.8 100

Female 3.1 1.5 9.2 18.5 23.1 30.8 13.8 100

Total 3.9 8.4 13.3 9.6 21.6 23.6 19.7 100


The table shows the males among those who strongly agree are 20.8% whereas 13.8% are

females and those who agree have 22.2% males against 30.8% females. On the other

hand the aggregate percentage of those who tended to disagree is almost 28% males

against 14% females but those who remained neutral consist of 18.5% males and 7.9%

females. Chi-square has a highly significant value.

Table 21




7.030

< 30 4.5 4.5 14.4 9.9 23.4 26.1 17.1 100

30 – 50 3.6 10.4 12.9 10.0 20.1 21.7 21.3 100

> 50 4.3 6.4 12.8 6.4 25.5 27.7 17.0 100

Total 3.9 8.4 13.3 9.6 21.6 23.6 19.7 100


Using aggregates of the percentages of different age groups, it can be found that among

those who tended to agree with the given statement almost 67% belong to age group1,

141

63% to age group 2 and 70% to age group 3. Slight differences are found, on the negative

side, among the aggregates of those who disagree. Chi-square has insignificant value.

Table 22




30.780***

UG 15.4 15.4 0.0 23.1 30.8 0.0 15.4 100

Graduate 2.0 4.9 23.5 9.8 22.5 25.5 11.8 100

PG 4.1 9.2 10.3 8.9 20.9 24.0 22.6 100

Total 3.9 8.4 13.3 9.6 21.6 23.6 19.7 100


It can be seen that 22.6% of the postgraduates strongly agree against 11.8% of graduates

and 15.4% of undergraduates. On the other side, if aggregates of the percentages are used

those who tended to disagree with the statement have almost 31% undergraduates, 30%

graduates and 24% postgraduates. Overall, the sum total of those who agree is 66% and

that of those who disagree is 25%. The value of chi-square is highly significant.

Discussion

Here also the percentages demonstrate a strong bias of the participants in favour

of learning foreign languages. The number of those who feel that they would enjoy

meeting people who speak foreign languages is remarkably higher than those who negate

it. Chi-square shows that differences on the basis of gender are significant and the

percentages show females to be more positive than the males in this regard. Variation on

the basis of age shows that teachers below 30 and above 50 years of age are slightly

higher in overall positive response as they show higher percentage in both positive as

well as moderately positive categories of the response. It can be due to the position of the

age group above 50 being more precarious. However in strongly positive response middle

age group stands to be above the other two groups. Overall chi-square shows that age

142

remains insignificant as an indicator. Variation on the basis of qualification shows that

the group of postgraduates have overall highest percentage in positive response and the

lowest in negative response while a trend converse to it is shown by undergraduates.

Thus, it is found that the most significant indicator of interest in talking to foreigners in

their language is qualification; gender is the second most important indicator while age

remains to be almost insignificant in this case.

Table 23




14.020** Male 15.5 19.0 11.7 11.7 10.5 20.2 11.4 100

Female 4.6 13.8 13.8 26.2 9.2 21.5 10.8 100

Total 13.8 18.2 12.0 14.0 10.3 20.4 11.3 100


Those who strongly agree with the statement have 15.5% males against 4.6% females and

those who agree have 19.0% males against 13.8% females. Among those who remained

neutral 26.2% are females while 11.7% are males. Chi-square has highly significant

value.

Table 24




17.842

< 30 18.9 15.3 10.8 12.6 4.5 21.6 16.2 100

30 – 50 11.2 18.9 13.7 14.1 13.7 18.9 9.6 100

> 50 14.9 21.3 6.4 17.0 6.4 25.5 8.5 100

Total 13.8 18.2 12.0 14.0 10.3 20.4 11.3 100


143

The aggregate percentages of those who agreed with the statement show that 45% belong

to age group 1, 44% to age group 2 and 43% to age group 3. The aggregates of those who

disagree have 42% from age group 1, 42% from age group 2 and 40% from age group 3.

The value of chi-square is insignificant.

Table 25




17.635

UG 30.8 23.1 15.4 0.0 7.7 7.7 15.4 100

Graduate 19.6 17.6 9.8 15.7 14.7 15.7 6.9 100

PG 11.0 18.2 12.7 14.0 8.9 22.6 12.7 100

Total 13.8 18.2 12.0 14.0 10.3 20.4 11.3 100


The sum totals of the percentages of those who disagree with the given statement have

44% postgraduates, 37% graduates and 30% undergraduates. On the converse, those who

agree have 69% undergraduates, 47% graduates and 42% postgraduates. Overall, those

who agree are 44% of the total respondents and those who disagree are 42% of them.

Chi-square is insignificant.

Discussion

There exists little difference between those who agree and who disagree with the

given statement. This low difference may be taken as an indication of their interest in

foreign languages not for the sake of itself but related to some other factor. This other

factor can be instrumental reasons of participants’ interest in learning a foreign language.

It can be seen that on the basis of gender there is no significant difference in evaluating

foreign language learning as an enjoyable experience while in considering it not

enjoyable male participants are more prominent. Looking at the female section we see

144

that the females are more in favour of learning foreign language than the males. Variation

on the basis of age shows a mixed trend. The higher percentage of age group below 30, in

strongly rejecting the idea of foreign language learning as not being enjoyable, is

counterbalanced by the higher percentage of age group above 50 in rejecting the idea. It

is counterbalanced, in case of age group 2 (30 – 50), by higher percentage of this age

group in moderately rejecting the idea. There are somewhat mixed trends in variation on

the basis of qualification, however, it can be found by summing the percentages of the

categories of favourable as well as unfavourable responses that qualification has a

positive relationship with the idea of foreign language learning as being enjoyable. Thus

qualification is the strongest indicator of positive evaluation of foreign language learning.

Table 26




6.761

Male 6.2 14.7 16.7 14.7 9.4 22.9 15.5 100

Female 6.2 10.8 12.3 16.9 18.5 16.9 18.5 100

Total 6.2 14.0 16.0 15.0 10.8 21.9 16.0 100


The aggregate percentage of the males who disagree with the statement is 47% while that

of females is 54%. In total 29% of females agree with the statement whereas men who

agree are 37% of the total. Chi-square is insignificant.

145

Table 27




13.753

< 30 3.6 16.2 16.2 12.6 10.8 20.7 19.8 100

30 – 50 6.9 12.9 16.9 15.7 11.7 19.8 16.1 100

> 50 8.5 14.9 10.6 17.0 6.4 36.2 6.4 100

Total 6.2 14.0 16.0 15.0 10.8 21.9 16.0 100


The sum totals of those who agree with the given statement show that 36% of them

belong to age group 1, 37% to age group 2 while 27% to age group 3. On the converse

those who disagree have 49% from age group 3, 47% from age group 2 and 50% from

age group 1. Chi-square value is found to be insignificant.

Table 28




15.588

UG 15.4 30.8 23.1 7.7 0.0 15.4 7.7 100

Graduate 6.9 14.7 13.7 20.6 14.7 16.7 12.7 100

PG 5.5 13.1 16.5 13.4 10.0 24.1 17.5 100

Total 6.2 14.0 16.0 15.0 10.8 21.9 16.0 100


Among those who disagree with the statement; in total 52% are postgraduates, 43% are

graduates and 23% are undergraduates. Sums of the percentages of those who agree show

that 69% are undergraduates, 35% are graduates and postgraduates are also 35%. The

value of chi-square is insignificant.

146

Discussion

Data shows that the number of those interested in learning foreign languages is

significantly higher than those who are not interested. Percentage of neutral responses is

quite high. Here graduates stand out with highest percentage of the responses of neutral

category. Gender difference in showing interest in foreign languages is not significant

because of mixed trend while in showing no interest men are slightly more prominent

than women though the difference has no significance. No clear difference can be found

on the basis of age in showing presence of interest as well as lack of it. Variation on the

basis of qualification shows regular trends which prove the existence of positive

relationship between qualification and interest in foreign languages so that higher the

qualification more will be the interest in learning foreign languages. While a negative

relationship is shown by data existing between qualification and lack of interest which

means higher the qualification less the lack of interest in foreign languages. However,

due to slightness of the differences they remain insignificant in the results shown by chi-

square. Hence, qualification also remains insignificant as an indicator in this case.

Table 29




4.952

Male 5.6 12.9 16.1 16.1 10.6 22.0 16.7 100

Female 3.1 16.9 9.2 23.1 12.3 20.0 15.4 100

Total 5.2 13.5 15.0 17.2 10.8 21.7 16.5 100


Total of the percentages of males who disagreed with the statement is 49% while that of

the opposite sex is 48%. However, the percentage of females who remained neutral is

23.1% against that of the males i.e. 16.1%. Sum total of the percentages of the females

who agree is 29% against 35% of the males. Chi-square shows an insignificant value.

147

Table 30




26.870**

< 30 0.0 11.7 23.4 17.1 9.9 18.0 19.8 100

30 – 50 7.2 15.3 10.8 17.3 12.9 21.7 14.9 100

> 50 6.5 8.7 17.4 17.4 2.2 30.4 17.4 100

Total 5.2 13.5 15.0 17.2 10.8 21.7 16.5 100


In total 48% of age group 1 agree with the given statement while it is 33% of age group 2

and 33% of age group3. On the other side those who disagree have 47% of age group 1,

49% of age group 2 and 50% of age group 3. Chi-square is highly significant.

Table 31




11.233

UG 0.0 15.4 23.1 23.1 7.7 23.1 7.7 100

Graduate 2.9 15.7 18.6 21.6 11.8 17.6 11.8 100

PG 6.2 12.7 13.4 15.5 10.7 23.0 18.6 100

Total 5.2 13.5 15.0 17.2 10.8 21.7 16.5 100


Table shows that the sum totals of the percentages of those who agree with the statement

have 39% of those falling in the category of undergraduates, 37% of the graduates and

32% of the postgraduates. Those who disagree have 39% of undergraduates, 41% of

graduates and 52% of the postgraduates. Overall, 34% of the respondents agree while

49% disagree with the given statement.

148

Discussion

The number of those who think foreign language learning to be important is

higher than those who do not think it is important with the percentages 16.50%, 21.70%

and 10.80% as against 5.20%, 13.50% and 15.00%. But a significantly high number i.e.

17.20% remained neutral. Gender based differences are negligible. However, age

presents a different case where chi-square shows the differences to be highly significant.

Here the tilt is found in favour of age group 3. The possible reason for this can be an

attempt to hide actual emotions which is expected of this age group under the existing

circumstances. Perception of this age group towards English is seen with doubt and

branded as conservative. The reasons for such an attitude are generally traced to a

perceived inability of the aged teachers to cope with English due to their low proficiency

and even, at times, termed as their incompetence. These aged teachers live with complete

awareness of the existence of such perception about them which compels them not to be

straightforward in expression of their response towards English. Qualification also

remains insignificant as an indicator in case of this item.

Table 32




6.959

Male 3.8 22.5 14.0 22.8 13.2 15.8 7.9 100

Female 3.1 15.4 16.9 29.2 20.0 7.7 7.7 100

Total 3.7 21.4 14.5 23.8 14.3 14.5 7.9 100


Almost 37% of the males in total disagree with the given statement while the percentage

of females in this regard is 35% of the total. On the other side those who agree have 26%

of males and 35% of females. Chi-square is insignificant.

149

Table 33




17.013

< 30 0.9 24.3 18.9 19.8 13.5 13.5 9.0 100

30 – 50 4.8 19.3 12.9 26.1 15.3 14.1 7.6 100

> 50 4.3 25.5 12.8 21.3 10.6 19.1 6.4 100

Total 3.7 21.4 14.5 23.8 14.3 14.5 7.9 100


Almost 44% in total, of age group 1 agree with the given statement while that of age

groups 2 & 3 are 36% and 42% respectively of the total in each group. Those who

disagree have 36% of age group 1, 37% of age group 2 and 36% of age group 3. The


Table 34




25.970** UG 0.0 61.5 7.7 7.7 7.7 15.4 0.0 100

Graduate 2.0 20.6 15.7 34.3 12.7 7.8 6.9 100

PG 4.5 19.9 14.4 20.9 15.1 16.8 8.6 100

Total 3.7 21.4 14.5 23.8 14.3 14.5 7.9 100


In total 69% of undergraduates, 38% of graduates and 39% of postgraduates agree with

the given statement. Among those who disagree have 23% of undergraduates, 27% of

graduates and 40% of postgraduates. While those who remained neutral have 34.3% of

the graduate, 20.9% of the postgraduate. Overall, almost 40% agree, 37% disagree with

150

the statement while 23.8% of the respondents remain neutral. Chi-square has a highly

significant value.

Discussion

The number of those who find foreign languages to be harsh and crude is higher

than that of those who find them the opposite. However the percentage of those who

remained neutral is the highest among all the categories of responses from strongly

positive to strongly negative. Gender remains slightly significant by showing no

important difference both in positive and negative responses except in the category of

negative response where the male respondents have more negative evaluation of foreign

languages with the %age 22.50% as against 15.40%. Age does not indicate any

significant difference both in not having a negative view or having one of foreign

languages. However, in having negative view the age group 2 is at the bottom which is

due to chance element and not to be taken seriously. Qualification can clearly be found to

have positive relationship with favourable view of foreign languages. Postgraduates stand

at the top in this regard; maintaining greater distance with undergraduates than with

graduates thus confirming that favourable view of foreign languages improves further

with advancement in qualifications.

II. Desire to Learn English Language (DLEL)

Table 35

Gender-based variation in the responses to DLEL 1 (Questionnaire item 10)



7.705

Male 2.6 7.6 11.1 16.7 15.5 27.2 19.3 100

Female 3.1 1.5 13.8 15.4 24.6 29.2 12.3 100

Total 2.7 6.6 11.5 16.5 17.0 27.5 18.2 100


151

The total of the percentages of the males who agree with the given statement is almost

62% while that of the females is 66%. On the other hand those who disagree have 21% of

the males and 18% of the females. Chi-square is insignificant.

Table 36

Age-based variation in the responses to DLEL 1 (Questionnaire item 10)



10.424

< 30 3.6 5.4 11.7 20.7 16.2 26.1 16.2 100

30 – 50 2.8 6.8 12.4 14.1 17.3 26.1 20.5 100

> 50 0.0 8.5 6.4 19.1 17.0 38.3 10.6 100

Total 2.7 6.6 11.5 16.5 17.0 27.5 18.2 100


The aggregate percentages of those who agree with the statement have almost 59% of age

group 1, 63% of age group 2 and 67% of age group 3. On the other hand those who

disagree have 20% of age group 1, 21% of age group 2 and 15% of age group 3. The


Table 37

Qualification-based variation in the responses to DLEL 1 (Questionnaire item 10)



22.685**

UG 0.0 0.0 0.0 23.1 30.8 7.7 38.5 100

Graduate 2.0 3.9 13.7 14.7 21.6 35.3 8.8 100

PG 3.1 7.9 11.3 16.8 14.7 25.7 20.5 100

Total 2.7 6.6 11.5 16.5 17.0 27.5 18.2 100


152

It can be seen that almost 76% of the undergraduates, 65% of the graduates and 61% of

the postgraduates agree with the given statement. Those who disagree have 0% of the

undergraduates, 19% of the graduates and 22% of the postgraduates. Overall, almost

21% of the respondents disagree, 63% of them agree and 16.5% remains neutral. Chi-

square has a highly significant value.

Discussion

Percentages clearly show that the teachers have remarkable desire to improve

their knowledge of English language. Number of neutral responses is, however,

significantly high. Difference on the basis of gender is almost completely insignificant.

However on the basis of age slight difference can be seen across the age groups and quite

surprisingly the age group above 50 shows the greatest desire to enhance their knowledge

of English though the difference is insignificant. Difference on the basis of qualification

is quite unexpected. One possible explanation of this trend can be that the more qualified

would definitely be prone to think that they have had completed their education and

would have unconsciously developed a sense of satisfaction with advancement in English

they have already had. After this, they might feel useless spending more time in learning

English. This is why the relationship between desire to learn more English and

qualification is found negative as the desire diminishes with advancement in

qualification. Another possibility can be that the participants who are highly qualified

might have taken it as to highlight their deficiency and a room for improvement which

might go, according to them, against their personal image. On the other side the less

qualified desire to improve their knowledge because they ideally feel themselves in the

need of it for better image as an educated member of the society and also as a teacher.

153

Table 38




8.486

Male 4.4 14.6 11.4 13.2 22.5 20.2 13.7 100

Female 1.5 15.4 10.8 24.6 21.5 20.0 6.2 100

Total 3.9 14.7 11.3 15.0 22.4 20.1 12.5 100


Almost 56% of the males and 48% of the females agree with the given statement while

almost 30% of the males and 28% of the females disagree with it. Those who remained

neutral have 24.6% of females against 13.2% of the males. Chi-square shows no

significant value.

Table 39




14.539

< 30 1.8 14.4 12.6 16.2 20.7 20.7 13.5 100

30 – 50 5.6 12.4 11.6 15.7 22.9 20.1 11.6 100

> 50 0.0 27.7 6.4 8.5 23.4 19.1 14.9 100

Total 3.9 14.7 11.3 15.0 22.4 20.1 12.5 100


In total 55% of age group1, 55% of age 2 and 57% of age group 3 agree with the given

statement while 34% of age group 3, 30% of age group 2 and 29% of age group 1

disagree with it. Chi-square is insignificant.

154

Table 40




13.868

UG 0.0 15.4 0.0 15.4 46.2 15.4 7.7 100

Graduate 6.9 13.7 12.7 19.6 21.6 17.6 7.8 100

PG 3.1 15.1 11.3 13.4 21.6 21.2 14.4 100

Total 3.9 14.7 11.3 15.0 22.4 20.1 12.5 100


It can be seen that almost 69% of the undergraduates, 46% of the graduates and 57% of

the postgraduates agree with the given statement. In negative response almost 15% of the

undergraduates, 33% of the graduates and 29% of the postgraduates disagree with it.

Overall, 55% of the respondents agree while 30% of them disagree with the statement.

The value of chi-square is found to be insignificant.

Discussion

The percentage of those who are willing to spend as much time as they could

afford to learn English is significantly higher than that of those who are not willing to do

so. It shows a significantly high level of desire of teachers to learn English. Percentage of

neutral responses is significantly high. So far as gender based differences are concerned

percentage of males willing to spend time in learning English is higher than females.

However, it is counterbalanced by greater percentage of those who are strongly unwilling

to spend time. It renders gender based differences insignificant. Almost no significant

difference exists in the level of willingness on the basis of age. However, in showing

unwillingness the age group above 50 has, quite expectedly, slightly higher percentage

than the other two groups. Again, qualification shows negative relationship with

willingness to spend time in learning English. The possible reason can be the same that

has been already put forth in case of the preceding item. However, the differences overall

have been shown insignificant on the basis of chi-square.

155

Table 41




10.079

Male 3.2 11.1 11.7 12.6 20.5 28.9 12.0 100

Female 1.5 6.2 15.4 21.5 9.2 35.4 10.8 100

Total 2.9 10.3 12.3 14.0 18.7 30.0 11.8 100


The table shows a total of almost 60% of the males and that of 55% of the females to

agree with the given statement while, on the other side, 26% of the males and 23% of the

females to disagree with the statement. However, it also shows that 21.5% of the females

remained neutral against 12.6% of the males. Chi-square has an insignificant value.

Table 42




14.989

< 30 0.0 16.2 9.0 14.4 16.2 33.3 10.8 100

30 – 50 4.0 7.6 12.4 13.7 20.5 29.3 12.4 100

> 50 4.3 10.6 19.1 14.9 14.9 25.5 10.6 100

Total 2.9 10.3 12.3 14.0 18.7 30.0 11.8 100


It can be seen that in total 60% of age group 1, 62% of age group 2 and 51% of age group

3 agree with the given statement while 25% of age group 1, 24% of age group 2 and 34%

of age group 3 tend to disagree with it. The value of chi-square is insignificant.

156

Table 43




14.565

UG 7.7 15.4 15.4 38.5 7.7 7.7 7.7 100

Graduate 3.9 10.8 16.7 11.8 16.7 27.5 12.7 100

PG 2.4 9.9 10.6 13.7 19.9 31.8 11.6 100

Total 2.9 10.3 12.3 14.0 18.7 30.0 11.8 100


Those who agree with the given statement sum up to almost 23% of undergraduates, 57%

of graduates and 63% of postgraduates while those who disagree have in total 38% of

undergraduates, 31% of graduates and 23% of postgraduates. Overall, 26% of the

respondents disagree while 61% of them agree with the statement. Chi-square has an

insignificant value.

Discussion

The percentage of those who desire to improve their English proficiency is

remarkably higher than those who have expressed lack of such desire which proves that

the participants’ level of desire to learn English is quite encouraging. Percentage of

neutral responses is significantly high. No significant difference can be found on the basis

of gender because slightly higher percentage of male in positive responses is

counterbalanced by their slightly higher percentage in negative responses as well. The

respondents from the group above 50 years of age show a low level of desire to improve

their proficiency in English. It is because these people have done away with their studies

since long and find it difficult to resume. Also, they are expected to be relatively more

conservative and hence to resist the policy of introducing English as medium of

instruction anew. Though there exists a slightly positive relationship of desire to learn

English with qualification the difference overall remains insignificant.

157

Table 44




3.519

Male 2.6 6.1 10.5 14.6 16.7 30.1 19.3 100

Female 4.6 7.7 6.2 16.9 21.5 24.6 18.5 100

Total 2.9 6.4 9.8 15.0 17.4 29.2 19.2 100


It can be seen here that almost 20% of men disagree while 66% of them agree with the

given statement against 18% of women who disagree while 56% agree with it. Chi-square

is insignificant here.

Table 45




12.376

< 30 4.5 8.1 13.5 11.7 17.1 28.8 16.2 100

30 – 50 2.0 5.2 8.8 15.7 16.9 28.9 22.5 100

> 50 4.3 8.5 6.4 19.1 21.3 31.9 8.5 100

Total 2.9 6.4 9.8 15.0 17.4 29.2 19.2 100


In total 64% of age group 1, 68% of age group 2 and 62% of age group 3 agree with the

given statement while 26% of age group 1, 16% of age group 2 and 19% of age group 3

disagree. The highest percentage i.e. 19.1% that remains neutral is of age group 3. Chi-

square is found to be insignificant.

158

Table 46




10.837

UG 7.7 7.7 7.7 0.0 38.5 23.1 15.4 100

Graduate 2.0 9.8 11.8 14.7 15.7 29.4 16.7 100

PG 3.1 5.1 9.2 15.8 17.1 29.5 20.2 100

Total 2.9 6.4 9.8 15.0 17.4 29.2 19.2 100


It can be seen that, in total, 23% of undergraduates, 24% of graduates and 17% of

postgraduates disagree with the given statement. On the other hand, 77% of

undergraduates, 62% of graduates and 67% of postgraduates agree with the given

statement. Overall, it can be found that 67% of the respondents agree while 19% of them

disagree with the statement. Chi-square shows an insignificant value.

Discussion

The percentage of those who have desire to learn maximum English is much

higher than those who do not have such a desire. Neutral responses also have

significantly high percentage. Gender remains unimportant in showing differences in the

responses. Age also remains an insignificant factor as the differences in different

categories of responses are counterbalanced. The percentage of undergraduates who want

to learn English as much as possible is slightly higher than that of graduates and

postgraduates. However, it is to some extent counterbalanced in slightly higher

percentage of undergraduates in showing lack of desire. Total number of undergraduates

has also to be taken into account which is very small and can result in undue statistical

advantage or disadvantage. Thus the difference on the basis of qualification is uncertain

and is found to be entirely insignificant on the basis of results from chi-square.

159

Table 47




5.676

Male 5.8 4.7 12.6 11.1 16.7 27.2 21.9 100

Female 3.1 7.7 15.4 9.2 21.5 16.9 26.2 100

Total 5.4 5.2 13.0 10.8 17.4 25.6 22.6 100


In total almost 66% of males and 65% of females agree with the given statement while

among those who disagree with the statement have 23% of males and 26% of females.

An insignificant value of chi-square can be seen.

Table 48




24.143**

< 30 9.9 3.6 15.3 12.6 17.1 21.6 19.8 100

30 – 50 4.0 5.2 13.3 8.8 18.5 24.1 26.1 100

> 50 2.1 8.5 6.4 17.0 12.8 42.6 10.6 100

Total 5.4 5.2 13.0 10.8 17.4 25.6 22.6 100


The table shows that in total 58% of age group 1, 69% of age group 2 and 65% of age

group 3 agree with the given statement while 15% of age group 3, 23% of age group 2

and 29% of age group 1 disagree with it. Chi square remains insignificant.

160

Table 49




17.793

UG 7.7 23.1 15.4 15.4 7.7 15.4 15.4 100

Graduate 2.9 5.9 14.7 9.8 22.5 18.6 25.5 100

PG 6.2 4.1 12.3 11.0 16.1 28.4 21.9 100

Total 2.9 6.4 9.8 15.0 17.4 29.2 19.2 100


In total 39% of undergraduates agree while 46% of them disagree with the given

statement while 67% of graduates agree and 24% of them disagree with it. In the same

way, total percentage of the postgraduates that agree with the statement is 67% and who

disagree is 19%. Overall, it can be found that in total 66% of the respondents strongly

agree while 19% of them disagree with the statement. The value of chi-square is found to

be insignificant.

Discussion

The wish to be fluent in English stands clearly to be favoured by the participants

as remarkably higher percentage shows it. The number of those who chose to remain

neutral in response to this statement is relatively low but still significant enough. Gender

does not prove to be a significant factor of difference over here. However, chi-square

shows age to be a highly significant factor. Quite against the expectations age group 3

shows highest level of desire to be fluent in English. The possible reason for this trend

can be the attempt on the part of the aged teachers to avoid getting exposed as having

antagonistic attitude towards English. They need to do it because such an attitude is

generally considered a reflection of their incompetence. However, it is surprising that the

percentage of those who are below 30 is higher in showing their lack of interest to

become fluent in English. This trend though minor in its importance speaks against

researcher’s general observation and informal discussions with the participants which

161

have not been used in this study but have fairly good contribution in developing the idea

of this study. Data gathered through open-ended questions also speaks against this result.

The value of chi-square shows qualification to be insignificant.

Table 50




12.532*

Male 5.3 14.9 17.5 22.5 9.1 18.4 12.3 100

Female 3.1 18.5 18.5 38.5 6.2 12.3 3.1 100

Total 4.9 15.5 17.7 25.1 8.6 17.4 10.8 100


The table shows that almost 38% of males and 40% of females agree with the given

statement while 40% of males and 22% of females disagree with the given statement.

Those who remain neutral have 38.5% females and 22.55 males. The value of chi-square

is significant.

Table 51




14.590

< 30 5.4 15.3 15.3 18.0 11.7 22.5 11.7 100

30 – 50 4.8 14.1 20.5 27.3 7.2 14.9 11.2 100

> 50 4.3 23.4 8.5 29.8 8.5 19.1 6.4 100

Total 4.9 15.5 17.7 25.1 8.6 17.4 10.8 100


It can be found that almost 36% in total of age group 1, 39% of age group 2 and 36% of

age group 3 agree with the given statement while on the other hand those who disagree

162

have 46% of age group 1, 33% of age group 2 and 34% of age group 3. Those who

remained neutral have 29.8% of age group 3 and 27.3% of age group 2. Chi-square is

found to be insignificant.

Table 52




19.057*

UG 7.7 15.4 38.5 30.8 7.7 0.0 0.0 100

Graduate 5.9 13.7 25.5 21.6 11.8 14.7 6.9 100

PG 4.5 16.1 14.0 26.0 7.5 19.2 12.7 100

Total 4.9 15.5 17.7 25.1 8.6 17.4 10.8 100


In total almost 62% of undergraduates, 45% of graduates and 35% of postgraduates agree

with the given statement while almost 8% of undergraduates 33% of graduates and 39%

of postgraduates disagree with it. The highest percentage who tend to remain neutral is

that of undergraduates (30.8%) while the second highest is that of postgraduates i.e.

26.0%. Overall, it can be found that almost 36% of the respondents disagree and 38% of

them agree with the statement while 25% remain neutral. Chi-square has significant

value.

Discussion

The trend here is highly equivocal because of equal distribution on both sides of

the scale i.e. in favour as well as against it. However, the percentage of neutral responses

is the highest. This uncertainty might be due to the position of the participants as teachers

who are no more in a situation of formal learning as English is part of their education

which they feel now to be complete. Thus the presence or absence of desire to learn does

not matter for them. The reason may also be self-image for the participants who are

teachers and may feel thus to be exposed. Gender differences are significant here and it is

163

females who are more prone to lose their interest in English than their male counterparts.

Difference on the basis of age, however, is not significant but that which exists shows

decline in the desire to learn English with the advancement in age. Qualification has

clearly a positive relationship with the maintenance of desire to learn English. Thus more

qualified are less prone to lose their desire to learn English while less qualified are more

prone to it.

Table 53




8.439

Male 8.2 16.7 17.0 15.2 9.6 18.4 14.9 100

Female 6.2 18.5 6.2 13.8 16.9 24.6 13.8 100

Total 7.9 17.0 15.2 15.0 10.8 19.4 14.7 100


Sums of the percentages in different category responses show that in total 43% of males

and 55% of females disagree with the given statement while 31% of females and 42% of

males agree with it. The value of chi-square is insignificant.

Table 54




19.636*

< 30 9.9 12.6 23.4 9.0 10.8 18.9 15.3 100

30 – 50 8.0 19.3 10.8 17.3 11.2 18.1 15.3 100

> 50 2.1 14.9 19.1 17.0 8.5 27.7 10.6 100

Total 7.9 17.0 15.2 15.0 10.8 19.4 14.7 100


164

The table shows that among those who disagree with the given statement have 45% of

age group 1, 44% of age group 2 and 47% of age group 3 while on the other hand those

who tend to agree with it have 46% of age group 1, 38% of age group 2 and 36% of age

group 3. Chi-square is found to be significant here.

Table 55




11.168

UG 7.7 23.1 30.8 23.1 0.0 7.7 7.7 100

Graduate 8.8 19.6 14.7 15.7 14.7 14.7 11.8 100

PG 7.5 15.8 14.7 14.4 9.9 21.6 16.1 100

Total 7.9 17.0 15.2 15.0 10.8 19.4 14.7 100


Almost 62% of undergraduates in total tend to agree with the given statement while

graduates and postgraduates have 43% and 38% respectively of their total in this regard.

On the other hand those who disagree have in total 15% of undergraduates, 41% of

graduates and 48% of postgraduates. Overall, it can be found that 45% of the respondents

disagree while 40% of them agree with the statement. Chi-square is insignificant.

Discussion

It can be found that the percentage of those who went for response choices in the

categories of ‘strongly disagree’ and disagree are higher than those who went for the

categories of ‘strongly agree’ and ‘agree’. However, the percentage of moderate

agreement is higher than moderate disagreement. Overall it can be seen that more

participants show their desire to learn English which can be taken as a sign of higher

level of desire among participants to learn English. Neutral responses have a significantly

high frequency. The desire to learn English is relatively low among the males as far as

the difference on the basis of gender is concerned. Age shows no significant difference

165

overall except in the percentage of strongly positive response to the statement where

participants in the age group below 30 score the highest percentage. However, it can be

attributed to their small number which can result easily in undue advantage or

disadvantage. Qualification is found to be insignificant on the basis of chi-square.

Table 56




2.366

Male 5.6 23.1 13.5 17.5 11.7 17.0 11.7 100

Female 4.6 26.2 9.2 23.1 9.2 15.4 12.3 100

Total 5.4 23.6 12.8 18.4 11.3 16.7 11.8 100


In total, almost 40% of male and 37% of female respondents disagree with the given

statement while those who agree have 42% of males and 40% of females. The value of

chi-square is insignificant.

Table 57




15.850

< 30 2.7 23.4 18.9 16.2 8.1 17.1 13.5 100

30 – 50 7.2 24.1 9.6 17.7 13.7 16.9 10.8 100

> 50 2.1 21.3 14.9 27.7 6.4 14.9 12.8 100

Total 5.4 23.6 12.8 18.4 11.3 16.7 11.8 100


Sums of the percentages in different categories yield 45% of age group 1, 41% of age

group 2 and 38% of age group 3 among those who agree with the given statement while

166

on the other side those who disagree have 39% of age group 1, 41% of age group 2 and

34% of age group 3. The highest number of those who disagree is 27.7% of age group 3.

Chi-square is insignificant.

Table 58

Qualification-based variation the responses to DLEL 8 (Questionnaire item 17)



16.361

UG 7.7 23.1 23.1 30.8 7.7 7.7 0.0 100

Graduate 5.9 20.6 10.8 21.6 18.6 15.7 6.9 100

PG 5.1 24.7 13.0 16.8 8.9 17.5 14.0 100

Total 5.4 23.6 12.8 18.4 11.3 16.7 11.8 100


Among those who disagree with the given statement have in total 15% of undergraduates,

41% of graduates and 40% of postgraduates while those who agree with it have 54% of

undergraduates, 37% of graduates and 43% of postgraduates. Those who remained

neutral have 30.8% of undergraduates, 21.6% of graduates while 16.8% of postgraduates.

Overall, it can be found that 42% of the respondents agree and 40% of them disagree

with the statement while 18.45 remain neutral. An insignificant value of chi-square can

be seen in this case.

Discussion

It can clearly be seen that more participants (teachers) are interested merely in the

basics of English though the difference is minor and may possibly be ruled out.

Percentage of neutral responses is the second highest which is very significant.

Difference on the basis of gender is totally insignificant. Age shows slight difference with

the result that those who are advanced in age are less interested in knowing more than the

basics of English and this is particularly among the age group above 50 years. However,

age as an indicator overall remains insignificant as can be seen from the value of chi-

167

square. The difference shown on the basis of qualification indicates greater level of

interest among graduates and postgraduates than that which exists among undergraduates

to learn English beyond the level of basics. In terms of chi-square, however, qualification

is found to be insignificant.

III. Instrumentality (INST)

Table 59

Gender-based variation in the responses to INST 1 (Questionnaire item 18)



14.830**

Male 4.1 5.6 12.0 12.9 18.4 30.7 16.4 100

Female 1.5 15.4 20.0 4.6 18.5 26.2 13.8 100

Total 3.7 7.1 13.3 11.5 18.4 30.0 16.0 100


The table shows that in total 65% of males and 58% of females agree with the given

statement. On the other side, almost 28% of males and 37% of females disagree with it.

Chi-square has shown a highly significant value.

Table 60

Age-based variation in the responses to INST 1 (Questionnaire item 18)



4.263

< 30 3.6 7.2 16.2 7.2 18.9 31.5 15.3 100

30 – 50 3.6 6.8 12.4 12.9 18.1 29.7 16.5 100

> 50 4.3 8.5 10.6 14.9 19.1 27.7 14.9 100

Total 3.7 7.1 13.3 11.5 18.4 30.0 16.0 100


168

It can be found that almost 66% of age group 1, 64% of age group 2 and 62% of age

group 3 agree with the given statement while, on the other side, 27% of age group 1, 23%

of age group 2 and 24% of age group 3 disagree with it. The value of chi-square remains

insignificant.

Table 61

Qualification-based variation in the responses to INST 1 (Questionnaire item 18)



10.902

UG 0.0 23.1 0.0 7.7 23.1 23.1 23.1 100

Graduate 2.9 4.9 16.7 8.8 18.6 31.4 16.7 100

PG 4.1 7.2 12.7 12.7 18.2 29.8 15.4 100

Total 3.7 7.1 13.3 11.5 18.4 30.0 16.0 100


Table shows that 69% of undergraduates, 67% of graduates and 63% of postgraduates

agree with the given statement while, on the other hand, 23% of undergraduates, 25% of

graduates and 24% of postgraduates disagree with it. Overall, it can be found that almost

64% of the respondents agree and 24% of them disagree with the statement. The value of

chi-square is found to be insignificant.

Discussion

The percentage of those who consider English to be important for their career is

remarkably higher than those who consider it not to be important. Thus instrumental

motive for lecturing in English is very high with the participants. It can be found by

summing the percentages on either side of neutral point on the scale. Neutral responses

also have relatively low percentage but still high enough to be considered significant.

Difference on the basis of gender shows instrumental motive working more with the male

than the female respondents. It is understandable because the male in this society have

particularly responsibility of earning for the family in normal circumstances. This is what

makes career concerns more important with the male than the female. Differences on the

169

basis of age remain insignificant. Qualification shows a slight difference in the level of

instrumentality of English for the participants so that it is highest with the

undergraduates. The difference is minor and so negligible because of remarkably less

number of undergraduates which resulted in possibly undue statistical advantage. Overall,

qualification remains to be an entirely insignificant indicator of instrumental motive for

using English as medium of instruction.

Table 62




8.169

Male 5.0 7.6 9.4 12.3 17.9 29.3 18.5 100

Female 3.1 18.5 10.8 10.8 15.4 26.2 15.4 100

Total 4.7 9.4 9.6 12.1 17.5 28.8 18.0 100


In total 65% of the male population and 57% of the female population agree while 20%

of the males and 32% of the females disagree with the given statement. Among those

who remained neutral have 12.3% of the male while 10.8% of the female. Chi-square is

not significant.

Table 63




6.534

< 30 3.6 8.2 10.9 13.6 19.1 28.2 16.4 100

30 – 50 4.8 8.8 10.0 10.8 16.5 29.3 19.7 100

> 50 6.4 14.9 4.3 14.9 19.1 27.7 12.8 100

Total 4.7 9.4 9.6 12.1 17.5 28.8 18.0 100


170

It can be seen that 64% of age group 1, 57% of age group 2 and 64% of age group 3 agree

with the statement, while on the other hand, 23% of age group 1, 24% of age group 2 and

26% of age group 3 disagree with it. Chi-square has no significant value.

Table 64




9.363

UG 15.4 15.4 7.7 15.4 15.4 23.1 7.7 100

Graduate 4.9 5.9 13.7 10.8 16.7 28.4 19.6 100

PG 4.1 10.3 8.2 12.4 17.9 29.2 17.9 100

Total 4.7 9.4 9.6 12.1 17.5 28.8 18.0 100


Those who agree with the given statement have almost 46% of undergraduates, 65% of

graduates and 65% of postgraduates. On the other hand, 39% of undergraduates, 25% of

graduates and 23% of postgraduates disagree with the given statement. Overall, it can be

found that 64% of the respondents agree while 23% of them disagree with the given

statement. Chi-square remains insignificant.

Discussion

Data show that the percentage of those who believe lecturing in English to be a

symbol of being more educated is remarkably higher than those who think otherwise.

Neutral responses are significantly high. The percentage of males who think lecturing in

English as a symbol of being more educated is higher than the females. No significant

difference overall can be found on the basis of age. The difference in percentages on the

basis of qualification is systematic but insignificant in terms of chi-square. However, the

pattern shown by the slight difference that exists proves that the sense of importance of

lecturing in English is higher with the more qualified and low with the less qualified. The

trend means that with better and further education the sense of instrumentality of English

171

increases. It is possibly because with more education greater awareness regarding the

importance of English comes among the participants and they become familiar with its

instrumentality as a tool of mobility and privilege in Pakistan (Rehman 1997). Thus

instrumental importance of English exists among all the participants regardless of the

difference of age, gender and qualification.

Table 65




8.355

Male 6.7 5.0 6.7 13.2 21.1 27.8 19.6 100

Female 0.0 4.6 10.8 7.7 21.5 33.8 21.5 100

Total 5.7 4.9 7.4 12.3 21.1 28.7 19.9 100


The table shows that 18% of the male and 17% of the female respondents disagree with

the given statement while, on the other hand, 68% of the male and 76% of the female

agree with the given statement. Chi-square is found to be insignificant.

Table 66




13.624

< 30 3.6 6.3 6.3 14.4 18.9 35.1 15.3 100

30 – 50 6.0 4.4 8.8 11.2 22.1 25.3 22.1 100

> 50 8.5 4.3 2.1 12.8 21.3 31.9 19.1 100

Total 5.7 4.9 7.4 12.3 21.1 28.7 19.9 100


172

It can be found that in total 69% of the respondents from age group 1, 70% from age

group 2 and 72% from age group 3 agree with the given statement while 16% of them

from age group 1, 19% from age group 2 and 15% from age group 3 tend to disagree with

the given statement. The value of chi-square is insignificant.

Table 67




13.975

UG 15.4 7.7 0.0 23.1 38.5 7.7 7.7 100

Graduate 3.9 3.9 8.8 13.7 24.5 25.5 19.6 100

PG 5.8 5.1 7.2 11.3 19.2 30.8 20.5 100

Total 5.7 4.9 7.4 12.3 21.1 28.7 19.9 100


Sums of the percentages of those who agree with the given statement have 54% of

undergraduates, 70% of graduates and 71% of postgraduates. Among those who disagree

with the statement have 23% of undergraduates, 17% of graduates and 18% of

postgraduates. Overall, it can be found that 70% of the respondents agree while 18% of

them disagree with the statement. Chi-square remains insignificant.

Discussion

The difference in the sums of percentages on the positive and negative sides of the

neutral point in the scale shows that the participants feel English to be highly

instrumental for them in getting a good job. Neutral responses have a frequency high

enough not to be ignored as insignificant. Clear difference can be seen between males

and females in instrumental value given to English for finding a good job. Females have

given significantly higher value to English in this regard by scoring higher than the males

on positive side while lower on the negative side if the percentages are summed up to

find the difference. Overall gender remains insignificant as an indicator. Difference on

173

the basis of age also stands to be insignificant as the percentages in different categories of

responses counterbalance each other. Qualification somehow remains prominent in

marking higher instrumental value of English for finding a good job. Overall, chi-square

shows the difference on the basis of age to be insignificant.

Table 68




8.912

Male 9.1 11.4 7.9 17.5 20.2 22.2 11.7 100

Female 1.5 13.8 15.4 13.8 24.6 18.5 12.3 100

Total 7.9 11.8 9.1 17.0 20.9 21.6 11.8 100


The male who disagree with the given statement are 28% of the total male population

while the females who disagree are 31% of the total. On the other side it can be seen that

the males who agree with the statement are 54% of the total and the female are 55%. Chi-

square shows insignificant value.

Table 69




14.577

< 30 7.2 15.3 9.0 18.0 27.9 12.6 9.9 100

30 – 50 7.2 11.2 9.2 16.5 17.7 25.7 12.4 100

> 50 12.8 6.4 8.5 17.0 21.3 21.3 12.8 100

Total 7.9 11.8 9.1 17.0 20.9 21.6 11.8 100


174

The table shows that almost 50% of age group 1, 56% of age group 2 and 55% of age

group 3 agree with the given statement. On the other hand, those who disagree have 28%

of age group 3 as well as age group 2 while age group 1 has 31% of those who disagree

with the statement. The value of chi-square is found insignificant.

Table 70




13.231

UG 23.1 15.4 7.7 23.1 23.1 7.7 0.0 100

Graduate 5.9 11.8 13.7 16.7 22.5 21.6 7.8 100

PG 7.9 11.6 7.5 16.8 20.2 22.3 13.7 100

Total 7.9 11.8 9.1 17.0 20.9 21.6 11.8 100


Sum total of the percentages of undergraduates who disagree with the statement is almost

46%, that of graduates is 31% and that of postgraduates is 27%. Those who agree, on the

other hand, have 31% of undergraduates, 45% of graduates and 56% of postgraduates.

Among those who remained neutral have 23.1% of undergraduates which is the highest.

Overall, it can be found that 53% of the respondents agree and 29% of them disagree

while 17.0% remain neutral. Chi-square remains insignificant.

Discussion

This item checks the perceived instrumental value of English in attaining

symbolic prestige or higher social status by dint of knowing English. It can be seen from

the percentages scored in different categories of responses that the participants show

higher instrumental value given to English by them in earning social prestige or higher

status for them in the society they live in or move around. Despite this, neutral responses

with a high percentage signify something more than this. The tilt of responses in this

regard is sufficient to show uncertainty on the part of participants about role of English in

175

earning for them a higher social position. It is important because the response in favour of

this type of instrumentality, though clear in itself, is not as clear as in other forms of

instrumentality of the English language given in the preceding items. Gender marks no

significant difference in this regard as the percentages in different categories of responses

are counterbalanced by each other. Age also shows negligible variation which can fairly

be taken as insignificant. However, qualification again, as in most of the cases, stands to

have a positive relationship with perceived instrumental value of the English language in

this regard with the result that the more qualified perceive English to be more

instrumental in earning a symbolically prestige status for them in the society while the

less qualified perceive it to be less instrumental in this regard.

Table 71




5.029

Male 4.1 10.6 8.8 15.0 20.5 27.0 14.1 100

Female 4.6 15.4 3.1 18.5 24.6 21.5 12.3 100

Total 4.2 11.3 7.9 15.5 21.2 26.1 13.8 100


The table shows that 62% of males and 58% of females agree with the statement while

almost 23% of males as well as that of females disagree with it. In the category of neutral

response, however, females have higher percentage i.e. 18.5% than the males. No

significant value of chi-square can be found here.

176

Table 72




11.806

< 30 5.4 13.5 9.9 8.1 22.5 27.9 12.6 100

30 – 50 3.6 9.7 6.9 17.3 21.4 27.0 14.1 100

> 50 4.3 14.9 8.5 23.4 17.0 17.0 14.9 100

Total 4.2 11.3 7.9 15.5 21.2 26.1 13.8 100


In total almost 62% of age group 1, 63% of age group 2 and 49% of age group 3 agree

with the given statement while those who disagree, on the other side, have 29% of age

group 1, 20% of age group 2 and 28% of age group 3. Among those who remained

neutral age group 3 remains at the top with 23.4% of its total. Chi-square remains

insignificant.

Table 73




26.947***

UG 15.4 23.1 7.7 46.2 0.0 7.7 0.0 100

Graduate 6.9 6.9 9.8 16.7 22.5 23.5 13.7 100

PG 2.7 12.4 7.2 13.7 21.6 27.8 14.4 100

Total 4.2 11.3 7.9 15.5 21.2 26.1 13.8 100


It can be found that only 8% of the respondents from among undergraduates agree with

the statement while from graduates 59% and from postgraduates 64% of the respective

totals agree with the statement. On the other hand those who disagree have 46% of

undergraduates, 24% of graduates and 22% of postgraduates. Overall, 61% of the

177

respondents agree and 23% of them disagree with the statement while 15.5% remain

neutral. Chi-square has been found to have a highly significant value.

Discussion

This item intends to find out the level of instrumental value given by the

participants to EMI in earning for themselves a positive reputation and respect as a

teacher. It is clear that overall teachers strongly believe that English can bring a good

name for them as teachers. The percentage of neutral responses, though mildly lower than

in case of the previous item, has a significant value. However, they show a relatively

greater clarity in their perception that English has instrumental value for them in terms of

bringing good name for them as teachers than bringing a higher social status or prestige

in general for them. A slight variation can be observed on the basis of gender with the

females giving a higher value to the English language in securing respect for them and

good repute as teachers. However, the difference, overall, stands to be insignificant. Age

also shows a clear difference between those who are above fifty years of age and those

who are below it in the perception of the instrumental role of English in bringing respect

and good name for them as teachers. The results show that the oldest attach the lowest

value to English in this regard while the difference between those who are below thirty

years of age or are between 30 to 50 years of age is insignificant. However, chi-square

shows the difference to be insignificant overall. Qualification proves to be a highly

significant indicator in this regard as the instrumental value attached to English is directly

proportional to the level of qualification. The undergraduates have attached a remarkably

lower value to English than the postgraduates while the stance of graduates is in the

middle in this regard.

178

IV. Linguistic Self-Confidence (LSC)

Table 74

Gender-based variation in the responses to LSC 1 (Questionnaire item 23)



1.373

Male 1.8 2.6 10.5 10.8 17.0 32.2 25.1 100

Female 3.1 4.6 10.8 10.8 16.9 29.2 24.6 100

Total 2.0 2.9 10.6 10.8 17.0 31.7 25.1 100


The aggregate percentage of males who agreed with the statement is almost 74% while

that of females is almost 71%. On the other hand those who disagree have 15% males

against 18% females. The value of chi-square is insignificant.

Table 75

Age-based variation in the responses to LSC 1 (Questionnaire item 23)



13.434

< 30 2.7 5.4 14.4 6.3 13.5 30.6 27.0 100

30 – 50 1.6 2.4 9.2 11.2 18.9 32.1 24.5 100

> 50 2.1 0.0 8.5 19.1 14.9 31.9 23.4 100

Total 2.0 2.9 10.6 10.8 17.0 31.7 25.1 100


Those who agree with the statement have in total 71% from age group 1, 76% from age

group 2, and 70% from age group 3. Among those who disagree sums of the percentages

show that 22% belong to age group 1, 13% to age group 2 and 11% to age group 3. Chi-

square has an insignificant value.

179

Table 76

Qualification-based variation in the responses to LSC 1 (Questionnaire item 23)



17.611

UG 7.7 0.0 7.7 30.8 15.4 23.1 15.4 100

Graduate 3.9 2.0 15.7 10.8 17.6 30.4 19.6 100

PG 1.0 3.4 8.9 9.9 16.8 32.5 27.4 100

Total 3.2 5.9 2.7 11.8 15.2 28.7 32.4 100


Table shows through sums of the percentages of those who tend to agree with the

statement that 54% are undergraduates, 68% graduates and 77% postgraduates. On the

other hand, sums of the percentages of those who disagree show 15% to be

undergraduates, 21% to be graduates and 13% to be postgraduates. Overall 76% of the

respondents agree with the statement while 12% disagree. Chi-square is insignificant.

Discussion

The item intends to show the belief in being able to speak good English which

would serve to indicate their level of confidence with the English language. The results

mark a high level of confidence among the participants in their ability to speak English

provided they make the effort required for it. Neutral responses have a significantly high

percentage. The percentages show a slightly higher confidence among the males in this

regard than the female though the difference is insignificant. Differences shown on the

basis of age are also insignificant but the slight difference that exists indicates lowest

confidence with the oldest in age while the middle category in age shows the highest

level of confidence with a negligible difference with those below 30 years of age.

Qualification is observed to be directly proportional to the level of confidence among the

participants with proficiency in spoken English. The postgraduates prove to be the most

confident with their capability to speak good English while the undergraduates the least

180

confident. However, chi-square value shows qualification to be insignificant as an

indicator.

Table 77




9.068

Male 4.7 5.8 7.0 12.3 18.7 28.7 22.8 100

Female 0.0 10.8 6.2 16.9 24.6 18.5 23.1 100

Total 3.9 6.6 6.9 13.0 19.7 27.0 22.9 100


The total percentage of males who agree with the statement is 70% while that of females

is 65%. The percentage of males who disagree is almost 17% while that of females is also

17%. However, 16.9% of females remain neutral against 12.3% of males. An

insignificant value of chi-square can be seen here.

Table 78




13.789

< 30 3.6 6.3 9.9 10.8 18.0 30.6 20.7 100

30 – 50 4.4 5.6 6.8 14.9 18.9 24.9 24.5 100

> 50 2.1 12.8 0.0 8.5 27.7 29.8 19.1 100

Total 3.9 6.6 6.9 13.0 19.7 27.0 22.9 100


Using sums of the percentages it can be found that 69% of those who agree with the

given statement belong to age group 1, 68% belong to age group 2 and 76% belong to age

group 3. Percentage sums of those who disagree show that 20% are from age group 1,

181

16% from age group 2and 15% from age group 3. Chi-square does not show any

significant value.

Table 79




13.384

UG 15.4 7.7 0.0 15.4 38.5 7.7 15.4 100

Graduate 2.0 4.9 8.8 15.7 20.6 25.5 22.5 100

PG 4.1 7.2 6.5 12.0 18.5 28.4 23.3 100

Total 3.9 6.6 6.9 13.0 19.7 27.0 22.9 100


Sums of the percentages show that those who tend to agree with the statement have 61%

of undergraduates, 69% of graduates and 71% of postgraduates. On the other hand, those

who disagree have 22% of undergraduates, 16% of graduates and 18% of postgraduates.

Overall, almost 70% of the respondents agree while 17% disagree with the given

statement. Chi-square remains insignificant.

Discussion

This item intended to elicit the estimation of the level of difficulty involved in

learning and using English for the participants as perceived by them. Higher the level of

perceived difficulty lower will be the confidence in learning and using that language. The

results in this regard here show that dominant majority of the participants have never

found English to be a very difficult language for them which marks a high level of their

confidence in the English language. Neutral responses have a significant frequency.

Difference on the basis of gender is negligible, however, the slight that is observed places

males above females in their confidence with English. Difference on the basis of age has

quite surprising results by placing the oldest in age at the top in their confidence with

English. Though the difference is insignificant and can be found by summing up the

182

percentages in three categories of positive responses i.e. strongly agree, agree and slightly

agree but still it is important because it speaks against the ground realities, general

perception and the data gathered through open-ended questions. A possible bias can be

detected justifiably here that the aged may not easily admit their lack of competence or

confidence despite their disliking for English to assume the role of medium of instruction

as they perceive clear threat to their image in this regard. Another important reason is that

the old teachers are aware of the existence of a common perception that the old teachers

are against English as medium due to their own lack of competence. This item was quite

probably found by them to target their weakness that they are known for. Hence they

tried to prove the prevalent perception to be wrong. Qualification, here, does not mark

much of the difference. However, the perception of difficulty involved in English is

found to diminish with the advancement in the level of qualification but the difference is

not much insignificant.

Table 80




7.156

Male 2.6 7.3 5.0 23.7 23.1 28.9 9.4 100

Female 0.0 9.2 1.5 26.2 32.3 20.0 10.8 100

Total 2.2 7.6 4.4 24.1 24.6 27.5 9.6 100


In total almost 61% of male respondents agree with the given statement against 63% of

females. On the other side, 15% of males disagree against 11% of females while 26.2%

of females remained neutral against 23.7% of males. The value of chi-square remains

insignificant.

183

Table 81




31.885***

< 30 0.0 2.7 5.4 18.9 30.6 29.7 12.6 100

30 – 50 2.8 6.8 4.4 27.7 23.3 26.5 8.4 100

> 50 4.3 23.4 2.1 17.0 17.0 27.7 8.5 100

Total 2.2 7.6 4.4 24.1 24.6 27.5 9.6 100


It can be seen that 73% of age group 1, 58% of age group 2 and 53% of age group 3 agree

with the given statement while, on the other hand, 8% of age group 1, 14% of age group

2 and 30% of age group 3 disagree with it. Those who remain neutral have 27.7% of age

group 2 which is the highest percentage in this category while age groups 3 and 1 have

17% and 18.9% respectively. The value of chi-square is found to be highly significant.

Table 82




28.632***

UG 15.4 7.7 7.7 30.8 7.7 23.1 7.7 100

Graduate 2.9 6.9 8.8 29.4 27.5 19.6 4.9 100

PG 1.4 7.9 2.7 21.9 24.3 30.5 11.3 100

Total 2.2 7.6 4.4 24.1 24.6 27.5 9.6 100


In total 31% of undergraduates, 18% of graduates and 12% of postgraduates disagree

with the given statement while 37% of undergraduates, 52% of graduates and 66% of

postgraduates agree with it. Among those who remain neutral almost 30% are from

undergraduates, 29% from graduates and 22% from postgraduates. Overall, almost 62%

184

of the respondents agree 14% of them disagree while 24.1 % remained neutral. Chi-

square is highly significant.

Discussion

A perception of high self-competence in English should mark higher level of

confidence in it and vice versa. The results here show that the participants perceive

themselves competent enough to lecture in English which marks the existence of a high

level of self-confidence among them. However, an unusually high percentage of neutral

responses, on the other hand, prove the matter not to be straightforward to the extent it

seems apparently. This tilt indicates very high level of uncertainty among the participants

about their competence to lecture in English. It proves that the participants are not

prepared for the time being to lecture in English. Responses to this item can be seen in

contrast to other items where confidence with learning and using English does not show

such confusion or uncertainty. Hence this particular form of confidence can be

distinguished from the others. It is more situation-specific regarding the focus of this

study. Thus it is important to find that teachers do not feel competent to lecture in English

the reasons of which can be traced in the data gathered through open-ended questions.

Gender does not show any significant difference in the perception of self-competence to

lecture in English. Difference on the basis of age shows very significant trend with the

result that the youngest are the most confident with their competence to lecture in English

while the oldest the least while the middle category in age holds the middle ground.

Qualification holds a strongly positive relationship with self-perception of ability to

lecture in English.

185

5. English Language Learning Experience (ELLE)

Table 83

Gender-based variation in the responses to ELLE 1 (Questionnaire item 26)



6.793

Male 2.3 4.4 8.2 19.6 21.3 29.8 14.3 100

Female 0.0 7.7 9.2 24.6 21.5 30.8 6.2 100

Total 2.0 4.9 8.4 20.4 21.4 30.0 13.0 100


It can be seen that in total 65% of males and 58% of females agree with the given

statement while 15% of males and 17% of females disagree with it. Those who remained

neutral have 24.6% of females against 19.6% of males. Chi-square remains insignificant.

Table 84

Age-based variation in the responses to ELLE 1 (Questionnaire item 26)



20.956*

< 30 2.7 2.7 12.6 16.2 14.4 37.8 13.5 100

30 – 50 2.0 5.2 6.8 23.3 23.7 26.9 12.0 100

> 50 0.0 8.5 6.4 14.9 25.5 27.7 17.0 100

Total 2.0 4.9 8.4 20.4 21.4 30.0 13.0 100


In total almost 66% of age group 1, 62% of age group 2 and 70% of age group 3 agree

with the given statement while 18% of age group 1, 14% of age group 2 and 15% of age

group 3 disagree with it. Among those who remained neutral the highest percentage i.e.

23.3 is that of age group 2. Chi-square is found to be insignificant.

186

Table 85

Qualification-based variation in the responses to ELLE 1 (Questionnaire item 26)



31.729***

UG 0.0 30.8 7.7 23.1 15.4 15.4 7.7 100

Graduate 2.9 2.9 7.8 22.5 28.4 25.5 9.8 100

PG 1.7 4.5 8.6 19.5 19.2 32.2 14.4 100

Total 2.0 4.9 8.4 20.4 21.4 30.0 13.0 100


Almost 39% of undergraduates agree with the given statement while graduates and

postgraduates have 64% and 66% respectively, each of their totals, who agree with the

statement. On the other hand 38% of undergraduates, 14% of graduates and 15% of

postgraduates disagree with the given statement. Those who remained neutral have 23%

of graduates and 20% of graduates. Overall, 64% of the respondents agree, 15% disagree

and 20% remain neutral. Chi-square has a highly significant value.

Discussion

Good experience in learning target language effectively procures positive

predisposition towards it. Good results, shown by the learners in this regard, lead to the

amelioration of such experience which then bears positively on the level of motivation of

the individual to advance knowledge in the language and willingness to use it. The results

show that greater number of participants have shown good results during their academic

career. However, the frequency of neutral responses is significantly high which shows

that a good number of participants are not satisfied with their score in English as a

subject. Gender does not show any significant difference here except that the males are

slightly higher in their positive response to the given item. Differences on the basis of age

are significant; however, the oldest in age show the highest satisfaction with their results

in English as a subject. It possibly is part of the effort, on the part of the old teachers, to

187

vindicate themselves from the blame commonly leveled against them that they hold

English in negative perception due to their own weaknesses. It is important to observe

that the more qualified enjoy a higher level of satisfaction with their results while less

qualified enjoy a lower level of satisfaction. It is because in most of the cases good score

in English serves as a precondition to go for higher studies as English is a compulsory

subject up to bachelor’s level.

Table 86




4.623

Male 4.4 6.1 9.6 15.2 22.5 23.7 18.4 100

Female 1.5 3.1 12.3 15.4 16.9 26.2 24.6 100

Total 3.9 5.7 10.1 15.2 21.6 24.1 19.4 100


It can be seen that in total almost 65% of the male population and 68% of the female

population agree with the given statement while, on the other hand, those who disagree

have in total almost 20% of the males and 17% of the females. The value of chi-square is

not significant.

Table 87




15.402

< 30 7.2 5.4 12.6 14.4 23.4 19.8 17.1 100

30 – 50 2.8 5.6 9.2 14.9 21.7 25.3 20.5 100

> 50 2.1 6.4 8.5 19.1 17.0 27.7 19.1 100

Total 3.9 5.7 10.1 15.2 21.6 24.1 19.4 100


188

The table shows that 60% of age group 1, 67% of age group 2 and 64% of age group 3

agree with the statement while those who disagree with it have 25% of age group 1, 17%

of age group 2 as well as that of age group 3. The highest percentage i.e. 19.1% of those

who remained neutral is that of age group 3. Chi-square is insignificant.

Table 88




18.735

UG 0.0 15.4 0.0 23.1 23.1 23.1 15.4 100

Graduate 3.9 3.9 10.8 24.5 15.7 26.5 14.7 100

PG 4.1 5.8 10.3 11.6 23.6 23.3 21.2 100

Total 3.9 5.7 10.1 15.2 21.6 24.1 19.4 100


In total almost 15% of undergraduates, 19% of graduates and 20% of postgraduates

disagree with the given statement. On the other hand almost 62% of undergraduates, 57%

of graduates and 68% of postgraduates tend to agree with the statement. However, the

highest percentage i.e. 24.5% of graduates remained neutral. Overall, 65% of the

respondents agree, 19% of them disagree and 15% remain neutral. Chi-square remains

insignificant here.

Discussion

The results show that a significantly greater number of the participants had

English as their favourite subject as students thus indicating that the greater number of

participants enjoy a positive experience of learning English. Neutral responses have a

significantly high frequency which speaks in askance to the positivity shown through

other categories of responses thus proving that a significantly good number did not enjoy

English as their favourite subject even though they might have not kept an antagonistic

189

attitude towards it. The difference on the basis of gender is negligible but the slight that

exists, shows greater percentage of females to have had English as one of their favourite

subjects during their student life. Age does not show any significant difference as the

percentages in different categories of responses tend to counterbalance each other in most

of the parts. No unequivocal difference is found on the basis of qualification. Graduates

show the lowest percentage, undergraduates the second highest while the postgratduates

show the highest percentage in having had English as one of their favourite subjects when

they were students. Qualification, though, has not shown systematic results as usual but

still it is important to note that the most qualified have the highest percentage in having

had English among their favourite subjects. However, chi-square shows qualification to

be an insignificant indicator.

Table 89




3.242

Male 3.8 6.1 10.8 17.8 20.5 29.8 11.1 100

Female 7.7 9.2 9.2 16.9 18.5 26.2 12.3 100

Total 4.4 6.6 10.6 17.7 20.1 29.2 11.3 100


In the table above, total 61% of males and 575 of females agree with the statement while

21% of males and 26% of females tend to disagree with it. The ones who remained

neutral have 16.9% of female and 17.8% of male respondents. Chi-square is insignificant.

190

Table 90




16.730

< 30 4.5 9.9 13.5 16.2 13.5 26.1 16.2 100

30 – 50 5.2 5.6 10.0 18.5 22.1 28.5 10.0 100

> 50 0.0 4.3 6.4 17.0 25.5 40.4 6.4 100

Total 4.4 6.6 10.6 17.7 20.1 29.2 11.3 100


It can be found that in total 56% of age group 1, 61% of age group 2 and 72% of age

group 3 tend to agree with the statement while, on the other hand, those who disagree

consist of 28% of age group 1, 21% of age group 2 and 11% of age group 3. Among

those who remained neutral the highest percentage i.e. 18.5% is that of age group 2. The

value of chi-square remains insignificant.

Table 91




14.438

UG 0.0 7.7 7.7 23.1 38.5 15.4 7.7 100

Graduate 1.0 3.9 14.7 20.6 21.6 30.4 7.8 100

PG 5.8 7.5 9.2 16.4 18.8 29.5 12.7 100

Total 4.4 6.6 10.6 17.7 20.1 29.2 11.3 100


The respondents who agree with the statement have 62% of undergraduates, 59% of

graduates and 60% of postgraduates while those who disagree have 15% of

undergraduates, 20% of graduates and 22% of postgraduates. Overall, those who agree

191

with the statement have 61% of the respondents and those who disagree have 21% of

them while 17.7% remained neutral. Chi-square shows an insignificant value.

Discussion

A relatively greater appreciation for the English teacher by the respondents

bespeaks of a positive experience with English during their student life. The difference

maintained by data between percentages of positive and negative responses clearly shows

that dominant majority of the participants enjoyed positive experience. However, the

frequency of neutral responses is significantly high enough to belittle the importance of

the positive response. Gender shows no significant difference except that the percentage

of males having greater appreciation for their English teacher stands slightly above

females. Age also shows almost the same trend in marking difference so that the oldest

demonstrate the highest appreciation for their English teacher while the youngest show

the lowest though the difference is negligible. This difference can be due to the

increasing expectations as a result of advancement in information with the passage of

time and their greater exposure to the latest developments in this regard. Thus gender and

age are found to be insignificant in showing variation in the appreciation of English

teacher. Qualification also does not show a trend much different from gender and age in

this regard. The differences in percentage on different categories of responses are almost

counterbalanced by each other.

Table 92




1.308

Male 2.9 8.2 9.1 11.7 25.4 25.7 17.0 100

Female 3.1 6.2 9.2 15.4 21.5 26.2 18.5 100

Total 2.9 7.9 9.1 12.3 24.8 25.8 17.2 100


192

In total almost 68% of males and 66% of females agree with the given statement while

20% of males and 19% of females tend to disagree with it. Chi-square is insignificant.

Table 93




18.404*

< 30 2.7 9.0 11.7 9.0 34.2 18.9 14.4 100

30 – 50 3.2 7.6 9.2 13.7 18.9 29.3 18.1 100

> 50 2.1 6.4 2.1 12.8 34.0 23.4 19.1 100

Total 2.9 7.9 9.1 12.3 24.8 25.8 17.2 100


The table above shows that 67% of age group 1, 66% of age group 2 and 76% of age

group 3 tend to agree with the statement while 23% of age group 1, 20% of age group 2

and 11% of age group 3 disagree with it. The value of chi-square is insignificant.

Table 94




13.288

UG 0.0 7.7 7.7 30.8 23.1 7.7 23.1 100

Graduate 2.0 5.9 13.7 13.7 22.5 29.4 12.7 100

PG 3.4 8.6 7.5 11.0 25.7 25.3 18.5 100

Total 2.9 7.9 9.1 12.3 24.8 25.8 17.2 100


It can be found, in the table above, that 54% of undergraduates 65% of graduates and

70% of postgraduates agree with the given statement while, on the other hand, 15% of

undergraduates, 22% of graduates and 20% of postgraduates disagree with it. Overall,

193

68% of the respondents agree, 20% of them disagree and 12.3% remained neutral. An

insignificant value of chi-square can be noted here.

Discussion

The data demonstrates clearly that English was never a difficult subject with the

majority of the participants. However, the involvement of bias in these responses cannot

be ruled out as English has always been among the subjects with highest failure ratio at

all the levels; from beginning to bachelors. The percentage of neutral reponses, though

relatively lower, is still significant. Gender shows no significant difference in this regard

at all. However, age shows significant difference with the most advanced in age reporting

to have never been difficult for them as a subject. The difference on the basis of

qualification, though shown to be insignificant by chi-square, is found as expected so that

the more qualified report to have found English a relatively less difficult subject and vice

versa. It is because the choice of going further in studies is linked with the score in

English. Mostly it is linked with passing this subject for it enjoys the status of a

compulsory subject which means no promotion to the next level without passing it. So,

going further in studies connotes being good at English as a subject.

Table 95




5.425

Male 4.1 6.7 10.5 14.3 21.3 28.7 14.3 100

Female 0.0 4.6 9.2 13.8 30.8 26.2 15.4 100

Total 3.4 6.4 10.3 14.3 22.9 28.3 14.5 100


As in the table above, in total 64% of males and 72% of females agree with the statement

while 21% of males and 14% of females disagree with it. Chi-square remains

insignificant.

194

Table 96




15.150

< 30 3.6 7.2 14.4 11.7 22.5 27.0 13.5 100

30 – 50 3.6 4.4 9.2 13.7 23.7 30.1 15.3 100

> 50 2.1 14.9 6.4 23.4 19.1 21.3 12.8 100

Total 3.4 6.4 10.3 14.3 22.9 28.3 14.5 100.0


Sum totals of the percentages show that almost 63% of age group 1, 69% of age group 2

and 53% of age group 3 tend to agree with the given statement while, on the other side,

25% of age group 1, 17% of age group 2 and 23% of age group 3 disagree with the

statement. The highest percentage i.e. 23.4% of those remained neutral is that of age

group 3. The value of chi-square is insignificant.

Table 97




7.496

UG 0.0 0.0 15.4 7.7 38.5 15.4 23.1 100

Graduate 4.9 4.9 11.8 13.7 23.5 25.5 15.7 100

PG 3.1 7.2 9.6 14.7 21.9 29.8 13.7 100

Total 3.4 6.4 10.3 14.3 22.9 28.3 14.5 100


The table shows that 15% of undergraduates, 22% of graduates and 20% of postgraduates

disagree with the given statement while those who agree with it have 76% of

undergraduates, 64% of graduates and 65% of postgraduates. Overall, it can be seen that

195

65% of the respondents agree, 20% of them disagree while 14% remained neutral. Chi-

square is insignificant.

Discussion

Percentages show that a dominant majority of the participants loved to learn more

and more English during their student life. Frequency of neutral responses is significant.

Gender shows fairly significant results with the females having been more dedicated to

learning English as students than the males. Differences on the basis of age are not

significant as such; however, the participants advanced in age report a lower level of

involvement in furthering their knowledge in English. So far as qualification is

concerned little difference is found between the graduates and the postgraduates in their

love for learning more and more English as students. However, undergraduates show a

greater intensity of their love for learning English which could possibly be because of

their poor results or low performance against their desire. This trend can be taken as a

reaction to the results below desire intended to grumble against their inability to cope

with English. Weakness in English guarantees against pursuing higher education in

Pakistan as English is a compulsory subject. People end up their educational career

feeling not to be able to cope with English. The lowly educated among the participants

can most probably attribute their backwardness in education to their low performance in

English. This is what possibly turns them emotionally against their perceived non-

responsive nature of English as a subject so far as the results in it are concerned.

Table 98




3.141

Male 7.6 15.5 12.0 19.0 21.9 18.1 5.8 100

Female 4.6 15.4 16.9 16.9 18.5 18.5 9.2 100

Total 7.1 15.5 12.8 18.7 21.4 18.2 6.4 100


196

It can be found that 45% of males and 46% of females agree with the given statement

while 35% of males and 36% of females disagree with it. However, the percentage of the

males i.e. 19% who remained neutral is relatively higher than females i.e. 16.9%. No

significant value of chi-square can be found.

Table 99




32.702***

< 30 5.4 9.0 16.2 11.7 27.0 27.0 3.6 100

30 – 50 8.0 16.5 13.3 23.3 18.1 13.7 7.2 100

> 50 6.4 25.5 2.1 10.6 25.5 21.3 8.5 100

Total 7.1 15.5 12.8 18.7 21.4 18.2 6.4 100


The table shows in total 58% of age group 1, 39% of age group 2 and 55% of age group 3

agree with the given statement while, on the other hand, 31% of age group 1, 38% of age

group 2 and 34% of age group 3 disagree with it. Among those who remained neutral the

highest percentage i.e. 23.3% is that of age group 2. A highly significant value of chi-

square can be found here.

Table 100




19.239*

UG 23.1 23.1 0.0 7.7 23.1 15.4 7.7 100

Graduate 2.9 8.8 18.6 21.6 20.6 18.6 8.8 100

PG 7.9 17.5 11.3 18.2 21.6 18.2 5.5 100

Total 7.1 15.5 12.8 18.7 21.4 18.2 6.4 100


197

It can be found that in total 46% of undergraduates, 29% of graduates and 37% of

postgraduates disagree with the given statement while, on the other side, 46% of

undergraduates, 47% of graduates and 45% of postgraduates agree with it. The highest

percentage i.e. 22% of those who remained neutral is that of graduates. Overall, 47% of

the respondents agree, 35% of them disagree while almost 19% remained neutral. Chi-

square is significant.

Discussion

Data shows that a reasonably greater number of respondents wanted English to be

used as medium of instruction when they were studying themselves but the gap between

the percentages of positive and negative responses is not as high as it has been shown in

case of other items. It shows a relatively weak desire among the participants to actually

involve in a situation where they need to cope with English. Thus being ready for actual

involvement in using English is to be distinguished from desiring it or desiring to learn it.

A significantly high frequency of neutral responses further strengthens the idea of

confusion or uncertainty on the part of the participants to have English as medium of

instruction during their own studies. Gender based differences are entirely negligible as

the percentages in different categories of responses mutually counterbalance each other.

Age has emerged as highly significant indicator. The trend shows those below 30 years of

age as having the strongest desire to have had English as medium of instruction when

they were students and the ones falling in the category of 30 to 50 years of age as having

the weakest desire while those who are above 50 years of age fall in the middle. However

the difference between last two senior age groups is minor. Difference on the basis of

qualification is found to be significant. The difference that exists shows undergraduates

to be least interested in having had English as medium of instruction when they were

students while the graduates show highest level of interest.

198

4. Attitude towards English as Medium of Instruction (ATEMI)

Table 101

Gender-based variation in the responses to ATEMI 1 (Questionnaire item 32)



7.668

Male 8.5 17.8 13.7 13.2 22.5 13.2 11.1 100

Female 16.9 29.2 10.8 16.9 16.9 7.7 1.5 100

Total 9.8 19.7 13.3 13.8 21.6 12.3 9.6 100


In total, 47% of male and 26% of female respondents agree with the given statement. On

the other hand, 40% of males and 57% of females disagree with it. The value of chi-

square is insignificant.

Table 102

Age-based variation in the responses to ATEMI 1 (Questionnaire item 32)



14.855

< 30 6.3 21.6 18.0 13.5 19.8 11.7 9.0 100

30 – 50 12.0 18.9 12.9 12.4 22.9 12.4 8.4 100

> 50 6.4 19.1 4.3 21.3 19.1 12.8 17.0 100

Total 9.8 19.7 13.3 13.8 21.6 12.3 9.6 100




and 30% of age group 3 disagree with the given statement. Chi-square is insignificant.

199

Table 103

Qualification-based variation in the responses to ATEMI 1 (Questionnaire item 32)



21.953**

UG 30.8 15.4 15.4 15.4 15.4 7.7 0.0 100

Graduate 8.8 16.7 19.6 14.7 29.4 7.8 2.9 100

PG 9.2 20.9 11.0 13.4 19.2 14.0 12.3 100

Total 9.8 19.7 13.3 13.8 21.6 12.3 9.6 100


Those who agree with the given statement have in total 23% of undergraduates, 40% of

graduates and 46% of postgraduates while who disagree have 62% of undergraduates,

45% of graduates and 41% of postgraduates. Overall, 43% of the respondents agree, 43%

of them disagree while 14% remain neutral. Chi-square has a highly significant value.

Discussion

The results show that the participants are evenly divided on the idea of English as

the best medium to teach through. The confusion is possibly created by the word ‘best’

used in an open sense without specification that in what regard. The participants value

English on instrumental grounds and not integrative grounds for which English in itself is

not important for them but because of that which they can achieve by dint of it. This is

why they might prefer their national language Urdu or vernacular to be medium of

instruction if it were not for the utilitarian purpose attached to English. Percentage of

neutral responses is significant. Difference on the basis of gender, though insignificant

according to chi-square, shows that the female are less disposed in favour of English as

medium of instruction. This trend is important and surprising in the sense that it goes

against the general perception about gender difference in this regard. Variation on the

basis of age marks an unusual trend by showing those above 50 years of age to be at top

in thinking English to be the best medium for teaching. This is no doubt unusual but

understandable because these people are aware of their image as hostile towards English

200

which they often try to dilute. The value of chi-square shows age also to be insignificant

as an indicator. Qualification emerges as a highly significant indicator showing that the

undergraduates are at the top in their opinion against English as the best medium while

the postgraduates are at the bottom in this regard. Thus qualification demonstrates a

positive relationship with evaluation of English as medium of instruction.

Table 104




15.908**

Male 9.1 12.9 13.2 19.0 14.9 25.7 5.3 100

Female 10.8 18.5 16.9 15.4 16.9 16.9 4.6 100

Total 9.3 13.8 13.8 18.4 15.2 24.3 5.2 100


The table shows that in total 46% of male and 38% of female respondents agree with the

given statement. On the other hand those who disagree have 35% of male and 45% of

female respondents. Chi-square is highly significant.

Table 105




14.405

< 30 8.1 14.4 15.3 14.4 16.2 28.8 2.7 100

30 – 50 10.0 13.7 14.9 20.9 13.3 22.1 5.2 100

> 50 8.5 12.8 4.3 14.9 23.4 25.5 10.6 100

Total 9.3 13.8 13.8 18.4 15.2 24.3 5.2 100


201

It can be seen that among those who agree have 48% of age group 1, 41% of age group 2

and 60% of age group 3. On the other hand, 38% of age group 1, 39% of age group 2 and

26% of age group 3 disagree with the statement. Among neutral responses the highest

percentage i.e. 21% is that of age group 2. Chi-square is insignificant.

Table 106




26.009**

UG 30.8 15.4 23.1 7.7 7.7 15.4 0.0 100

Graduate 8.8 13.7 16.7 22.5 10.8 24.5 2.9 100

PG 8.6 13.7 12.3 17.5 17.1 24.7 6.2 100

Total 9.3 13.8 13.8 18.4 15.2 24.3 5.2 100



postgraduates agree with the given statement while 69% of undergraduates, 39% of

graduates and 35% of postgraduates disagree with it. Among those who remained neutral

the highest percentage i.e. 23% is that of graduates. Overall, 45% of the respondents

agree with the statement, 37% disagree while 18.4% of them remained neutral. The value

of chi-square is highly significant.

Discussion

Data once again shows almost even distribution of positive and negative

responses towards the idea of using English as medium and not translation while teaching

English as a subject. The overall trend demonstrates mixed attitude of the participants

towards the use of English as medium of instruction. Neutral responses have a

significantly high percentage. Gender shows that females are less positively disposed

towards the use of English as medium against translation into Urdu or any other

language. The division on the basis of age, though insignificant, is irregular and

202

interesting. The most favourable response is shown by the age group above 50 years of

age while the least favourable is shown by the middle group i.e. between 30 to 50 years

of age. The second most favourable is shown by those who are under 30 years of age.

Qualification clearly shows a positive relationship with positive attitude towards the use

of English as medium of instruction. The postgraduates in this regard stand at the top and

the undergraduates at the bottom while the graduates strike a middle ground in the

positive attitude towards English as medium of instruction. Further, undergraduates,

overall, show a negative attitude towards English as medium of instruction. The possible

reason for this is that the participants despite being aware of the importance of English

(especially instrumental) feel threatened by the perceived difficulty involved in having it

as medium at the present time.

Table 107




4.296

Male 6.7 8.5 14.3 21.1 21.3 19.3 8.8 100

Female 7.7 13.8 9.2 18.5 24.6 24.6 1.5 100

Total 6.9 9.3 13.5 20.6 21.9 20.1 7.6 100


It can be found that in total 49% of the male and 51% of the female respondents agree

with the given statement while, on the other hand, 29% of the males while 31% of the

females disagree with it. Those who remained neutral have higher percentage i.e. 21% of

the male. Chi-square remains insignificant.

203

Table 108




14.291

< 30 5.4 9.0 18.0 18.9 24.3 17.1 7.2 100

30 – 50 7.2 10.0 12.0 21.7 22.1 20.1 6.8 100

> 50 8.5 6.4 10.6 19.1 14.9 27.7 12.8 100

Total 6.9 9.3 13.5 20.6 21.9 20.1 7.6 100


In the table above, almost 49%, in total, of age group 1 as well as age group 2 agree with

the given statement while they are 55% of age group 3. On the other hand, those who

disagree have 32% of age group 1, 29% of age group 2 and 26% of age group 3. Chi-


Table 109




15.572

UG 23.1 7.7 7.7 30.8 30.8 0.0 0.0 100

Graduate 4.9 7.8 13.7 22.5 24.5 20.6 5.9 100

PG 6.8 9.9 13.7 19.5 20.5 20.9 8.6 100

Total 6.9 9.3 13.5 20.6 21.9 20.1 7.6 100


The table shows that in total almost 31% of undergraduates, 51% of graduates and 50%

of postgraduates agree with the given statement. On the other hand, 38% of

undergraduates, 26% of graduates and 30% of postgraduates disagree with it. Those who

remained neutral have 31% of undergraduates, 23% of graduates and 20% of

204

postgraduates. Overall, 50% of the respondents agree, 30% disagree with the statement

while 21% remain neutral. The value of chi-square is insignificant.

Discussion

A tilt towards positive attitude is demonstrated by the data through, overall,

higher percentages in the categories of positive responses. The participants favour the

idea of explaining everything to the students in English. Neutral responses have a very

high percentage which can be explained by linking it with the items that procured

negative or confused response. The fact cannot be denied that despite having clearly

greater percentage of positive responses against negative responses situation has been

complicated by neutral responses which are above 20%. Thus the attitude of participants

cannot be taken as strongly positive. No significant difference exists on the basis of

gender in the attitude towards the use of English as medium of instruction. Differences on

the basis of age also remain entirely insignificant. Qualification shows no significant

difference between graduates and the postgraduates. However, the undergraduates

demonstrate the lowest percentage in favour of English as medium of instruction but the

total number of undergraduates which is very low cannot be overlooked in this context

which is so low as not to be given serious consideration. Depending on the value of chi-

square variation on the basis of qualification is also taken to be insignificant.

Table 110




7.772

Male 9.4 29.3 21.7 16.1 9.7 8.8 5.0 100

Female 18.5 21.5 21.5 16.9 15.4 4.6 1.5 100

Total 10.8 28.1 21.7 16.3 10.6 8.1 4.4 100


205

It can be seen in the table above that 23% of the male and 22% of the female population

agree with the given statement while, on the other hand, 60% of the males and 62% of the

females disagree with it. Chi-square remains insignificant.

Table 111




8.897

< 30 10.8 32.4 23.4 18.0 12.6 1.8 0.9 100

30 – 50 10.1 27.4 20.6 15.3 9.7 11.7 5.2 100

> 50 14.9 21.3 23.4 17.0 10.6 4.3 8.5 100

Total 10.8 28.1 21.7 16.3 10.6 8.1 4.4 100




and 60% of age group 3 disagree with the statement. Those who remain neutral have 18%

of age group 1, 15% of age group 2and 17% of age group 3. Chi-square is insignificant.

Table 112




12.744

UG 15.4 23.1 7.7 23.1 0.0 0.0 30.8 100

Graduate 11.8 24.5 24.5 14.7 11.8 8.8 3.9 100

PG 10.3 29.6 21.3 16.5 10.7 8.2 3.4 100

Total 10.8 28.1 21.7 16.3 10.6 8.1 4.4 100


206

The table shows that in total 31% of undergraduates, 25% of graduates and 22% of

postgraduates agree with the given statement while, on the other hand, 46% of

undergraduates 61% of graduates and 61% of postgraduates disagree with the statement.

Overall, it can be found that in total 23% of the respondents agree, 61% of them disagree

while 16% remained neutral. The value of chi-square is insignificant.

Discussion

A dominant majority of the participants clearly disagree with the idea that English

can improve the academic caliber of students of rural areas to the level as to be able to

compete with those from genuine English medium schools of urban areas. There are

many factors involved in this perception of the teachers; however, the most important that

has emerged from open ended responses of the participants is their perception of the

environment which according to them is completely unsupportive for being

extraordinarily backward in terms of exposure to English. Frequency of neutral responses

is significant. No significant difference can be seen on the basis of gender. Slight but

insignificant difference can be noted on the basis of age. The existing difference shows

the age group below 30 years to be most prominent in disagreeing with the idea of

usefulness of English for students of rural areas to improve them academically. However,

the difference at large is insignificant and negative response overall across different age

groups has the same strength. Qualification does not show any difference except that the

undergraduates have the highest percentage in strongly supporting the idea in the given

statement while having a relatively lower percentage against it. But it can be overlooked

due to extremely less number of undergraduates participants which results in unduly

exaggerated percentages. However, the graduates and postgraduates do not have any

significant difference at all. Overall the chi-square value shows variation on the basis of

qualification to be entirely insignificant.

207

Table 113




8.603

Male 12.3 22.2 17.5 27.2 8.8 7.0 5.0 100

Female 9.2 12.3 23.1 30.8 15.4 4.6 4.6 100

Total 11.8 20.6 18.4 27.8 9.8 6.6 4.9 100


In total 21% of the male and 24% of the female respondents disagree with the given

statement while 52% of the males and 45% of the females agree with it. Those who

remained neutral have 27% of the males and 31% of the females. Chi-square remains

insignificant here.

Table 114




7.857

< 30 12.6 18.0 21.6 24.3 11.7 7.2 4.5 100

30 – 50 10.4 21.3 17.3 30.1 10.8 5.6 4.4 100

> 50 17.0 23.4 17.0 23.4 0.0 10.6 8.5 100

Total 11.8 20.6 18.4 27.8 9.8 6.6 4.9 100


The table shows that in total 235 of age group 1, 21% of age group 2 and 19% of age

group 3 disagree with the statement while 52% of age group 1, 49% of age group 2 and

57% of age group 3 tend to agree with it. Those who remained neutral have 30% of age

group 2, 24% of age group 1 and 23% of age group 3. Chi-square is insignificant.

208

Table 115




12.072

UG 23.1 23.1 7.7 30.8 7.7 0.0 7.7 100

Graduate 12.7 19.6 19.6 24.5 13.7 5.9 3.9 100

PG 11.0 20.9 18.5 28.8 8.6 7.2 5.1 100

Total 11.8 20.6 18.4 27.8 9.8 6.6 4.9 100



postgraduates disagree with the statement while 54% of undergraduates, 52% of

graduates and 50% of postgraduates agree with it. Among those who remained neutral

have almost 31% of undergraduates, 29% of postgraduates and 25% of graduates.

Overall, 21% of the respondents disagree, 51% agree while 28% remain neutral. No


Discussion

Majority of the participants clearly do not agree with this statement which means

that greater number of participants prefer English over any local language to be used for

the purpose of lecturing. However, extraordinarily high percentage of neutral responses

set the matter on a different plane because of which it cannot be simply concluded that

English is preferred as a language of instruction. The participants might have tried to be

on their guard and took extra care not to get exposed. It is possible because the statement

involves almost direct expression of the fact whether one uses English while teaching or

not. In other words it meant for the participant whether he/she followed the government

policy or not. It would obviously have put them in difficult situation. This is why they

refrained to be categorical especially answering in negative. Differences on the basis of

gender are insignificant. Age also does not show any significant difference. Similarly,

slight differences are shown on the basis of qualification as well. Undergraduates can be

209

seen showing slightly higher percentage in preferring English as medium of instruction

but it is ignored in view of their number which is extremely low.

Table 116




7.111

Male 9.6 19.0 23.7 14.0 13.5 12.9 7.3 100

Female 9.2 7.7 21.5 18.5 15.4 15.4 12.3 100

Total 9.6 17.2 23.3 14.7 13.8 13.3 8.1 100


It total almost 52% of the male and 38% of the female respondents agree with the given

statement while 33% of the males and 43% of the females disagree with it. Among those

who remained neutral the percentage of females i.e. 19% is higher than that of the males

i.e. 14%. Chi-square remains insignificant.

Table 117




12.527

< 30 8.1 18.9 22.5 13.5 19.8 8.1 9.0 100

30 – 50 11.6 17.3 21.3 16.5 11.2 14.5 7.6 100

> 50 2.1 12.8 36.2 8.5 12.8 19.1 8.5 100

Total 9.6 17.2 23.3 14.7 13.8 13.3 8.1 100


The table shows that in total 50% of age group age group 1, 51% of age group 2 as well

as the same percentage of age group 3 agree with the given statement while, on the other

210

hand, 37% of age group 1, 33% of age group 2 and 40% of age group 3 tend to disagree

with the given statement. Chi-square shows insignificant value.

Table 118




6.819

UG 15.4 30.8 23.1 15.4 0.0 15.4 0.0 100

Graduate 12.7 19.6 18.6 17.6 15.7 7.8 7.8 100

PG 8.2 15.8 25.0 13.7 13.7 15.1 8.6 100

Total 9.6 17.2 23.3 14.7 13.8 13.3 8.1 100


In the table above, it can be found that 69% of undergraduates, 50% of graduates and

49% of postgraduates agree with the given statement while, on the other hand, 15% of

undergraduates, 31% of graduates and 37% of postgraduates disagree with the statement.

However, among those who remained neutral the highest percentage i.e. 18% is that of

the graduates. Overall, 35% of the respondents disagree, 50% agree while 15% remained

neutral. Chi-square remains insignificant.

Discussion

The percentage of those who disagree with this statement is higher than those who

agree which means that a greater number of the participants prefer the use of English as

medium of instruction than Urdu. Frequency of neutral responses, though, relatively low

compared with previous items on attitude is still high enough to be considered significant.

Differences on the basis of gender are insignificant. The slight that exist show the

females to be more in favour of English than Urdu. Age shows negligible differences

across different age groups as the percentages in different categories of responses

counterbalance each other. Regarding qualification, it can be safely concluded on the

basis of percentages that the undergraduates favour English the most against Urdu while

the graduates and the postgraduates do not show any significant difference in this regard.

211

However, it is not safe to say that the undergraduate participants strike a significant

difference with the graduates and the postgraduates in rating English above Urdu as

medium of instruction in view of their total number which is extremely low and can

easily result in undue bias in percentages. Finally, depending on chi-square it can be

reliably concluded that the variation on the basis of qualification is insignificant.

4. Anxiety (ANX)

Table 119

Gender-based variation in the responses to ANX 1 (Questionnaire item 38)



21.934***

Male 5.6 12.9 11.1 18.7 26.0 15.2 10.5 100

Female 4.6 9.2 27.7 10.8 18.5 26.2 3.1 100

Total 5.4 12.3 13.8 17.4 24.8 17.0 9.3 100


Table shows that, in total, 52% of males and 48% of females agree with the given

statement while 29% of males and 43% of the female disagree with it. A highly


Table 120

Age-based variation in the responses to ANX 1 (Questionnaire item 38)



15.265

< 30 5.4 11.7 18.9 14.4 17.1 20.7 11.7 100

30 – 50 5.6 12.4 13.7 17.7 26.5 15.7 8.4 100

> 50 4.3 12.8 2.1 23.4 34.0 14.9 8.5 100

Total 5.4 12.3 13.8 17.4 24.8 17.0 9.3 100


212


agree with the given statement while 36% of age group 1, 32% of age group 2 and 19%

of age group 3 disagree with it. Those who remained neutral have 23% of age group 3,

18% of age group 2 and 14% of age group 1. Chi-square has insignificant value.

Table 121

Qualification-based variation in the responses to ANX 1 (Questionnaire item 38)



7.142

UG 7.7 7.7 15.4 23.1 30.8 15.4 0.0 100

Graduate 2.9 10.8 18.6 18.6 21.6 16.7 10.8 100

PG 6.2 13.0 12.0 16.8 25.7 17.1 9.2 100

Total 5.4 12.3 13.8 17.4 24.8 17.0 9.3 100




graduates and 31% of postgraduates disagree with it. Overall, 51% of the respondents

agree 32% of them disagree while 17% remain neutral. Chi-square remains insignificant.

Discussion

The percentages show a clear tilt in the data towards higher level of anxiety or

nervousness among the participants when they have to use English while teaching.

Neutral responses have a significant percentage. Gender is found to be highly significant

on the basis of chi-square. The difference found in this regard show that the female have

a relatively low level of nervousness and uncertainty compared with their male

counterparts. Differences on the basis of age are insignificant as they counterbalance each

other. No significant difference is to be found on the basis of qualification. It surprisingly

213

means that all the participants feel nervousness while teaching through English as

medium regardless of the level of their qualification.

Table 122




4.875

Male 6.1 14.3 12.3 16.7 25.1 18.1 7.3 100

Female 7.7 13.8 16.9 9.2 20.0 24.6 7.7 100

Total 6.4 14.3 13.0 15.5 24.3 19.2 7.4 100


In the table above it can be found that 51% of males and 52% of females agree with the

given statement while 33% of males and 39% of females disagree with it. Chi-square is

found insignificant.

Table 123




5.686

< 30 6.3 10.8 16.2 17.1 22.5 21.6 5.4 100

30 – 50 6.8 15.7 11.6 14.1 24.9 18.9 8.0 100

> 50 4.3 14.9 12.8 19.1 25.5 14.9 8.5 100

Total 6.4 14.3 13.0 15.5 24.3 19.2 7.4 100




and 32% of age group 3 disagree with the statement. Those who remained neutral have

214

19% of age group3, 17% of age group 1 and 14% of age group 2. The value of chi-square

is found insignificant.

Table 124




11.134

UG 7.7 0.0 7.7 15.4 38.5 23.1 7.7 100

Graduate 2.9 13.7 18.6 18.6 19.6 19.6 6.9 100

PG 7.5 15.1 11.3 14.4 25.3 18.8 7.5 100

Total 6.4 14.3 13.0 15.5 24.3 19.2 7.4 100


The table shows that in total 69% of undergraduates, 46% of graduates and 52% of


graduates and 34% of postgraduates disagree with the statement. Among those who

remained neutral the highest percentage i.e. 19% is that of the graduates. Overall, 51% of

the respondents agree, 34% of them disagree while 16% remain neutral. An insignificant

value of chi-square can be found here.

Discussion

The participants report high level of discomfort with having to speak English

while teaching. The greatest reason for this anxiety is attributed to lack of adequate

proficiency among teachers by the respondents in their responses to open-ended

questions. Anxiety factor can be taken as an undeniable fact with these teachers who are

at beginner’s level regarding their proficiency in English. Using English to teach is a rare

phenomenon in the context this study was conducted which makes the teachers to be

highly self-conscious while doing this and anxious as a consequence. No significant

difference can be traced on the basis of gender. Males and females both demonstrate

equal level of anxiety in using English to teach. It is because both males and females in

215

the set up where this research is being conducted go through almost similar academic

experiences while learning English. So, both equally lack the required proficiency level

and face equal level of anxiety. There is no difference on the basis of age. Anxiety runs

uniformly across different age groups. However, qualification has a different case. The

undergraduates have highest percentage of the anxiety ridden while the graduates and

postgraduates do not have significant difference as such. Overall, the difference on the

basis of qualification can be considered as insignificant in view of the less number of

undergraduates. Thus high level of anxiety can be generalized for the teachers regardless

of gender, age and qualification so far as the use of English as medium of instruction is

concerned.

Table 125




11.770*

Male 8.2 14.6 11.1 14.3 26.6 20.5 4.7 100

Female 7.7 6.2 21.5 7.7 29.2 18.5 9.2 100

Total 8.1 13.3 12.8 13.3 27.0 20.1 5.4 100


In total 52% of males and 57% of females agree while 34% of males and 35% of females

disagree with the given statement. Chi-square shows significant value.

216

Table 126




8.901

< 30 8.1 12.6 16.2 14.4 21.6 21.6 5.4 100

30 – 50 7.2 12.9 12.9 13.7 28.5 19.3 5.6 100

> 50 12.8 17.0 4.3 8.5 31.9 21.3 4.3 100

Total 8.1 13.3 12.8 13.3 27.0 20.1 5.4 100



group 3 agree with the given statement while, on the other hand, 37% of age group 1,

33% of age group 2 and 34% of age group 3 tend to disagree with it. Chi-square remains

insignificant.

Table 127




20.500*

UG 7.7 0.0 30.8 7.7 46.2 0.0 7.7 100

Graduate 6.9 7.8 13.7 18.6 25.5 18.6 8.8 100

PG 8.6 15.8 11.6 11.6 26.7 21.6 4.1 100

Total 8.1 13.3 12.8 13.3 27.0 20.1 5.4 100


In total 54% of undergraduates, 52% of graduates and also 52% of postgraduates agree

with the given statement while, on the other hand, 38% of undergraduates, 28% of


agree, 34% of them disagree and 13% remained neutral. The value of chi-square is

significant.

217

Discussion

As a teacher one enjoys a different status in the class than as a student; probably a

privileged and unchallenged one. Thus a teacher is supposed not to have anxiety owing to

his/her low ability or proficiency. This item was aimed to know how far the inability to

explain anything in English makes teachers nervous despite having the privilege of being

a teacher. Majority of the respondents reported existence of nervousness owing to this

factor among them. Percentage of neutral responses is significantly high. There is a

significant difference on the basis of gender with the females reporting the existence of a

slightly higher level of anxiety among them. Minor and insignificant difference can be

found on the basis of age as well. Quite as expected the more advanced in age report

higher level of anxiety while those who are under 30 years of age report lowest level of

anxiety. It can be easily understood that the old are a bit more rigid and not open to new

things. They are in particular hostile to English as medium of instruction as is found from

open-ended questions where the respondents have very often blamed the old as being

rigid and hostile to the use of English as medium of instruction. Percentages show

significant difference showing relatively higher level of anxiety among the graduate and

undergraduates than the postgraduate. It proves that progress in qualification tends to

reduce anxiety among the teachers.

Table 128




9.547

Male 3.2 12.6 9.7 19.1 22.6 27.6 5.3 100

Female 6.2 4.6 13.8 12.3 21.5 30.8 10.8 100

Total 3.7 11.3 10.3 18.0 22.4 28.1 6.2 100


It can be found that 55% of male and 63% of female respondents agree while 25% of the

males as well as 25% of the females disagree with it. However, those who remained

218

neutral have higher percentage i.e. 19% of the males than that of the females i.e. 12%.

Chi-square is found to be insignificant.

Table 129




6.699

< 30 4.5 14.4 10.8 17.1 23.4 25.2 4.5 100

30 – 50 3.6 10.5 9.3 19.4 21.0 29.8 6.5 100

> 50 2.1 8.5 14.9 12.8 27.7 25.5 8.5 100

Total 3.7 11.3 10.3 18.0 22.4 28.1 6.2 100


The given table shows that 53% of age group 1, 57% of age group 2 and 62% of age


23% of age group 2 and 26% of age group 3 disagree with it. Among those who remained

neutral the highest percentage i.e. 19% is that of age group 2. Chi-square is insignificant.

Table 130




20.783*

UG 0.0 7.7 0.0 46.2 23.1 15.4 7.7 100

Graduate 3.9 4.9 8.8 25.5 24.5 25.5 6.9 100

PG 3.8 13.7 11.3 14.1 21.6 29.6 5.8 100

Total 3.7 11.3 10.3 18.0 22.4 28.1 6.2 100


It can be found that in total almost 46% of undergraduates, 57% of graduates and 57% of


219

graduates and 29% of postgraduates disagree with it. Those who remained neutral have

46% of undergraduates, 26% of graduates and 14% of graduates. Overall, 57% of the

respondents agree, 25% of them disagree while 18% remained neutral. Chi-square

remains significant.

Discussion

Teaching without preparation might sound difficult for everyone but the teachers

who are participants of this study mostly do not prepare or need to prepare their lessons.

Two important reasons can be identified for it. Firstly, they enjoy a privileged position in

front of their pupils which goes unchallenged absolutely. Secondly, they happen to have

taught same lessons over and over again so that they feel they have everything on their

finger tips as the teaching in practice is non-innovative and a non-creative process. It is

mere repetition of the same practice and technique regardless of the difference in students

or situation. Thus it can be inferred that the cause of anxiety among teachers is not lack of

preparation but the use of English as medium of instruction. Data indicates that a

dominant majority of the participants expect to cope successfully with anxiety in case

they go unprepared to the class where they have to teach using English as medium of

instruction. Neutral responses show a significant frequency. Gender indicates slight

difference as females have higher percentage in the categories of ‘strongly agree’ and

‘agree’ while almost no difference exists in other categories of responses. It can be seen

that on the basis of age there exists no significant difference as sums of the percentages

completely counterbalance the differences across different age groups. Qualification

indicates a significant difference in this regard. Once again qualification is found to be an

agent against anxiety even though not very strong. Speaking is equally difficult for all as

it is not part of education at any level. Hence higher qualification can probably indicate

better literacy skills in English but not a guarantee for oracy skills.

220

Table 131




8.561

Male 7.3 15.8 16.1 16.1 19.6 18.8 6.2 100

Female 9.2 18.5 9.2 24.6 24.6 12.3 1.5 100

Total 7.6 16.3 15.0 17.5 20.4 17.7 5.4 100


In total 45% of males and 38% of females agree with the given statement while, on the

other hand, 39% of males and 37% of females disagree with it. The percentage i.e. 25%

of the females that remained neutral is relatively higher than that of the males i.e. 16%.

No significant value of chi-square can be found.

Table 132




4.288

< 30 7.2 18.0 16.2 16.2 21.6 17.1 3.6 100

30 – 50 7.3 15.7 14.9 19.0 19.4 17.3 6.5 100

> 50 10.6 14.9 12.8 12.8 23.4 21.3 4.3 100

Total 7.6 16.3 15.0 17.5 20.4 17.7 5.4 100




38% of age group 2 and 38% of age group 3 tend to disagree with it. The highest

percentage i.e. 19% of those who remained neutral is that of age group 2.

221

Table 133




15.638

UG 0.0 0.0 15.4 15.4 30.8 23.1 15.4 100

Graduate 6.9 9.8 17.6 18.6 20.6 23.5 2.9 100

PG 8.2 19.2 14.1 17.2 19.9 15.5 5.8 100

Total 7.6 16.3 15.0 17.5 20.4 17.7 5.4 100


It can be found in the table above that in total 69% of undergraduates, 47% of graduates

and 41% of postgraduates agree with the given statement while 15% of undergraduates,

34% of graduates and 42% of postgraduates disagree with it. Those who remained neutral

have 19% of graduates, 17% of postgraduates and 15% of undergraduates. Overall, 44%

of the respondents agree, 39% disagree while 18% remained neutral. Chi-square remains

insignificant.

Discussion

Data shows almost equal distribution of respondents in favour of and against the

given statement. The situation implies that at least 50% of the teachers suffer from

nervousness while teaching through English as medium. However, this evenness can be

attributed to the understanding of the teachers of the given statement. Teachers might

have taken the statement to prove them as cowards not being able to face the students

with composure. It would have challenged their self image for which they might have

tended to disagree with the statement. It is very important to note that the majority of the

respondents agree with the statement despite their self-image being, presumably, at stake.

Thus anxiety can be concluded as a serious issue with the participants which plays a very

important role in their success or failure as EMI (English as medium of instruction)

teachers. Number of neutral responses is significantly high. No significant difference can

be found on the basis of gender and age. However, some minor differences can be seen

222

on the basis of qualification with the postgraduates showing the lowest level of

nervousness, the undergraduates the highest while the graduates remain in the middle.

Table 134




24.793***

Male 6.4 10.8 5.6 15.2 18.1 26.0 17.8 100

Female 1.5 16.9 20.0 13.8 12.3 12.3 23.1 100

Total 5.7 11.8 7.9 15.0 17.2 23.8 18.7 100


Table shows that in total 62% of males and 48% of females agree with the given

statement while, on the other hand, 23% of males and 38% of females disagree with it.

Chi-square shows a highly significant value.

Table 135




14.121

< 30 8.1 8.1 12.6 13.5 12.6 25.2 19.8 100

30 – 50 4.4 12.9 6.8 14.9 18.5 22.9 19.7 100

> 50 6.4 14.9 2.1 19.1 21.3 25.5 10.6 100

Total 5.7 11.8 7.9 15.0 17.2 23.8 18.7 100




and 23% of age group 3 disagree with it. The highest percentage i.e. 19% of those who

remained neutral is that of age group 19%. Chi-square remains insignificant.

223

Table 136




19.212*

UG 0.0 7.7 0.0 38.5 38.5 15.4 0.0 100

Graduate 4.9 11.8 5.9 9.8 17.6 24.5 25.5 100

PG 6.2 12.0 8.9 15.8 16.1 24.0 17.1 100

Total 5.7 11.8 7.9 15.0 17.2 23.8 18.7 100



postgraduates agree with the given statement while on the other hand 8% of

undergraduates, 23% of graduates and 27% of postgraduates disagree with it. Overall,

60% of the respondents agree, 25% of them disagree while 15% remained neutral. The

value of chi-square is found to be significant.

Discussion

Feeling anxious despite preparation when the lecture is to be delivered in English

indicates that the reason for anxiety is nothing other than the use of English. Difference

between the percentages of those who agree and those who disagree with the statement

clearly marks a high level of anxiety among the participants. Participants have reported,

in open-ended questions, lack of linguistic competence to be the major cause of anxiety

which in turn is attributed by them to lack of proper language training. Neutral responses

have as usual a high percentage. Distribution of percentages (on the basis of gender)

indicates a higher level of anxiety among the males than the females which is in

compliance with the general perception about gender difference in this regard. Females

are generally considered as more interested and consequently better in humanities,

especially languages, than the males. It is important because the perceptions mechanize

practice and so is it in the context of this research. The females put in greater effort in

224

humanities to live up to the existing perception. They are traditionally considered as more

favourably disposed to English language for their being more open to change and

modernity. Thus the results from data support this traditional perception here.

However, the possibility of dissimulation can also not be ruled out as the females

generally are more conscious about getting exposed. Difference on the basis of age is not

significant. Qualification does show some significant difference. A minor anomaly exists

due to low number of undergraduates which has been pointed out in case of many items

earlier as well. it is important to note that the postgraduates have reported a slightly lower

level of anxiety which means that qualification does make some difference in case of

anxiety also as in case of some other variables for example Interest in Foreign Languages

(IFL), Instrumentality of English language etc.

Table 137




13.678**

Male 8.8 14.9 9.1 16.4 24.3 22.2 4.4 100

Female 6.2 23.1 18.5 12.3 13.8 26.2 0.0 100

Total 8.4 16.2 10.6 15.7 22.6 22.9 3.7 100


Table shows that, in total, 51% of males and 40% of females agree with the given

statement while 33% of males and 48% of females disagree with it. Chi-square has got a

highly significant value.

225

Table 138




15.515

< 30 10.8 9.0 13.5 18.9 17.1 27.9 2.7 100

30 – 50 8.0 18.9 9.2 14.5 23.7 22.1 3.6 100

> 50 4.3 19.1 10.6 14.9 29.8 14.9 6.4 100

Total 8.4 16.2 10.6 15.7 22.6 22.9 3.7 100


It can be seen that in total 48% of age group 1, 49% of age group 2 and 51% of age group

3 agree with the given statement while 33% of age group 1, 36% of age group 2 and 34%

of age group 3 disagree with the given statement. Age group 1 has the highest percentage

i.e. 19% of those who remained neutral. The value of chi-square is insignificant.

Table 139




16.561

UG 0.0 0.0 23.1 23.1 23.1 30.8 0.0 100.0

Graduate 11.8 10.8 6.9 14.7 25.5 28.4 2.0 100

PG 7.5 18.8 11.3 15.8 21.6 20.5 4.5 100

Total 8.4 16.2 10.6 15.7 22.6 22.9 3.7 100


The table above shows that 54% of undergraduates, 56% of graduates and 47% of



agree, 35% disagree while 16% of them remained neutral. Chi-square remains

insignificant.

226

Discussion

Reluctance to go to such a class where English is to be used for teaching shows a

low comfort level with this language. A dominant majority of the respondents have

expressed their reluctance to go to the classes where English is to be used as medium of

instruction. A clear difference can be seen on the basis of gender in this regard. Data

shows a widely low level of anxiety among the females compared with the males. The

possible reasons for it have been discussed in case of preceding item. Same explanation

applies here as well. No significant difference exists on the basis of age as the

percentages in different categories of responses tend to counterbalance each other. So far

as qualification is concerned; high percentage of neutral responses by the undergraduates

is significant to show high level of anxiety because it is an attempt to avoid the question

in order not to be exposed. However, results in case of undergraduates are not so reliable

because of their extremely low number. The difference between graduates and

postgraduates, however, reliably marks the existence of less anxiety among the

postgraduates compared with the graduates. Thus it can be concluded that anxiety

diminishes with advancement in qualification which means a more qualified teacher is

expected to experience less level of anxiety while teaching through English as medium of

instruction. However, qualification cannot be taken as an important indicator of anxiety

in case of this item as the value of chi-square shows the variation in this regard to be

insignificant.

4. Willingness to Communicate in English (WTCE)

While describing and interpreting the percentages in the response categories of

various frequencies following norms have been followed. Response Categories of high

frequency are;

Always

Usually

Frequently

227

Response Categories of low frequency are;

Sometimes

Occasionally

Rarely

Response category showing complete unwillingness;

Never

Frequency, probability and willingness have been used alternatively here because

of the following theoretical assumption based on a logical relation with one another.

Frequency Probability Willingness

The figure shows that the reported frequency of using English in the given

situation indicates the probability of actual use of English in that situation which, in turn,

signifies the level of willingness of the individual to use English while communicating in

the situation specified in the statement.

Table 140

Gender-based variation in the responses to WTCE 1 (Questionnaire item 45)

Gender

Percentages Chi-

square

NVR RAR OCC STM FRQ USU ALW Total

11.027

*

Male 3.5 3.5 9.1 18.4 16.7 24.0 24.9 100

Female 1.5 6.2 15.4 27.7 15.4 23.1 10.8 100

Total 3.2 3.9 10.1 19.9 16.5 23.8 22.6 100


Sums of the percentages in the three response categories of high frequency have 66% of

males and 49% of females while three categories of the low frequency have 31% of

males and 49% of females. Those who were never willing to use English have almost 4%

of females and 2% of males. Chi-square is found to be significant.

228

Table 141

Age-based variation in the responses to WTCE 1 (Questionnaire item 45)

Age

Percentages Chi-

square


34.968***

< 30 3.6 5.4 15.3 10.8 25.2 18.0 21.6 100

30 – 50 2.8 1.6 8.4 22.9 13.7 26.9 23.7 100

> 50 4.3 12.8 6.4 25.5 10.6 21.3 19.1 100

Total 3.2 3.9 10.1 19.9 16.5 23.8 22.6 100


Sums of the percentages in response categories of high frequency have 65% of age group

1, 64% of age group 2 and 51% of age group 3 while that of low frequency have 32% of

age group 1, 33% of age group 2 and 45% of age group 3. Those who were found to be

totally unwilling to use English in the given situation have 4% of age group 1, 3% of age

group 2 and 4% of age group 3. Chi-square is highly significant.

Table 142

Qualification-based variation in the responses to WTCE 1 (Questionnaire item 45)

Qualification

Percentages Chi-

square


23.312**

UG 15.4 7.7 7.7 30.8 0.0 23.1 15.4 100

Graduate 4.9 2.9 3.9 22.5 18.6 17.6 29.4 100

PG 2.1 4.1 12.3 18.5 16.4 26.0 20.5 100

Total 3.2 3.9 10.1 19.9 16.5 23.8 22.6 100


Sums of the percentages of high frequency responses, in the table above, have 39% of

undergraduates, 66% of graduates and 64% of postgraduates while that of low frequency

229

have 46% of undergraduates, 29% of graduates and 35% of postgraduates. Those who

were never willing to use English in the given situation have 5% of graduates and 2% of

postgraduates. Overall, 63% of the respondents showed high level of willingness, 34%

showed low level of it while 3% are found never willing. A highly significant value of

chi-square can be found here.

Discussion

Willingness to communicate in target language shows the probability of an

individual to use that language in that particular situation. It expresses willingness

specific to the given situation as it is assumed in the literature on willingness to

communicate that a person may be motivated in different ways but still not willing to use

given language to communicate in a particular situation. This makes willingness a

construct distinguished from other motivational constructs used in this study and also

more action biased as it focuses on potential readiness for an actual situation of

communication identified clearly as they daily happen to be in it many a time in real life

on daily basis. The situation identified in this item is a characteristic one which English

medium teachers would face. The percentages of teachers’ willingness in this case will

indicate the probability of actual use of English by the teachers while answering students’

questions. Percentages mark a very high tendency of the teachers to answer students’

questions in English. Neutral responses have a percentage high enough to be considered

as very significant. It shows that majority of the teachers will chose to answer students

questions in English if it is left to their option but a significantly high number of them

will not do so. Gender shows more males to be willing than the females. Age shows a

highly significant variation. The trend is significant for it is substantiated by the data

gathered through open-ended questions. Age group below 30 years demonstrates highest

level of willingness while the group above 50 years of age demonstrates the lowest level

of willingness. It poses no complexity to the understanding because the young in age

have relatively greater exposure to global demands and are more responsive to it. They

are less rigid and more open to change as they have their whole future to form by in front

of them to carve. Why not, it is a truth about human nature in normal circumstances that

230

the closer the retirement is seen the fewer are the dreams and abated is the drive to put in

effort. This is what seems to have happened in case of the participants of this study. The

view, here, is based on researcher’s personal interaction with the groups in case.

Qualification is a very strong indicator of WTCE in this item. The lowest percentage of

postgraduates opting ‘never’ to communicate in English in the given situation cannot be

ignored because qualification has proved to be a strong and positive indicator of

motivation in most of the variables in this study in the same way as in this item.

Table 143


Gender

Percentages Chi-

square


13.553**

Male 6.7 5.6 10.5 22.8 17.3 24.3 12.9 100

Female 12.3 10.8 12.3 33.8 10.8 12.3 7.7 100

Total 7.6 6.4 10.8 24.6 16.2 22.4 12.0 100


Sums of the first three response categories of high frequency have 55% of the male and

31% of the female while that of the low frequency have 23% of the male and 35% of the

female. Those who are found never willing have 7% of the male and 12% of the female.

Chi-square has a highly significant value.

231

Table 144


Age

Percentages Chi-

square


15.614

< 30 9.9 9.0 9.9 18.0 14.4 29.7 9.0 100

30 – 50 6.8 4.8 10.0 26.5 17.3 21.3 13.3 100

> 50 6.4 8.5 17.0 29.8 14.9 10.6 12.8 100

Total 7.6 6.4 10.8 24.6 16.2 22.4 12.0 100


Table shows that the sums of the percentages in high frequency responses have 53% of

age group 1, 52% of age group 2 and 38% of age group 3 while in that of low frequency

have 29% of age group 1, 22% of age group 2 and 32% of age group 3. Those who were

never found willing to use English in the given situation have 10% of age group 1, 7% of

age group 2 and 6% of age group 3.

Table 145


Qualification

Percentages Chi-

square


8.854

UG 7.7 15.4 15.4 15.4 30.8 0.0 15.4 100

Graduate 8.8 4.9 10.8 23.5 18.6 22.5 10.8 100

PG 7.2 6.5 10.6 25.3 14.7 23.3 12.3 100

Total 7.6 6.4 10.8 24.6 16.2 22.4 12.0 100


It can be seen that total of the percentages in the response categories of high frequency

have 46% of undergraduates, 52% of graduates and 50% of postgraduates while that of

232

low frequency have 39% of undergraduates, 24% of graduates and 23% of postgraduates.

Those who were never willing to use English have 8% of undergraduates, 9% of

graduates and 7% of postgraduates. Overall, almost 51% of the respondents showed high

level of willingness, 42% showed low level of it while low level while 8% of them were

found unwilling. Chi-square has insignificant value.

Discussion

Explanation stands at the core of the issue this study is dealing with. All the

teachers must face this situation if they decide to teach through English as medium of

instruction. On the other hand this problem is typically the most difficult task of the

whole process. If a teacher feels confident and competent enough to be able to explain

things to the students in English then the major part of the problem is solved. Data

demonstrates that a dominant majority of teachers is willing to use English while

explaining difficult concepts to the students. However, a high percentage of neutral

responses, on the other side, stand contrary to the demonstrated trend. Low percentage of

disagreement can be the result of an attempt on the part of participants not to be exposed.

Neutral responses in this case served to be a better option for them. Gender shows

significant difference with male demonstrating relatively a much higher level of

willingness to use English to explain difficult concepts to the students in English.

Tendency among the male to present themselves in a better light cannot be ruled out here.

The female are relatively more serious, careful and honest in self-reporting on such things

than the male. Difference on the basis of age shows the age group above 50 years of age

to be least willing to explain things in English to the students which is in keeping with

ideas of the respondents elicited through open-ended questions. However, the variation is

insignificant on the basis of chi-square. Undergraduates show a dubious response as the

difference in percentages of positive and negative responses is overall negligible.

However, there is no difference between graduates and postgraduates in showing strong

willingness to use English while explaining things to the students. Hence, qualification

also remains insignificant as an indicator.

233

Table 146


Gender

Percentages Chi-

square


6.607

Male 2.9 5.3 12.3 20.8 19.3 29.2 10.2 100

Female 3.1 6.2 10.8 27.7 16.9 33.8 1.5 100

Total 2.9 5.4 12.0 21.9 18.9 30.0 8.8 100


Table shows that 59% of males while 52% of females show high level of willingness, on

the other hand, 38% of males and 45% of females show low level of willingness. The

value of chi-square is found to be insignificant.

Table 147


Age

Percentages Chi-

square


11.173

< 30 0.0 6.3 12.6 17.1 23.4 32.4 8.1 100

30 – 50 4.0 4.8 12.4 24.9 16.5 28.1 9.2 100

> 50 4.3 6.4 8.5 17.0 21.3 34.0 8.5 100

Total 2.9 5.4 12.0 21.9 18.9 30.0 8.8 100


It can be seen that those who show high level of willingness have 64% of age group 1,

54% of age group 2 and 64% of age group 3. On the other hand, those who show low

level of willingness have 36% of age group 1, 21% of age group 2 and 19% of age group

3. An insignificant value of chi-square can be seen.

234

Table 148


Qualification

Percentages Chi-

square


19.428*

UG 15.4 7.7 7.7 23.1 7.7 30.8 7.7 100

Graduate 5.9 2.9 14.7 23.5 22.5 24.5 5.9 100

PG 1.4 6.2 11.3 21.2 18.2 31.8 9.9 100

Total 2.9 5.4 12.0 21.9 18.9 30.0 8.8 100


It can be found that the response categories of high frequency have in total 46% of

undergraduates, 53% of graduates and 60% of postgraduates while that of low frequency

have 39% of undergraduates, 41% of graduates and 39% of postgraduates. Overall, 57%

of the respondents show high while 39% of them show low level of willingness. Chi-

square has significant value.

Discussion

Lecturing presupposes good command in the language to be used as medium.

Lecturing entails a different situation than the one involving use of English to explain

difficult concepts. First of all lecture implies full time English while the other situation

typically implies its sporadic use and secondly previous statement specifies use of

English for the explanation of difficult concepts and not for the whole lecture. This

situation definitely is more challenging than the previous one. By summing up

percentages it can be seen that the respondents show a remarkably high probability of

using English during routine lecturing. Slight but insignificant difference can be found on

the basis of gender which shows the male to be more willing to use English. Again

superiority of male in this regard can be attributed to the tendency among them to present

a better picture of their own selves. Age does not show any significant difference.

Qualification shows significant and systematic difference so that the undergraduates

235

report the lowest probability of using English for lecturing while the postgraduate show

the highest whereas the graduate strike a middle ground in this regard. Thus variation on

the basis of qualification follows the line of the results in open-ended questions.

Table 149


Gender

Percentages Chi-

square


9.230

Male 4.1 4.4 14.0 29.2 15.5 24.0 8.8 100

Female 1.5 9.2 15.4 41.5 10.8 15.4 6.2 100

Total 3.7 5.2 14.3 31.2 14.7 22.6 8.4 100


The table shows that 48% of the male whereas 32% of the female respondents show high

level of willingness. On the other hand, 48% of the males while 66% of the females show

a low level of it. The value of chi-square is insignificant.

Table 150


Age

Percentages Chi-

square


16.941

< 30 5.4 5.4 14.4 33.3 19.8 18.9 2.7 100

30 – 50 2.8 6.0 14.5 30.5 11.6 23.3 11.2 100

> 50 4.3 0.0 12.8 29.8 19.1 27.7 6.4 100

Total 3.7 5.2 14.3 31.2 14.7 22.6 8.4 100


236

It can be seen, in the table above, that 41% of age group 1, 46% of age group 2 and 53%

of age group 3 show a high level of willingness while 53% of age group 1, 51% of age

group 2 and 41% of age group 3 show low level of willingness. Chi-square remains

insignificant.

Table 151


Qualification

Percentages Chi-

square


12.745

UG 15.4 0.0 23.1 23.1 15.4 7.7 15.4 100

Graduate 2.9 2.9 14.7 37.3 12.7 20.6 8.8 100

PG 3.4 6.2 13.7 29.5 15.4 24.0 7.9 100

Total 3.7 5.2 14.3 31.2 14.7 22.6 8.4 100



express high level of willingness while 46% of undergraduates, 52% of graduates and

49% of postgraduates express low level of willingness. Overall, it can be found that 46%

of the respondents show high while 51% of them show low level of willingness. The

value of chi-square is found to be insignificant.

Discussion

The situation, where teacher poses questions to the students, is essential part of

teaching-learning process in a classroom. The classes referred to in this study are not

language classes but the classes where content subjects are taught through a foreign

language. Percentages show a high level of probability reported by the respondents to use

English while asking questions from the students. Difference on the basis of gender is

almost insignificant in this case. However, the slight that is found shows the males having

237

higher probability of using English as against the females. However, this minor

difference can be seen in the perspective of explanation which has been provided in case

of previous items showing male superiority. Age also does not indicate any significant

difference in this regard. Undergraduates show lowest probability but it is insignificant in

view of their extremely meager number in the sample. Graduates and the postgraduates

strike a balance with regard to the probability of their using English while asking

questions from the students. Thus all the three demographic factors show no significant

variation here.

Table 152


Gender

Percentages Chi-

square


5.539

Male 3.2 7.9 13.5 19.4 20.5 23.8 11.7 100

Female 6.2 7.7 10.8 29.2 15.4 18.5 12.3 100

Total 3.7 7.9 13.1 20.9 19.7 22.9 11.8 100


The table shows that 46% of males show high level of willingness against 47% of

females while 48% of the females show a low level of willingness against 41% of the

males. Chi-square remains insignificant.

238

Table 153


Age

Percentages Chi-

square


22.698**

< 30 5.5 8.2 21.8 16.4 18.2 22.7 7.3 100

30 – 50 3.2 7.2 8.8 22.1 22.1 21.7 14.9 100

> 50 2.1 10.6 14.9 25.5 10.6 29.8 6.4 100

Total 3.7 7.9 13.1 20.9 19.7 22.9 11.8 100


It can be found that the respondents showing high level of willingness have 48% of age

group 1, 59% of age group 2 and 47% of age group 3 while ones showing low level of it

have 46% of age group 1, 38% of age group 2 and 51% of age group 3. Chi-square has

got a highly significant value.

Table 154


Qualification

Percentages Chi-

square


17.691

UG 7.7 0.0 0.0 38.5 15.4 15.4 23.1 100

Graduate 3.9 11.8 15.7 14.7 24.5 15.7 13.7 100

PG 3.4 6.9 12.7 22.3 18.2 25.8 10.7 100

Total 3.7 7.9 13.1 20.9 19.7 22.9 11.8 100


It can be found that 54% of undergraduates, 54% of graduates and 55% of postgraduates

show high level of willingness while 39% of undergraduates, 42% of graduates and 42%

of postgraduates show low level of willingness. Overall, 54% of the respondents have

239

shown high level of willingness while 42% of them have shown low level of it. Chi-

square has no significant value. Chi-square remains insignificant.

Discussion

Giving advice in general to the students involves command on conversational

language. It may be found relatively more challenging by the teachers as they happen to

be least learned in conversational English while they do have good exposure, though in

the literacy skills, to the bookish and formal or technical English. The ultimate aim of

introducing EMI is also to help students to be able to speak good English to compete with

the students of good English medium schools. Highest percentages are found in the

categories of responses reporting higher level of frequency of the use of English which

proves that teachers have a strong willingness to use English while giving advice to the

students. No significant difference can be found on the basis of gender. The difference on

the basis of age is found to be highly significant. The highest probability of using English

has been reported by the age group between 30 to 50 years. Undergraduates show the

highest level of probability to use English on the basis of percentages shown but their

total number in the sample – which is extremely low - cannot be overlooked. There is

minor difference between graduates and postgraduates which places the later above the

former with regard to the probability of using English while advising students in general

about their studies. Overall, the variation on the basis of age remains insignificant.

Table 155


Gender

Percentages Chi-

square


11.946*

Male 13.2 9.6 17.0 25.7 17.3 13.2 4.1 100

Female 6.2 16.9 18.5 38.5 10.8 7.7 1.5 100

Total 12.0 10.8 17.2 27.8 16.2 12.3 3.7 100


240

It can be found that 35% of males show high level of willingness against 20% of females.

On the other hand 52% of the males while 74% of the females show low level of

willingness. Moreover, 13% of the males are found never willing against 6% of the

females. The value of chi-square is insignificant.

Table 156


Age

Percentages Chi-

square


16.449

< 30 8.1 12.6 19.8 22.5 13.5 19.8 3.6 100

30 – 50 14.5 9.6 16.9 29.3 17.3 8.8 3.6 100

> 50 8.5 12.8 12.8 31.9 17.0 12.8 4.3 100

Total 12.0 10.8 17.2 27.8 16.2 12.3 3.7 100



have shown high level of willingness while, on the other hand, 55% of age group 1, 56%

of age group 2 and 34% of age group 3 have shown low level of it. Chi-square remains

insignificant.

Table 157


Qualification

Percentages Chi-

square


14.815

UG 30.8 7.7 7.7 15.4 15.4 15.4 7.7 100

Graduate 13.7 12.7 18.6 24.5 9.8 14.7 5.9 100

PG 10.6 10.3 17.1 29.5 18.5 11.3 2.7 100

Total 12.0 10.8 17.2 27.8 16.2 12.3 3.7 100


241


have shown high level of willingness while 31% of undergraduates, 55% of graduates

and 57% of postgraduates have shown low level of willingness. Overall, 32% of the

respondents showed high level of willingness, 56% of them showed low level of it while

12% were found never willing to use English in the given situation. The value of chi-


Discussion

Joking used as entertaining digressions in the classroom or integrated with

teaching; in both the cases it shows a high level of informality. Such situations can be

very easily imagined and identified in classroom teaching but use of English in such

situations shows a very high level of language motivation as well as comfort with the

target tongue. It is so because in such bilingual situations code-switching is mostly

preferred which does not only provide a comfort zone to the participants but gives real

flavor of the jokes as well. Responses show highest percentages in the options

representing lowest frequency (probability) of using English language to crack a joke in

the class. It shows that the participants would definitely prefer local language or Urdu for

joking in the class. The responses which prove teachers not to be motivated to such a

level as to use English while joking with the students also show seriousness and

carefulness of the teachers while filling the questionnaires. Otherwise a high level

probability to use English while joking would have meant carelessness or dissimulation

on the part of the respondents who are not proficient at all in oracy skills of English.

Gender shows male to be more willing but it can easily be attributed to relatively higher

level of carelessness and dissimulation among the male. No significant difference exists

on the basis of age as well as qualification.

242

Table 158


Gender

Percentages Chi-

square


7.201

Male 7.6 9.6 14.9 31.6 18.1 13.5 4.7 100

Female 3.1 13.8 21.5 33.8 9.2 15.4 3.1 100

Total 6.9 10.3 16.0 31.9 16.7 13.8 4.4 100


The table shows that 36% of males showed high level of willingness against 28% of

females while 32% of the males showed low level of it. Chi-square has got no significant

value.

Table 159


Age

Percentages Chi-

square


16.001

< 30 1.8 6.3 20.7 36.0 14.4 15.3 5.4 100

30 – 50 8.8 12.9 13.3 30.1 16.9 14.1 4.0 100

> 50 8.5 6.4 19.1 31.9 21.3 8.5 4.3 100

Total 6.9 10.3 16.0 31.9 16.7 13.8 4.4 100



have shown high level of willingness while 63% of the undergraduate, 56% of the

graduate and 57% of the postgraduate have shown low level of it. An insignificant value

of chi-square can be noted here.

243

Table 160


Qualification

Percentages Chi-

square


37.613***

UG 30.8 7.7 7.7 23.1 23.1 0.0 7.7 100

Graduate 14.7 13.7 18.6 23.5 12.7 14.7 2.0 100

PG 3.1 9.2 15.4 35.3 17.8 14.0 5.1 100

Total 6.9 10.3 16.0 31.9 16.7 13.8 4.4 100


In the table above, it can be found that 31% of undergraduates, 29% of graduates and

37% of postgraduates have shown high level of willingness while 38% of

undergraduates, 56% of graduates and 60% of postgraduates have shown low level of

willingness. Overall, 35% of the respondents have shown high while 58% of them have

shown low level of willingness. The value of chi-square is highly significant.

Discussion

Talking generally about different matters at random can be identified as a

situation in the classroom. It may not occur regularly but quite often involving both

formal as well as informal elements. Willingness to use English in such a situation both

for formal as well as informal purposes indicates high level of motivation and comfort

with the English language. The results are almost similar to those acquired in response to

the item related to the use of English for jokes in the class. Overall, a low probability of

the use of English by the respondents while talking in general to the students can be

underscored. Gender shows no significant difference and so does age. However,

qualification does show difference which is highly significant. The variance in this regard

is systematic as the undergraduates express the lowest probability of their using English

for general talk in the class and the postgraduates show the highest while the graduates

mark a middle ground. Even if the response of the undergraduates is overlooked due to

244

their meager presence in the sample the difference between graduates and postgraduates

remains significant. Thus the emergence of qualification as an important indicator of

willingness to communicate in English (WTCE) among the teachers, in the socio-

academic context of this study, is in keeping with the results gathered from other close-

ended items as well as from the open-ended ones.

Table 161


Gender

Percentages Chi-

square


5.799

Male 8.2 7.0 22.2 21.6 15.8 15.5 9.6 100

Female 7.7 7.7 20.0 23.1 20.0 20.0 1.5 100

Total 8.1 7.1 21.9 21.9 16.5 16.2 8.4 100


It can be found that 41% of males and 42% of females have shown high level of

willingness while 51% of males and 51% of females have shown low level of

willingness. Chi-square remains insignificant.

Table 162


Age

Percentages Chi-

square


24.030**

< 30 2.7 7.2 27.9 16.2 23.4 18.0 4.5 100

30 – 50 10.8 7.2 20.5 22.9 14.1 16.1 8.4 100

> 50 6.4 6.4 14.9 29.8 12.8 12.8 17.0 100

Total 8.1 7.1 21.9 21.9 16.5 16.2 8.4 100


245

The table shows that 46% of age group 1, 39% of age group 2, 43% of age group 3 have

shown high level of willingness while 51% of age group 1, 51% of age group 2 and 51%

of age group 3 have shown low level of willingness. Chi-square is highly significant.

Table 163


Qualification

Percentages Chi-

square


19.181*

UG 15.4 15.4 15.4 23.1 7.7 15.4 7.7 100

Graduate 10.8 13.7 20.6 24.5 9.8 13.7 6.9 100

PG 6.8 4.5 22.6 20.9 19.2 17.1 8.9 100

Total 8.1 7.1 21.9 21.9 16.5 16.2 8.4 100


The table above shows that 31% of undergraduates, 30% of graduates and 45% of

postgraduates have shown high level of willingness while 54% of undergraduates, 59%

of graduates and 48% of postgraduates have shown low level of willingness. Overall,

41% of the respondents have shown high while 51% of them have shown low level of

willingness. The value of chi-square is significant.

Discussion

Giving instructions in English in the presence of other teachers would make the

teachers more self-conscious thus increasing anxiety factor among them. Using English

in such a situation indicates a high level of self confidence. Those who are willing to talk

to students in such a situation will never retreat while teaching the students in the

classrooms. Data shows ambiguous trends as the percentages concentrate mainly in the

middle categories. The trend neither clearly shows a bias in favour of using English nor

against it because the highest percentages are in the categories of ‘sometimes’ and

246

‘occasionally’. No significant difference can be found on the basis of gender. Age shows

a highly significant variation in this regard. The difference shows age group 1 (<30)

having highest level of willingness to use English in the specified situation. The second

highest willingness is demonstrated by age group 3 (>50) which goes against the views

expressed by the respondents in the open-ended questionnaires. These responses report

the old teachers to be the biggest hurdle in the way of EMI policy for their rigidity and

conservatism. The old teachers are generally found to be very sensitive against getting

labeled in this way which can be a possible cause for dissimulation. Variation on the

basis of qualification is found significant as per the value of chi-square. It shows a

positive relation with willingness to use English while giving instruction to the students

in front of other teachers.

Table 164


Gender

Percentages Chi-

square


5.935

Male 7.9 9.9 15.2 24.9 21.1 15.8 5.3 100

Female 12.3 9.2 23.1 23.1 20.0 7.7 4.6 100

Total 8.6 9.8 16.5 24.6 20.9 14.5 5.2 100


The table shows that 42% of males and 32% of females have high level of willingness

while 50% of males and 55% of females have shown low level of willingness. Chi-

square remains insignificant.

247

Table 165


Age

Percentages Chi-

square


16.311

< 30 5.4 8.1 18.9 20.7 27.0 13.5 6.3 100

30 – 50 11.2 10.4 15.3 23.7 20.1 14.9 4.4 100

> 50 2.1 10.6 17.0 38.3 10.6 14.9 6.4 100

Total 8.6 9.8 16.5 24.6 20.9 14.5 5.2 100


In the table above, it can be found that 47% of age group 1, 39% of age group 2 and 32%

of age group 3 have shown high level of willingness. On the other hand, 47% of age

group 1, 49% of age group 2 and 66% of age group 3 have shown low level of

willingness. The value of chi-square is insignificant.

Table 166


Qualification

Percentages Chi-

square


25.788**

UG 7.7 38.5 23.1 7.7 0.0 23.1 0.0 100

Graduate 10.8 7.8 23.5 21.6 22.5 9.8 3.9 100

PG 7.9 9.2 13.7 26.4 21.2 15.8 5.8 100

Total 8.6 9.8 16.5 24.6 20.9 14.5 5.2 100


It can be seen that 23% of undergraduates, 36% of graduates and 43% of postgraduates

show high level of willingness while 69% of undergraduates, 53% of graduates and 49%

of postgraduates have shown low level of willingness. Overall, 40% of the respondents

248

have shown high while 51% of them have shown low level of willingness. A highly

significant value of chi-square can be noted.

Discussion

Being in front of the students with whom teachers share no pre-existing rapport or

a shared background puts them in a situation of minimum comfort level. The situation is

expected to foster anxiety in such a case. Therefore willingness to use English to

communicate in such a situation proves the state of preparedness of teachers to use

English as medium of instruction to the optimal. However, it can be seen that overall the

highest percentage is of those who are willing to use English ‘sometimes’ in the class.

This trend is possibly because of the teachers’ perception of this option as an alternative

to negative answers which they would like to avoid. The choice can easily be implied

against using English in the given situation in the light of all this. The responses

definitely mark absence of willingness among the respondents to use English in the given

situation. Then, the number of those who show their willingness to always use English is

less than those who opt to never use it in the situation identified here. Thus a weak

willingness can justifiably be concluded in the given situation. Chi-square shows

variation on the basis of gender to be insignificant. However the minor difference that

exists shows females as having less willingness because their percentage in never using

English and making its occasional use is higher compared with that of the males while it

is relatively lower in case of using it usually. It can be attributed to a relatively greater

dissimulation on the part of the males while a relatively greater straightforwardness on

the part of female. However, it needs to be confirmed through empirical investigation as

it stands to be merely researcher’s perception on the basis of his informal and unrecorded

observation. It draws conclusion from the fact of common observation that the male are

relatively less serious for being more tilted towards finding fun element in such cases

than the female. On the other hand it can also be attributed to the qualification factor.

Generally, more male than the female go for higher education in the rural areas and for

this reason higher willingness among male can be taken as genuine because qualification

in this study has emerged as a very significant indicator of all the factors (constructs)

249

positively related to motivation. Age marks variation in favour of young against the old

which is confirmed by the results from open-ended questions as well as interviews.

However, it is found to be insignificant overall. Qualification shows a highly significant

positive relationship with the level of willingness to use English in the given situation. If

sum of the percentages is compared then the postgraduates show the highest percentage

in the three response categories of top frequency while lowest in the categories of lower

frequency. Undergraduates show the converse of it while the graduates remain in the

middle. Thus qualification proves to be an important indicator of willingness to

communicate in English.

Table 167


Gender

Percentages Chi-

square


10.191

Male 4.4 9.9 13.5 23.1 21.1 18.7 9.4 100

Female 1.5 13.8 16.9 35.4 18.5 9.2 4.6 100

Total 3.9 10.6 14.0 25.1 20.6 17.2 8.6 100


It can be seen that 49% of males and 32% of females have shown high level of

willingness while, on the other hand, 47% of males and 66% of females have shown low

level of willingness. Chi-square is insignificant.

250

Table 168


Age

Percentages Chi-

square


18.566

< 30 0.9 9.0 12.6 26.1 27.9 18.0 5.4 100

30 – 50 5.2 10.8 16.1 24.5 16.9 17.7 8.8 100

> 50 4.3 12.8 6.4 25.5 23.4 12.8 14.9 100

Total 3.9 10.6 14.0 25.1 20.6 17.2 8.6 100



have shown high level of willingness while 48% of age group 1, 51% of age group 2 and

45% of age group 3 have shown low level of it. Chi-square has got no significant value.

Table 169


Qualification

Percentages Chi-

square


27.494**

UG 0.0 23.1 38.5 15.4 0.0 0.0 23.1 100

Graduate 4.9 6.9 16.7 30.4 15.7 15.7 9.8 100

PG 3.8 11.3 12.0 23.6 23.3 18.5 7.5 100

Total 3.9 10.6 14.0 25.1 20.6 17.2 8.6 100





251

respondents have shown high while 50% of them have shown low level of willingness.

The value of chi-square is highly significant.

Discussion

Giving advice to the students is supposed to procure similar affective response as

does a formal teaching situation. Talking in general to the students requires reasonable

command of conversational English. The teachers – the participants of this study – teach

such students who happen to be in their boyhood or teenage and therefore in need of

being advised about all the matters concerning their lives including, especially, their

academic activities and general behaviour. Thus the situation identified in the given

statement is one that occurs quite often for the participants while at schools. Percentages

of the first three response categories with highest frequency of willingness to use English

definitely yields higher sum than three with lowest frequency of willingness to use it.

However, the middle category labeled as ‘sometimes’ has the highest percentage. Among

all the response categories this option might have been found by the respondents as the

most diplomatic way of expressing their lack of willingness. Thus it cannot be safely

concluded that the respondents are willing to use English. On the contrary, it shows lack

of willingness on their part in view of ground realities. It has also been endorsed by data

through open-ended questions where dominant majority of the respondents report that the

teachers are currently not prepared to make use of English as medium of instruction. So

far as gender difference in this context is concerned the variation is shown to be

insignificant on the basis of chi-square. However, the minor difference that exists shows

that the males have greater probability of using English in the given situation than the

females. The reason for this trend in gender difference has been discussed in case of item

no 9 which stands valid here as well. No significant difference can be found on the basis

of age. Sums of the percentages in various response categories showing frequency of

using English in the given situation counterbalance each other across different age

groups. In case of qualification undergraduates clearly show lowest level of the

probability of using English. However, if their response is overlooked in view of their

unduly low numeric representation in the sample; graduates and postgraduates show a

252

difference in which post graduates clearly stand above the graduates if sum of the three

response categories of highest frequency are compared. Thus qualification shows a

positive relationship with willingness to communicate in English.

Table 170


Gender

Percentages Chi-

square


10.940

Male 6.2 5.0 11.8 34.4 18.5 17.9 6.2 100

Female 4.6 7.7 20.0 35.4 23.1 4.6 4.6 100

Total 5.9 5.4 13.1 34.6 19.3 15.8 5.9 100


The table shows that 43% of males and 32% of females have shown low level of

willingness while 51% of males and 63% of females have shown low level of

willingness. No significant value of chi-square can be notes in this case.

Table 171


Age

Percentages Chi-

square


7.939

< 30 4.6 6.4 12.8 36.7 22.9 11.9 4.6 100

30 – 50 5.6 5.2 14.1 33.3 18.1 17.7 6.0 100

> 50 10.6 4.3 8.5 36.2 17.0 14.9 8.5 100

Total 5.9 5.4 13.1 34.6 19.3 15.8 5.9 100


253


of age group 3 have shown high level of willingness while 56% of age group 1, 53% of

age group 2 and 49% of age group 3 have shown low level of willingness. Chi-square is

insignificant.

Table 172


Qualification

Percentages Chi-

square


25.372**

UG 30.8 7.7 7.7 23.1 23.1 0.0 7.7 100

Graduate 3.0 6.9 15.8 30.7 25.7 11.9 5.9 100

PG 5.8 4.8 12.4 36.4 16.8 17.9 5.8 100

Total 5.9 5.4 13.1 34.6 19.3 15.8 5.9 100





respondents have shown high while 53% of them have low level of it. The value of chi-

square is found to be highly significant.

Discussion

This is a situation which occurs often in the schools where the participants teach.

In the traditional pedagogy practiced in these schools teachers enjoy a highly

authoritative position. Therefore the situation identified in the given statement has its real

value for the participants of this study. Admonishing involves emotional response and

therefore is mostly spontaneous in nature. This is why in the given situation willingness

to use English implies a high level of comfort with it. In total the highest percentage of

respondents opted to use English ‘sometimes’ which can be taken as an easy way of

254

hiding their lack of willingness. However, the sum of percentages of three response

categories showing highest level of frequency is higher than that of the categories of

lower frequency but its significance is definitely belittled by the greatest number of

respondents opting to use English sometimes. Hence it is difficult to conclude that the

respondents show any good level of willingness to use English in the given situation.

Gender is shown insignificant by chi-square. However, the minor difference shows that

the male demonstrate a higher level of probability to use English than the female which

can be understood in the light of same explanation that has been given in case of item no

9. No significant difference can be found on the basis of age. Highly significant

difference does exist on the basis of qualification. The postgraduate have shown the

highest level of willingness to use English in the situation. Thus qualification is found to

be positively related to willingness in this situation as well.

Table 173


Gender

Percentages Chi-

square


16.505**

Male 7.3 9.9 18.1 25.7 15.5 16.4 7.0 100

Female 3.1 16.9 33.8 15.4 16.9 12.3 1.5 100

Total 6.6 11.1 20.6 24.1 15.7 15.7 6.1 100


The table shows that 39% of males have shown high level of willingness against 31% of

females while 54% of males have shown low level of willingness against 66% of the

females. A highly significant value of chi-square can be noted here.

255

Table 174


Age

Percentages Chi-

square


24.409*

< 30 2.7 8.1 25.2 17.1 16.2 24.3 6.3 100

30 – 50 8.4 13.3 19.3 26.5 14.5 12.0 6.0 100

> 50 6.4 6.4 17.0 27.7 21.3 14.9 6.4 100

Total 6.6 11.1 20.6 24.1 15.7 15.7 6.1 100


It can be seen that 47% of age group 1, 33% of age group 2 and 43% of age group 3 have

shown high level of willingness while, on the other hand, 50% of age group 1, 59% of

age group 2 and 51% of age group 3 have shown low level of willingness. Chi-square

remains significant.

Table 175


Qualification

Percentages Chi-

square


13.384

UG 15.4 23.1 0.0 30.8 7.7 23.1 0.0 100

Graduate 6.9 13.7 20.6 21.6 15.7 14.7 6.9 100

PG 6.2 9.6 21.6 24.7 16.1 15.8 6.2 100

Total 6.6 11.1 20.6 24.1 15.7 15.7 6.1 100




and 56% of postgraduates as well have shown high level of willingness. Overall, 38% of

256

the respondents have shown high while 56% of them low level of willingness. Chi-square

is found not to be significant.

Discussion

The situation involving teachers talking to the students out of the classrooms is

faced by all the teachers as commonly and as frequently as any other situation while in

the school. Hence it has a realistic value for the respondents. However, this situation

requires a relatively higher level of willingness and liking for English in the same way as

in all the other situations where it is not to be used for teaching purpose in contrast to

those involving its use for teaching. It can be seen clearly that the respondents drastically

lack willingness to use English in this situation as is evident from difference in the

percentages on the three response categories of highest frequencies on one side while that

of the lowest on the other. The percentage of those who went for ‘sometimes’ as a

response choice is the highest even in this case. However, in contrast to the cases

discussed earlier it is very important that the percentages of response categories showing

highest willingness (always, usually and frequently) and those showing lowest

willingness (never, rarely and occasionally) have equal percentages thus clearly

signifying extremely low level of willingness to use English in the given situation.

Willingness among the females is significantly lower than among the males because the

males have higher percentage in response categories of higher probability of using

English in the given situation while lower in the categories of the lower probability. The

explanatory reasons for this trend have already been discussed which are applicable here

as well. Irregularity can be observed in the differences on the basis of age so that the

youngest show the highest probability of using English in the situation while the oldest

show the second highest probability whereas middle age respondents come at the bottom

in the order. The difference though is not big enough to be taken very seriously but the

trend cannot be cross-validated by the results produced by the data gathered through

open-ended questions which nullifies the difference shown in case of this item. One

plausible reason for this trend can be an attempt on the part of the aged respondents to

hide their disliking for EMI. They need to do this because they know almost in all the

257

cases that their disliking for EMI is known. Their negative perception of English has been

pointed out by a large number of respondents in open-ended questions when they

consider the aged people as conservative in outlook, traditional in pedagogy and hostile

in their response to EMI. The differences found on the basis of qualification are slight

and therefore insignificant in making qualification as an indicator of willingness to use

English in the given situation.

Table 176


Gender

Percentages Chi-

square


12.240*

Male 10.2 9.4 10.5 20.2 18.1 16.4 15.2 100

Female 3.1 13.8 10.8 35.4 12.3 15.4 9.2 100

Total 9.1 10.1 10.6 22.6 17.2 16.2 14.3 100


It can be seen that 50% of males while 37% of females have shown high level of

willingness. On the other hand, 40% of the males have shown low level of willingness as

against 60% of the females. Chi-square has significant value.

Table 177


Age

Percentages Chi-

square


25.537**

< 30 4.5 8.1 12.6 27.9 25.2 16.2 5.4 100

30 – 50 10.0 11.2 9.6 20.9 14.1 17.7 16.5 100

> 50 14.9 8.5 10.6 19.1 14.9 8.5 23.4 100

Total 9.1 10.1 10.6 22.6 17.2 16.2 14.3 100


258


of age group 3 have shown high level of willingness. On the other hand, 49% of age

group 1, 42% of age group 2 and 38% of age group 3 have shown low level of

willingness. Moreover, 15% of age group 3 and 10% of age group 2 have been found

never willing to use English in the situation. Chi-square is highly significant.

Table 178


Qualification

Percentages Chi-

square


15.772

UG 15.4 15.4 7.7 7.7 15.4 38.5 0.0 100

Graduate 13.7 8.8 13.7 18.6 15.7 12.7 16.7 100

PG 7.2 10.3 9.6 24.7 17.8 16.4 14.0 100

Total 9.1 10.1 10.6 22.6 17.2 16.2 14.3 100



have shown low level of willingness while 31% of undergraduates, 41% of graduates and

45% of postgraduates have shown low level of willingness. Overall, 48% of the

respondents have shown high while 43% of them low level of willingness. The value of

chi-square is insignificant.

Discussion

It is a situation which is very formal and definitely selected teachers especially the

seniors generally have the chance to address the assembly in the morning. It takes place

daily in the morning which formally opens the day for all academic activities to follow

till the closing of the day. A lot of self confidence and linguistic competence are an

important pre-condition for using English in this situation. One has to address not only all

the students of the school but in front of all the teachers as well. However, one advantage

259

can be enjoyed by the person in this situation and that is preparation which can be even

just a reproduction of a crammed short speech. Concentration of responses in the three

response categories with highest probability of using English clearly shows that the

teachers are willing to do this. It can easily be construed that the teachers show greater

willingness to use English in formal situations than in informal situations. It is indicated

by the low willingness marked in some other informal situations used in this study in the

context of this construct. The males show a higher level of willingness here again. It can

be found by summing up the percentages in the response categories of highest frequency

(i.e. always, usually and frequently) against ‘male’ and ‘female’ in the table. Possible

reasons for this have already been explained in case of item no 9 which are applicable

here as well. Age indicates highly significant variation in willingness to use English in

the given situation on the basis of qualification. The difference shows that the

postgraduates are more willing than the graduates if the undergraduates are overlooked in

view of their extremely low ratio in the sample. Thus qualification again shows a positive

relation, as usual, with willingness to communicate in English.

4.3.1. Construct Wise Analysis

The analysis here presents trends of data collectively for one whole construct

distinctive from single item analysis. It has been done to have a convenient over view of

the attitudinal and motivational tendencies of the participants on each construct for a

comparative glance. It provides an insight to know the constructs where lies high level of

motivation or attitudinal positivity in contrast to those where they are observed to be low.

For the sake of analysis here responses are classified as being of three levels of intensity

i.e. high, medium and low.

260

I. Interest in Foreign Languages (IFL)

Graph 1

Interest in Foreign Languages (IFL)

2.9 1.5 1.8 2.8 4.3

23.1

2.9 1.7

53.1 52.3 51.453.8 52.2

61.5 60.8

49.8

44 46.2 46.843.3 43.5

15.4

36.3

48.4

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Male Female <30 30 – 50 >50 UG Graduate PG

Gender Age Qualification

Percentages Low Percentages Average Percentages High

The graph shows that;

Almost 53% of the male have average level of IFL against 52% of the female while 44%

of the male have high level of IFL against 46% of the female. Almost 46% respondents

of age group 1 show high level of IFL while percentage of both the other age groups is

43%. Almost 48% of the postgraduate show high level of IFL against 36% and 15% of

the graduate and the undergraduate respectively.

261

Discussion

This construct is considered as a component of Integrative motivation

(Integrativeness) by Gardner (2010) in his bipartite structure of language motivation; the

other kind of motivation being Instrumental motivation. It has been given, according to

the critics of Socio-educational model, the highest importance by Gardner in his model.

Those who are relatively more interested in learning foreign languages are dealt in Socio-

educational Model as being more motivated in terms of their willingness to put in greater

effort in learning that language. Thus the effort is a kind of motivated behavior that leads

to greater achievement in language learning.

It can be seen that majority of the respondents show an average level of interest in

learning English as a foreign language. However, the percentage of those who have

demonstrated a high level of interest in foreign languages is quite good and far above the

percentage of those who have shown low level of interest. Thus it can, overall, be

concluded that the respondents have a good level of interest in learning foreign language

which proves that they are motivated in one particular aspect (component) of

Integrativeness.

Gender indicates a slight and absolutely negligible difference in favour of females

showing that they have a higher level of IFL. It can be observed in case of age that the

youngest have highest level of interest while the oldest have lowest level of it while the

middle age category strikes a middle ground in this regard. The difference though is

minor but still important because it is emphasized in data from open-ended questions as

well. The respondents in open-ended responses have counted the rigidity of the old or

aged against English as one of the reasons for failure of the implementation of EMI

policy. Qualification clearly shows a positive correlation with the interest in learning

foreign languages which means higher the qualification higher is IFL and vice versa.

262

II. Desire to Learn English Language (DLEL)

Graph 2

Desire to Learn English Language (DLEL)

3.20 0.9

3.2 4.3

15.4

2.9 2.1

60.2

66.2 66.7

58.661.7

69.2

61.8 60.6

36.533.8 32.4

38.234

15.4

35.3 37.3

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80




The graph shows that;

The females with average level of DLEL are 66% of their total against 60% of the male

respondents while 37% of the males show high level of it against 34% of the females.

Percentage of age group 2 showing high level of DLEL is the highest against i.e. 38%

against 34% of age group 2and 32% of age group 1. Those who showed average have

67% of age group1 and 62% of age group 3 while 59% of age group 2. Almost 37% of

postgraduates show high level of DLEL against 35% of graduates and 15% of

undergraduates. In average level of DLEL each of the three groups scores above 60%.

263

Discussion

Desire to learn a language is considered as reflection of the motivation level of a

learner by Garner in his model. Desire to learn TL (Target Language i.e. English here) is

related to motivation and ultimately to language achievement in the same way as is IFL.

The gap between the percentages in high and average categories of interest clearly shows

that the dominant majority have just an average level of desire to learn English language

thus indicating that integrative factors of motivation have value a little above average for

the participants.

Gender difference in this regard is negligible as the respective trends in both the

categories mutually counterbalance each other. The edge enjoyed by the male in high

level of desire to learn English language is counterbalanced by the edge enjoyed by the

female in average level of desire and low level of it. Age also shows no significant

difference. Similarly qualification does not at all prove to be an important indicator if the

trends shown by the undergraduates are overlooked which need to be in view of their

numeric ratio in the sample.

264

III. Instrumentality (INST)

Graph 3

Instrumentality (INST)

7.64.6

7.3 6.5

10.6

30.8

5.9 6.6

43.2

50.8

45.543.5

46.8 46.244.1 44.5

49.1

44.647.3

50

42.6

23.1

50 49

0

10

20

30

40

50

60




The graph shows that 49% of the males think English to be highly instrumental against

45% of the females. On the other hand according to 51% of the females English has just

an average instrumental value for them. So far as age is concerned, 50% of age group 1

perceive high instrumental value of English for themselves against 47% of age group 1

and 42% of age group 3. In case of qualification, 50% of the graduates give high

instrumental value against 49% of the postgraduates and 23% of the undergraduates.

265

Discussion

Instrumental motivation is seen from different angles and given different labels

after its inception at the hands of Gardner (1985). It is also called Machiavellian

motivation to learn a language because instrumentality entails utilitarian objectives for

learning a language. Instrumental reasons are drive the individual to put in positively the

effort required to learn a language for the sake of material benefits expected to come by

dint of that language. A relatively higher level of Instrumentality is recorded compared

with integrativeness as expected. In Pakistan and especially in rural areas English is not

learnt for the sake of itself or to know English culture or mix with English speaking

people but for utilitarian purposes including gain in social status or a lucrative as well as

influential position in terms of employment. This is true in urban areas and even more so

in rural areas. It is evident from a relatively higher percentage of those who have high

level of motivation than those who have an average level.

Gender difference is counterbalanced though it is important that the male show

higher percentage in high level of motivation. It can be explained in the light of gender

difference observed in the rural areas as to who should be the bread winner of the family

which is definitely male. Thus male has to be more career oriented than the female.

However, slightness of the difference speaks against this traditional perception as the

female show almost equal level of instrumentality if results from the three categories of

high, average and low level of instrumentality are compared. No big difference as such

can be found on the basis of age. However, those who are above 50 years of age can be

considered as having lowest level of instrumentality because their percentage in high

level is the lowest and in low level the highest. Though in category of average level of

instrumentality they have the highest level of instrumentality but the difference is

comparatively lower than that which they hold in other two categories of responses with

the other two age groups. Thus the difference may though be minor but still is in keeping

with data gathered through open-ended questions.

266

No difference can be found in instrumental value of English for the respondents

on the basis of qualification. This is what establishes the importance of instrumentality of

English for people of Pakistan. A lot of researches have already found that almost all the

Pakistanis consider English as their need and means to progress (see for example

Rahman, 1997; Asif, 2013).

IV. Linguistic Self-Confidence (LSC)

Graph 4

Linguistic Self-Confidence (LSC)

2 1.5 1.8 1.64.3

7.7

2 1.7

36.340

3638.2

31.9

61.5

46.1

32.5

61.758.5

62.260.2

63.8

30.8

52

65.8

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70




267

According to the graph above, 62% of males show high level of confidence with English

language against 59% of females. While in showing average level of confidence females

have 40% and the males 36% of their respective totals. On the basis of age 64% of age

group 3, 62% of age group 1 and 60% of age group 2 show high level of LSC while in

average level age group 2 has the highest percentage i.e. 38. Distribution on qualification

shows 66% of the postgraduates, 52% of the graduates and 31% of the undergraduates as

having high level of LSC.

Discussion

Linguistic self confidence has not been included by Gardner in his AMTB as a

construct but he suggests it to be important in its causative relationship with language

motivation. It has been included in this study to replace perceived communicative

competence suggested and used by MacIntyre and Charos (1998) in their study which

was replicated by Yashima (2002) and Hashimoto (2002) later in their confirmatory

studies. The plausibility of using Linguistic Self-confidence as a substitute of Perceived

Communicative Competence was primarily because the later implies primarily oracy

skills. The participants of this study have actually had a rare chance of using English for

any practical necessary purpose in oral communication. Therefore, in case of reporting on

their communicative competence, they would in any case mostly depend on simulations

and conjectures.

On the other hand linguistic self confidence does not primarily imply oral

communication. It is related to confidence with the language as a whole and the

participants in this case have, all of them, number of years dealing with this language first

as students and then as teachers. So, the participants could report on this construct

certainly with greater reliability than on the perceived communicative competence. Thus

in the existence of a factor comparatively better in its objective value justifies its use for

the purpose of the study. Theoretical justification for this is that it was suggested by

Gardner as a relevant factor in measuring language motivation supported by numerous

researches conducted by Gardner in this regard in the first place and in the second that

268

this study has combined both the models hence substituting constructs of one model with

that of the other is part of this study. In this attempt rests the theoretical contribution of

this study.

The percentage of those who have high level of Linguistic Self-confidence (LSC)

is much higher than those who have average level of it while the percentage of those who

have low level of it is low enough to be neglected. Hence it can be justifiably concluded

that the respondents show a very high level of LSC. Gender does not indicate any

significant difference while age shows minor difference demonstrating the most advanced

in age with the least LSC. Qualification shows a positive correlation with LSC so that the

postgraduates have the highest percentage in the category of high level of LSC with a

significant difference from the other two qualification groups.

269

V. English Language Learning Experience (ELLE)

Graph 5

English Language Learning Experience (ELLE)

3.87.7

4.5 4.4 4.37.7

4.9 4.1

44.7 44.6 45.9 45.4

38.3

46.244.1 44.9

51.547.7 49.5 50.2

57.4

46.2

51 51

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70




Gender, in the graph, shows that the percentage of males i.e. almost 52% having highly

positive experience of learning English is higher than that of the females i.e. 48%.

Distribution on the basis of age shows age group 3 as having highest percentage in highly

positive experience i.e. 57% against 50% of age group 2 and the same of age group 1.

Considering qualification, it can be found that 51% of both the graduates and the

postgraduates have highly positive experience against 46% of the undergraduates.

270

Discussion

Nakata (2006) conceptualized language learning experience as related to language

motivation. Thus, according to him, a positive experience in language learning leads to

heightened motivation for learning that language. It is very close to attributive theory of

language motivation which states that success in language learning is very much

dependent on the failures and successes achieved in the course of language learning.

According to this, successes in language learning will beget motivation while failures

otherwise. Similarly, positive experience of language learning will result in motivated

behavior or, in other words, in greater struggle to learn that language while negative

experience will have the opposite result.

In this study the construct is used as English Language Learning Experience

(ELLE). It was selected for this study because of two reasons. First, the education system

in Pakistan is strife with variations so the participants will accordingly differ in their

individual experience of learning English without any doubt for which this construct

becomes significant for this investigation. Second, Socio-educational model has

flexibility in response to the context by which Gardner means that important variables

can be incorporated in this model on the demand of contextualization. So this construct

has been included to test an important factor in the context and to find its adjustability in

the synthesis of Socio-educational Model (SEM) and Willingness to Communicate

(WTC) Model.

Percentages show that a majority of the respondents have reported highly positive

experience of learning English during their student life. Gender shows males to have

reported more positive experience than the females. It is because there is a tendency

among the males to hide their actual feelings not only as a face saving attempt, which

definitely can be one of the reasons and in certain cases the most important one, but

because of fun element. However, on the other side if this possibility is not given serious

consideration and the responses of the male are taken to be based on genuine feelings the

reason can be lower trend of education among the female in these areas and consequently

271

greater problems faced by them in this regard. Quite surprisingly, the highest percentage

is of the age group above 50 years in the category of high level of positive experience of

English language learning. No significant difference exists in this regard between the

graduates and the postgraduates. Undergraduates do not have strength in the sample

enough to be given serious consideration.

VI. Attitude towards English as Medium of instruction (ATEMI)

Graph 6

Attitude towards English as Medium of instruction (ATEMI)

14.4 13.8 13.5 14.5 14.9

30.8

14.7 13.4

7176.9

81.1

70.6

57.461.5

77.5

70.4

14.79.2

5.4

14.9

27.7

7.7 7.8

16.2

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90




Overall, very low percentages in highly positive attitude can be marked across all the

demographic categories. In average level of positive attitude 77% of females stand

272

against 71% of males. Distribution on the basis of age shows that age group 1 has the

highest percentage i.e. 81% against 71% of age group 2 and 57% of age group 3.

However, in highly positive attitude age group 3 stands at the top with 28% of its total.

On the basis of qualification it can be found that 78% of graduates, 70% of postgraduates

and 62% of undergraduates show average level of positivity.

Discussion

Attitude towards learning situation is a construct used by Gardner as an

antecedent to language learning motivation. He divides it into evaluation of the teacher,

the course taught and the learning situation. The construct has been used with slight

modification in its orientation which entails measuring attitude of the respondents

towards a particular role or status of English i.e. as medium of instruction. It has been

labeled as Attitude towards English as Medium of Instruction (ATEMI) corresponding to

its conceptualization. It has two parts i.e. attitude of the participants towards English as

medium of Instruction (EMI) and attitude towards the educational policy of introducing it

as such. Items related to both of these concepts were framed to operationalize this

construct. Adaptations were made from Attitude Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) as far

as possible. Other items were self-designed. From the percentages it can be seen that a

remarkably higher number of the respondents have shown average level of positivity in

attitude towards status of English as medium of instruction.

A reasonably good percentage of the respondents have shown low level of

positivity in attitude. The lowest percentage is of those who have shown high level of

positive attitude towards English as Medium of Instruction. Clearly a gap or contradiction

can be seen between high score of the respondents on IFL, Instrumentality, LSC, ELLE

and others and low in ATEMI. Important reasons for this can be traced in the data

gathered through open-ended questions. It can be concluded very easily that the teachers

have a certain level of motivation about learning and using English which is definitely

optimistic but at the same time they show strong reservation for imposition of it at

present. It is because according to them teachers are not proficient, they are not

273

adequately qualified, the students do not have good enough background to understand

anything delivered in English because of their poor schooling at primary level, syllabus is

not suitable plus non supportive academic as well as administrative tendencies.

Percentages show that the females are even more inclined against EMI than the

males. Differences on the basis of age show the age group above 50 to favour EMI the

most but this same trend is against the answers coming from open ended questions

according to which the old are the most rigid in their attitude towards EMI. Certainly,

there is a tendency among the old to sensor their actual feelings being conscious of the

perception against them as being hostile to EMI due to their incompetence. It can be

taken quite plausibly as a logical result of this. Despite minor difference which places the

more qualified above the less qualified in positive attitude towards EMI it can be

concluded no qualification group shows any optimistic level of positivity in attitude

towards EMI. The findings here provide answer to research question number 1.

274

VII. Anxiety (ANX)

Graph 7

Anxiety (ANX)

11.513.8

8.1

13.4 12.8

7.7 6.9

13.8

50.646.2

52.349 48.9

30.8

53.9

49.3

37.940 39.6

37.7 38.3

61.5

39.236.9

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70




The graph shows that 40% of females face high level of anxiety against 38% of males

while those who face average level of anxiety have 51% of the males and 46% of the

females. Almost even results can be found with regard to high level of anxiety so far as

distribution on the basis of age is concerned. Among those who showed average level of

anxiety 52% are of age group 1 and almost 49% each of the other two age groups.

Qualification shows highest percentage of undergraduates i.e. 62% facing high level of

275

anxiety against 39% of graduates and 37% of postgraduates. In average level of anxiety

the graduates are the top with 54 as the percentage.

Discussion

Anxiety is conceptualized in both Socio-educational and WTC models as a

construct negatively related to language learning motivation or to willingness to

communicate or use target language (English in this case). Anxiety in this study has been

seen as a common ground that exists between above mentioned two models which have

been used as conceptual basis of this study. Anxiety scale used in Socio-educational

model has been used in this study after necessary modification to make it focused. The

type of anxiety this study aimed to measure that is faced by the teachers while using

English as medium of instruction. A reasonably high level of anxiety has been reported

by the respondents. However, level of motivation reported by the respondents is

relatively higher than anxiety.

A negative correlation is reported by a lot of empirical studies in the existing

literature on language motivation. This study has also confirmed the existence of negative

correlation between EMI motivation and EMI anxiety. No significant difference can be

found in anxiety on the basis of gender and age. However, qualification is an important

indicator of anxiety having a negative correlation with it.

276

VIII. Willingness to Communicate in English (WTCE)

Graph 8

Willingness to Communicate in English (WTCE)

7.9 6.2 4.68.4 10.6

23.1

7.9 6.9

60.9

89.2

71.6

65.5

51.153.8

75.2

62.5

31.2

4.6

23.9 26.1

38.3

23.1

16.8

30.6

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100




It can be seen from the graph that 31% of males show high level of willingness to

communicate in English against 5% of females. In average level, however, females have

a higher percentage i.e. 89 than that of males i.e. 61. The highest percentage in high level

of willingness is that of the age group 3 i.e. 38% while in average the highest percentage

is that of the age group 1. On the basis of qualification postgraduates show highest level

of willingness with the percentage as 31 while in average level of it the graduates touch

the top with 75 as percentage.

277

Discussion

Willingness to communicate is a construct used by MacIntyre in his WTC model

as immediate cause of any linguistic behavior. It means that actual linguistic behavior is

direct result of the willingness to communicate. It was based on the observations that an

individual motivated to learn and use English might not be willing to communicate it in a

particular situation. Thus willingness was seen as situation specific according to this

model for which motivation can be an effective cause but still not a guarantee in any

particular situation. In this way willingness to communicate is conceived as a latent

construct and an antecedent to actual linguistic behavior. Wherefore, it is similar to other

forms or conceptualizations of motivation for its being a potential readiness to do

something or a driving force that leads to an action (linguistic behavior or verbal action in

this context).

In this study willingness has been assumed as an effect of the motivational

variables present in socio-educational model. A study by Hashimoto (2002) was

replicated to a certain extent for this study with the difference that the measure of

motivation through socio-educational model is considered as a cause of WTC and not an

effect as it was taken in that study. It has been done in keeping with conceptualization of

WTC by MacIntyre (1994) in his WTC pyramid model where it has been taken as an

immediate cause of linguistic behavior.

Statistical values in case of WTC are almost similar to those reported in case of

Attitude towards English as Medium of Instruction (ATEMI). It is interesting to note that

the respondents view English positively because of its instrumental value and are

interested to learn it. They also see it to be very important for being an international

language as well as language of science, technology and progress. But, at the same time,

English as medium of instruction is not seen very positively by them nor do they show

much willingness to use it as such. It is evident from statistical values in the construct of

Attitude towards English as Medium of Instruction and that of Willingness to

Communicate in English. Thus it can be concluded that teachers are not against English

278

instead they give it a lot of value but think it is irrational to be imposed as medium of

instruction in the existing circumstances. A higher level of WTCE exists among males

than the females which is in keeping with higher values shown by them in ELLE and

ATEMI.

However, an attempt to censor real feelings on the part of the male can be taken

as one of the reasons for it. Those who fall in the oldest category of age show the highest

level of WTCE which can be attributed to their face saving attempt. But this trend, since,

is in contradiction with the data gathered through open-ended questions therefore it is

seen with a doubt as being an attempt to hide the real feelings. The reason for this is that

the old are mostly afraid of a perception about them as being against English due to their

unprogressive attitude due to their lack of competence. Qualification shows a positive

correlation with WTCE which has been confirmed by open-ended data as well with the

post graduates having the highest level of WTCE.

4.3.2.1. Construct Wise Comparatives

Table 179

Construct Wise Comparatives

Values Variables

IFL DLEL INST LSC ELLE ATEMI ANX WTCE

High 44.3 36.1 48.4 61.2 50.9 13.8 38.3 26.9

Average 53.0 61.2 44.4 36.9 44.7 71.9 49.9 65.4

Low 2.7 2.7 7.2 2.0 4.4 14.3 11.9 7.7

Discussion:

It can be found that Linguistic Self-Confidence has the highest percentage in the

high value category while English Language Learning Experience and Instrumentality

have second and third highest percentages in this category respectively. LSC and ELLE

279

have much to do with the ability and competence of the respondents and are perceived as

such by them. This fact can possibly beget a tendency among them to deliberately hide

their true feelings which can be one of the reasons for such high values of these variables.

However, instrumental value of English can never be over-emphasized in Pakistan not

only for its being the official language of Pakistan but more so as a language of power,

social status and progress.

It has been found and established through empirical studies of socio-cultural and

socio-economical dynamics of the people of Pakistan of which a few relevant have been

referred to in first chapter on introduction. Out of the remaining five constructs used in

this study; three i.e. Interest in Foreign Languages, Desire to Learn English Language and

Anxiety have reasonably high value with IFL being at the top. However, Anxiety in

contrast to other two in the list has negative relation with language motivation. One more

difference that anxiety holds with the other two is its specificity in containing items

tailored to probe anxiety related to EMI not English in general. In this respect it is closer

to the two lowest value factors i.e. Attitude towards English as Medium of Instruction

(ATEMI) and Willingness to Communicate in English (WTCE) because they also consist

of items oriented to seek affective response in terms of these constructs with regard to

English as Medium of Instruction (EMI) and not English in general.

It is very important to note that the constructs which involve affective response to

English as medium of instruction have very low values while, on the other hand, those

which deal with motivational constructs involving affective response to English in

general have very high value. This trend is supported and substantiated by the results

gathered from open-ended questions as well as interviews which have shown that

teachers view English positively because of its role in Pakistan but at the same time do

not favour it much as medium of instruction at school level due to certain important

reasons found given in the last chapter.

280

4.3.3. Descriptive Statistics

Table 180

Indicator Mean Median MIN MAX SD Skewness Kurtosis

IFL 42.75 42 15 108 10.037 .911 4.960

DLEL 36.50 35.00 13 56 7.871 .167 -.014

INST 24.08 24.00 5 66 6.423 .261 4.004

ELLE 28.77 29.00 9 58 6.359 .016 .720

ATEMI 22.85 23.00 6 42 5.334 -.049 .673

ANX 30.13 32.00 7 47 7.522 -.696 .436

LSC 15.26 15.00 7 21 3.195 -.284 -.507

WTCE 56.88 57.00 17 178 14.684 1.756 15.354

Descriptive statistics are used to measure the performance of the participants on

the questionnaire in the numerical terms (Brown, 1996). They show the average values

for the performance of each participant on all the items aimed for a particular measure.

The labels in the table above represent each measure as follows. IFL represents Interest in

Foreign Languages, DLEL is the Desire to Learn English Language, INST is

Instrumentality, ELLE is English Language Learning Experience, ATEMI is Attitude

towards English as Medium of Instruction, ANX is Anxiety, LSC is Linguistic Self-

Confidence and WTCE is Willingness to Communicate in English.

In descriptive statistics the central tendency of scores is indicated by the mean,

mode and median. On the other hand, minimum-maximum values and standard deviation

are used to indicate the extent to which the scores are dispersed around the mean. The

extent of this dispersion is proportionate to the diversity in the responses made by the

participants. The values in the standard deviation show that distribution is not broad in

the given measures except only two where it can be called fairly broad in its spread. To

know the degree of asymmetry in the distribution of the scores around the mean skewness

is used. It also shows the way asymmetry is characterized (Brown 1997). The values in

this column show whether the distribution is normal or non-normal. Skewness is found

281

indicated in proportion to the numeric value of each measure. Both the negative and

positive value of skewness beyond .00 shows that the distribution is non-normal.

However, a negative value indicates that the distribution is negatively skewed whereas a

positive value signifies that it is positively skewed. It can be found that the skewness

happens to be negative in three measures i.e. ATEMI, ANX and LSC while it is positive

in all the other measure. Similarly the skewness is found to be significant in case of only

three measures i.e. IFL, ANX and WTCE.

4.3.4. Regression and Correlation Analysis

The equation in the following represents the model that was initially tested for

fitness.Initially we want to fit the following model.

𝑌 = 𝛽0 + 𝛽1𝑋1 + 𝛽2𝑋2 + 𝛽3𝑋3 + 𝛽4𝑋4 + 𝛽5𝑋5 + 𝛽6𝑋6 + 𝛽7𝑋7 + 𝜖

Willingness to Communicate in English = 𝛽0 + 𝛽1Interest in Foreign Languages +

𝛽2Desire to Learn English Language + 𝛽3Instrumentality +

𝛽4English Language Learning Experience +

𝛽5Attitude towards English as Medium of Instruction + 𝛽6Anxiety +

𝛽7Linguistic Self − Confidence + 𝜖

Where:

𝑌 = WTCE (Willingness to Communicate in English)

𝑋1 = IFL (Interest in Foreign Languages)

𝑋2= DLEL (Desire to Learn English Language)

𝑋3 = INST (Instrumentality)

𝑋4 = ELLE (English Language Learning Experience)

𝑋5= ATEMI (Attitude towards English as Medium of Instruction)

𝑋6 =ANX (Anxiety)

𝑋7 = LSC (Linguistic Self-Confidence)

So the above equation can be stated as;

Willingness to Communicate in English = 𝛽0 + 𝛽1Interest in Foreign Languages +

𝛽2Desire to Learn English Language + 𝛽3Instrumentality +

𝛽4English Language Learning Experience +

282

𝛽5Attitude towards English as Medium of Instruction + 𝛽6Anxiety +

𝛽7Linguistic Self − Confidence + 𝜖

4.3.4.1. Correlation Structure

Table 181

Correlation Statistics

WTCE IFL DLEL INST ELLE ATEMI ANX LSC

WTCE 1 .102 .037 .283 .217 .316 .190 .238

IFL .102 1 .551 .308 .295 .089 -.219 .292

DLEL .037 .551 1 .386 .428 .018 -.282 .363

INST .283 .308 .368 1 .367 .170 .088 .276

ELLE .217 .295 .428 .367 1 .088 .054 .426

ATEMI .316 .089 .018 .170 .088 1 -.126 .126

ANX .190 -.219 -.282 .088 .054 -.126 1 .031

LSC .238 .292 .363 .276 .426 .126 .031 1

Above table shows the correlation structure of the model. A phenomenon of weak

multicolinearity can be observed here. Both the regression and correlation analysis are

related as both describe the relationship among the variables. Coefficient of correlation

indicates the linear association found between two variables while regression, on the

other hand, shows how and to what extent one variable influences the other. Correlation

coefficient has value between -1 to +1 where the former indicates a perfectly negative

linear association between two variables whereas the later indicates a perfectly positive

linear association. However, in case of zero value a complete absence of correlation is

concluded. Both, regression and correlation are not used to indicate and measure cause

and effect relationship. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) is used for this purpose.

It can be seen that there are seven correlations which are insignificant. The first

among these is between WTCE and DLEL (.037), the second is between IFL and ATEMI

(.089), the third between DLEL and ATEMI (.018), the fourth between ELLE and

ATEMI (.088), the fifth between INST and ANX (.088), the sixth between ELLE and

283

ANX (.054) and the seventh between LSC and ANX (.031). Here again tendency

consolidates the findings whereby a gap was identified as the distinction between English

language in general and English as medium of instruction. People have positive attitude

towards English in general and have motivation to learn and develop it. They are even

wishful of using it but to grapple with it as medium of instruction is seen to be

problematic by them and they have shown a low level of motivation and attitudinal

positivity. As it is evident from the table that all the weak correlations are between the

constructs where one presents English as language in general while the other presents it

as medium of instruction.

The first insignificant correlation can be identified between Desire to Learn

English Language (DLEL) and Willingness to Communicate in English (WTCE). It is

because the situations identified in WTCE naturally involve English as medium of

instruction in most of the items while desire to learn English includes items which

measure the desire to learn English as a language in general and not as medium of

instruction. Similarly, Interest in Foreign Languages (IFL) as a construct has insignificant

correlation with WTCE for the same reason as well as all the rest of the measures

(variables) mentioned in the preceding paragraph.

4.3.4.2. Co-linearity Diagnostics

Table 182

Variable VIF Tolerance

IFL 1.7 .59

DLEL 2.0 .51

INST 1.4 .70

ELLE 1.6 .64

ATEMI 1.1 .92

ANX 1.3 .77

LSC 1.3 .74

284

The table above shows variance inflation factor (VIF) and tolerance statistics which are

used to check the strength of multicolinearity. As all the VIF values are below 5, and

above 1 it can be concluded that there exists weak multicolinearity. It indicates that the

variables used in this study, though related to each other, are, at the same time,

sufficiently distinguished from each other. Thus the results on multicollinearity show that

all the variables used in this study measure same phenomenon from distinguished points

of reference or various dimensions.

4.3.4.3. Coefficient of Regression

Table 183

Variable Coefficient Standard Error T Statistic P-Value

IFL .159 .075 2.119 .035

DLEL -.173 .093 -1.868 .063

INST .444 .103 4.304 0.000

ELLE .172 .105 1.628 .1

ATEMI .707 .102 6.967 0.000

ANX .347 .079 4.401 0.000

LSC .667 .190 3.507 0.001

Constant 3.594 4.908 .732 .464

Using the table above, regression equation can be stated as under:

�̂� = 3.594 + .159𝐼𝐹𝐿 − .173𝐷𝐿𝐸𝐿 + .444𝐼𝑁𝑆𝑇 + .172𝐹𝐿𝐿𝐸 + .707𝐴𝑇𝐸𝑀𝐼

+ .347𝐴𝑁𝑋 + .667𝐿𝑆𝐶

Regression coefficient shows the extent to which a dependent variable

changes/varies in response to the change in independent variable/s. P-Value of the given

variable shows the level of the significance of any independent variable. Using P-values,

it can be concluded that one constant term is not affecting WTCE significantly while all

the other variables have a highly significant influence on the dependent variable except

ELLE which is significant up to only 10%. It means that in response to a complete

285

change in ELLE, only 1/10th of the WTCE will be changed. DLEL is another variable

with its P-Value above .05. The possible reason of it can be the orientation of DLEL

which covers desire to learn English from a general perspective and not specifically as

medium of instruction. However, all the other variables have their value < .05 which

shows that they significantly influence the dependent variable i.e. WTCE.

4.3.4.4. Diagnostics

Table 184

Indicator Statistic P-value (if any)

𝑹𝟐 .318 -

Adjusted 𝑹𝟐 .306 -

Durbin Watson 1.9 -

Regression Mean Square 2834.298 .000

As P-value of regression mean square is less than 0.05, the model is best fit.

However, 𝑹𝟐and Adjusted 𝑹𝟐are very low explaining only 31 to 32 percent of variation.

It means that independent variables have been found to explain only 31 to 32 percent of

the variation in the dependent variable while the remaining variation is explained by

other factors. It is due to the variables/constructs dealing with English language in

general. As regression is best fit and coefficients are significant also correlations among

independent variables are very low, variance inflation factor is near 1 in most cases. We

can interpret our regression coefficient as under.

4.3.4.5. Interpretation of Regression Coefficient

When IFL increases by one score, WTCE will increase by .159 scores on average.

When DLEL increases by one score, WTCE will decrease by .173 scores on average

When INST increases by one score, WTCE will increase by .444 scores on average.

When ELLE increases by one score, WTCE will increase by .172 scores on average.

When ATEMI increases by one score, WTCE will increase by .707 scores on average.

286

When ANX increases by one score, WTCE will increase by .347 scores on average.

When LSC increases by one score, WTCE will increase by .667 scores on average.

The interpretation of coefficients above shows that IFL, DLEL and ELLE group

together in having low regression value for the dependent variable i.e. WTCE. It is

interesting to note that all these three variables focus/measure the affective response of

the participants towards English as a language in general and not English as medium of

instruction. On the other hand it can be found that all the four variables show a high

regression value on WTCE. These variables explain above 50% of the variation in

dependent factor (WTCE) which is highly significant.

4.3.5. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)

Structural equation modeling (SEM) is also known as analysis of covariance

structures, or causal modeling (Arbuckle & Wothke, 1999). It is a statistical methodology

through which conceptualized models are verified/confirmed. It is tested through this

how far the hypothesized paths – of cause-effect relationship are coinciding with the data

driven paths. In the following analysis through structural equation modeling have been

given.

4.3.5.1. Model Fit No 1

Table 185

Indicator Statistic ( P- Value)

Chi- SQ 9.987 (.076)

CMIN 9.987 (.076)

GFI .993

AGFI .961

CFI .992

PCFI .236

RMSEA 0.050 (.441)

Above table shows some indicators related to check fitness of the model.

287

P – Value for chi-square and CMIN indicates that our model is best fit at 10%

level of significance.

GFI, AGFI, CFI and PCFI also indicating good fitting

RMSEA = 0.050 with P – value greater than 0.05 also shows best model fit.

Following is the diagram of fitted model. All the estimates are significant accept

DLEL. * shows significance at 10% level, ** for 5% and *** for 1% level of

significance.

Figure 8

Structural Equation Modeling 1

IFL

ANX

DLEL

INST

ELLE

ATEMI

WTCE

LSC

.65***

0.17*

.43***

.71***

.34**

.20**

-.14

288

The above given is an exploratory model used to have basic understanding of the

relationship of all the variables taken as independent with WTCE that was taken as

dependent. The paths tested in this model were based on the theoretical underpinnings of

Willingness to Communicate (WTC) model by MacIntyre (1996). This model shows

Willingness to Communicate (WTC) as an effect of the factors rooted in very general

domains of social and cognitive sciences. The model has been presented in the form of a

pyramid diagram which shows WTC at the second from the top after actual language

behavior implying WTC as an antecedent/cause of actual language behavior. The

relationship among the factors, mentioned in the pyramid, is ordered from bottom to top

signifying cause and effect relationship in the order. Thus, all the factors coming under

Willingness to Communicate in the pyramid are theoretically involved in causing it.

The model given above was tested to see how far the affective variables, selected

for this study, cause WTC theorized as an immediate cause of actual language behavior.

In this connection, the affective variables used to measure motivation in socio-

educational model were included in the study as possible causes of WTC. This attempt

i.e. to see WTC as an effect of the motivational variables - taken from Gardner’s socio-

educational model - and not the cause is in response to the empirical evidences provided

by MacIntyre et al. (2001) which proved the measures used in Gardner’s socio-

educational model as mostly dealing with attitudinal motivation distinguished from action

motivation. As a corollary to this distinction in the conceptualization of two motivations

Gardner’s variables were taken as attitudinal causes for more action variables. It is also in

keeping with the study conducted by Yashima (2002) where the hypothesized path from

motivation to WTC was found insignificant. Contrary to Yashima’s findings the results in

this study have proved it significant.

It was conceptualized for the confirmatory analysis because the theoretical

implications of MacIntyre’s (1994) pyramid model of WTC were followed here instead

of blindly following the findings of such researches. However, these researches were

partially replicated in an attempt to link current study with the existing debate as an

investigative development in the same line. The analysis through SEM has proved

289

motivational variables as valid and significant causes of WTC in this study. Above given

design of this model was used as its simplest form which has been revised in two follow-

on steps in the light of the structural equation results from the three above mentioned

studies. The nature of relationship among different motivational variables and WTC

shown by structural equation analysis in the above mentioned researches has been

corroborated through this study.

It can be found that the independent variables show different levels of influence

as causes of WTCE. The results here substantiate the trend identified in single item

analysis, construct wise analysis and especially correlational and regression analysis (as

discussed earlier). The measures (variables) taking English in general as a language show

a low level of causal significance than those taking English in its particular role as

medium of instruction. Two variables; one motivational variable adapted from Gardner’s

socio-educational model i.e. DLEL and the other i.e. anxiety show causal effect on WTC

which go against theoretical anticipations. DLEL was expected to have a positive

whereas anxiety a negative causal relationship with WTC but the actual results - shown in

the model drawn above - present it as opposite to the anticipated trend. The emergent

themes here answer the research question no 4.

Though the study conducted by MacIntyre and Charos (1996) and Hashimoto

(2002) in different contexts support the relationship shown by anxiety with WTC in this

study still two revisions of the model have been given in order to see how far

theoretically anticipated results could be achieved. The figures given in the following

have been selected to show the positive relation of anxiety with WTC discovered in the

two above mentioned studies i.e. by MacIntyre and Charos (1994) and Hashimoto (2002).

290

Figure 9

Model of L2 communication applied to French as a second language situation in

Canada

Source: Macintyre & Charos, 1996, p. 12

Figure 10

SEM Model developed by Hashimoto

Source: Hashimoto (2002 pp 55)

291

MacIntyre and Charos (1996) tested a hybridization of Gardner’s (1985) socio-

educational model and MacIntyre’s (1994) WTC model. The study aimed mainly to

measure the influence of WTC on self-reported communication frequency. It was found

in their study that WTC has significant positive influence on communication frequency.

It was also discovered that both perceived competence and language anxiety influenced

WTC. Moreover, perceived communicative competence was found to have direct

influence on self-reported communicative frequency. It was also found that perceived

communicative competence was affected by language anxiety. Yashima (2002), on the

other hand, tested a path from motivation to WTC which was found insignificant. Then,

Hashimoto (2002) tested a path from WTC to motivation in a partial replication of the

study by MacIntyre and Charos (1996) where it was found significant. It is important to

note that current study has found a significant path from motivation (as sum of

motivational variables used by Gardner in his socio-educational model) to WTC. These

results provide an answer to research question no 7 in this study.


Table 186

Indicator

Statistic ( P-

Value)

Chi- SQ 2.245 (.325)

CMIN 2.245 (.325)

GFI .998

AGFI .983

CFI .999

PCFI .200

RMSEA 0.017 (.620)

Above table shows some indicator relating model fit.

P – Value for chi-square and CMIN indicates that our model is best fit.

GFI, AGFI, CFI and PCFI also indicating good fitting

292

RMSEA = 0.017 with p – value greater than 0.05 also shows best model fit.

Following is the diagram of fitted model. All the estimates are significant. * shows

significance at 10% level, ** for 5% and *** for 1%

Figure 11


The figure above shows the following;

1) Motivation (an aggregate/sum of the variables selected from Gardner’s socio-educational

model i.e. IFL, DLEL, INST, ATEMI) is a highly significant and positively related causal

factor to WTCE

2) Motivation is a highly significant causal factor to Linguistic Self-Confidence (LSC)

3) LSC is a highly significant and positively related causal factor to WTCE

4) English Language Learning Experience (ELLE) is a highly significant and positively

related causal factor to Motivation

5) ELLE is a significant and positively related Causal factor to LSC

6) Anxiety shows an insignificant value as a causal factor to LSC

MOTV

ELLE ANX

WTCE

LSC

.48***

.652***

-.792***

.143*

.038

.664***

.198**

293

7) Anxiety is a highly significant and negatively related causal factor to motivation

Motivation has been found to be significant cause of WTCE (as can be seen in the

figure). However, it can be noted that motivation exercises greater influence on WTCE

indirectly through LSC. ELLE is found to have its highest influence indirectly through

motivation as in the other figure it can be found that ELLE remains completely

insignificant in its direct influence on WTCE. This trend shown by ELLE serves as

answer to research question no 5. Anxiety also shows its indirect relationship with WTCE

as found in earlier studies by MacIntyre and Charos (1996) and Hashimoto (2002).

However, the path followed by Anxiety in this study is not through LSC as was expected

if it were in line with earlier studies. Instead, it is through motivation which shows that

higher the anxiety lower will be the attitudinal motivation (as MacIntyre 2001, would call

it) which will lead to lower level of WTCE. This part provides answer to the research

question no 6.

However, English Language Learning Experience has proved to be a very important

factor in defining motivation on the scales introduced by Gardner (1979, 1985, 2006 &

2010). Nakata (2006) through empirical studies proved Language Learning Experience as

an important construct in defining or measuring language motivation which has been

confirmed through this research. ELLE has shown a highly significant influence in

causing motivation.

Thus it can be concluded that those having good learning experience in any

language (English in this case) are expected to show a relatively higher level of

motivation to move further in learning that language. However, ELLE has not shown to

be a direct cause of WTCE. These findings with regard to ELLE provide answer to

research question no 5. Thus the path hypothesized by Yashima (2002) (from motivation

to WTC) that was found not confirmed; has been confirmed in this study as an answer to

research question no 4 in this study.

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Table 187

Indicator Statistic ( P- Value)

Chi- SQ 1.358 (.244)

CMIN 1.358 (.244)

GFI .999

AGFI .977

CFI .999

PCFI .067

RMSEA 0.030 (.452)

Above table shows some indicator relating model fit.

P – Value for chi-square and CMIN indicates that our model is best fit.

GFI, AGFI, CFI and PCFI also indicate good fit.

RMSEA = 0.030 with P – value greater than 0.05 also shows best model fit.

Following is the diagram of fitted model. All the estimates are significant accept

FLLE to WTCE. * shows significance at 10% level, ** for 5% and *** for 1%

level of significance.

295

Figure 12


The figure above shows that;

1. The value of significance level of motivation in causing WTC has increased to .377***

after exclusion of DLEL in which case it was .198***.

2. DLEL is a highly significant (with the value .753***) causal factor of motivation.

3. DLEL is a completely insignificant causal factor of LSC.

4. ELLE is a completely insignificant causal factor of WTCE.

5. Anxiety has a significantly negative causal relationship with motivation but an

insignificant but positive one with LSC.

6. LSC is a highly significant positively related causal factor of WTCE.

The increase in the value of motivation as causal factor of WTCE is due to the

fact that DLEL deals with English as a language in general. It has been found in this

study that such factors are weakly correlated to the variables which focus English as MOI

(medium of instruction), have low or insignificant regression value with them and have

proved to be poor/insignificant causes of WTCE - that also focuses English as MOI.

However, DLEL has been found to have a highly significant causal value for other

LSC MOTV ELLE

DLEL

WTCE

ANX

.034

.603***

-.001

.377*** .655***

-.161**

.753*

**

.097**

*

.097**

*

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motivational factors from socio-educational model. ELLE has emerged as having no

value as direct cause of WTCE, however, it proves to be highly significant indirect factor

of influence (refer to research question no 5).

It has shown a highly significant causal relationship with motivational factors

taken from socio-educational model. It has also shown highly significant correlation and

regression value with the factors from socio-educational model dealing English as a

language in general. In view of all this, ELLE can be grouped, in the first place, with the

variables dealing English in general in this study while, in the second place, with all the

variables of socio-educational model as an expansion of this model for further enquiries

which can produce valuable literature as an extension on the existing debate. Such

researches would confirm theoretical importance of Nakata’s (2006) contribution on one

hand while the tenacity of socio-educational model owing to its flexibility on the other.

This last point in the preceding discussion adds to the idea of expandability of socio-

educational model which was empirically proved by many researches over the time in

this field.

Anxiety, in contrast to the study by MacIntyre and Charos (1994) and its

replication by Hashimoto (2002) does not emerge as a negatively related direct cause of

LSC which has been used as an alternative of Perceived Communicative Competence in

the already mentioned studies. However, it has been found to be a significantly related

negative cause of motivation (refer to research question no 6). The possible reason for it

can be that LSC is not an appropriate replacement of Perceived Communicative

Competence. However, such a conclusion without further empirical evidences after

necessary modifications will be too careless a jump towards this end.

4.4. Analysis of Open-Ended Part

Four open-ended items were used in this study. Here the participants were

provided a relatively free choice to express their feelings and perception related to the

issue. The categories were developed on the basis of grouping tendency among the

297

responses on thematic similarity and then qualitative analyses were made on simple

percentages to understand significant trends in the data.

4.4.1. Demographics

Table 188

Demographic information of open-ended data

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4

Valid

N

Missing

227

30

241

16

231

26

239

18

The table shows in total 257 participants responded to the open-ended items. Out

of them 227 responded to item no 1 while 30 did not, 241 responded to item no 2 while

16 did not, 231 responded to item no 3 while 26 did not and 239 responded to item no 4

while 18 did not.

The most obvious reason for this lack of response by almost half of the

participants is that they took it as an extra burden. The second can possibly be their

inability to express themselves in English. However, they were given the choice to use

either English or Urdu but still they might have avoided using Urdu out of the fear of

being exposed. But it can still be considered a good turnout keeping all such negative

factors in mind.

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Thematic Categories:

The answers in this case have been divided into thirteen different categories on the basis

of variety of themes identified. These categories have been briefly explained below;

1. Support; it implies the answers which showed an unequivocal support to the policy of

English as medium of instruction. Its percentage of this theme is 39.8% while its valid

Q1. Express your feelings about English as medium of instruction in our schools.

Table 189

Presentation of data from open-ended question 1

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Valid

Support 104 40.5 45.8 45.8

Conditional Support 43 16.7 18.9 64.8

Students' Problems 20 7.8 8.8 73.6

Anti – EMI 27 10.5 11.9 85.5

Bilingual Orientation 16 6.2 7.0 92.5

Social Environmental 2 .8 .9 93.4

Should be Optional 5 1.9 2.2 95.6

Students' Issues 2 .8 .9 96.5

Only as a subject 2 .8 .9 97.4

Both English and Urdu

as MOI

1 .4 .4 97.8

At a particular level 4 1.6 1.8 99.6

From grass root level 1 .4 .4 100.0

Total 227 88.3 100.0

Missing System 30 11.7

Total 257 100.0

299

percent is 45.8%. it has the highest value among all the categories and therefore stands to

be the most important.

2. Conditional Support; the answers in this category showed support for EMI policy but

expressed certain preconditions to be fulfilled before its successful implementation. In the

list of such preconditions proper training and education of the teachers comes at the top.

Then a purposeful and effective primary education is another factor worth consideration.

This category also favours English as medium of instruction. This theme has the second

highest frequency among the categories developed. Its percentage is 16.5 and the valid

percent 18.9%. Thus if the values in both of these categories are put together a high level

of support on the part of respondents can be found in favour of EMI.

3. Students’ Problems; it consists of answers showing lack of readiness on the part of

students as being the biggest hurdle in the way of this policy. On the top of the list among

these is inability of the students to understand the content taught to them. Students’ prior

education (primary level) is reported not to be effective preparing them for secondary

education to be imparted to them through English due to incompetent/non-proficient

teachers. Then social milieu is reported to be absolutely unfavourable for promotion of

English and motivation of the students. The respondents expressed views that students

spent most of their time out of school in such an environment where they have absolutely

no exposure to English. This is one of the critical reasons according to the respondents

for the problems faced by the students in coping with English as medium of instruction.

This category on the basis of its frequency comes among the five most frequent

categories. Its percentage is 8.6 and the valid percent is 9.7.

4. Anti-EMI; this category implies rejection of English as medium of instruction. It

includes the answers which do not favour English as medium at school level at all. It is

the third most frequent category but still far below the frequency of pro-EMI responses.

Its percentage is 10.3 and the valid percent is 11.9.

5. Bilingual Orientation; involves those answers which place any local especially Urdu

(the national language), in most of the cases, above English in importance as medium of

300

instruction. The major reason for this is easy understanding on the part of students and

consequently better learning. It is though among the five most frequent themes but its

percentage is significantly low but still important because of it being among the top five

most frequent themes. Its percentage is 6.1 and valid percent is 7.0.

6. Social Environment; this category answers report existing environment in the rural areas

to be unfavourable for promotion of English not in terms of any negative attitude or

perception but because of low literacy rate, complete absence of English as language in

daily life, no exposure to it in rural areas and poor quality education. The percentage of

blame on social environment is 0.8, the valid percent of which is 0.9.

7. Should be optional; this category implies that English should be taught but its status

should be as an optional subject. It has to be noted that English in Pakistan is compulsory

as a subject up to bachelors level which means that to be promoted to the next level a

minimum passing score in English is must. It has proved to be a serious hindrance in the

way of further education in Pakistan as English stands to be one of the most difficult

subjects especially in rural areas. Hidden between the lines in this category answers is a

reaction against English as a blockade in the way of higher education. It is the most

frequent among the six categories of least frequency. Its percentage is 1.9 and the valid

percent is 2.2.

8. Only as a subject; the respondents in this category are of the view that English should

maintain its old status as a compulsory subject and should not be introduced as medium

of instruction. Its percentage is 0.8 and the valid percent is 0.9.

9. Both English and Urdu as MOI; it means that both English and Urdu should work as

mediums of instruction side by side and the students have the option to go for either of

the two. Its percentage is 0.4 and valid percent as well 0.4.

10. At a particular level; the answers in this category suggest to introduce English at a

particular level. The most frequently suggested level is grade 9th and 10th. The others

301

suggest it to be introduced in 8th grade. It is the category of second highest frequency

among the six categories of least frequency. Therefore it does have some importance. Its

percentage is 1.5 and the valid percent is 1.8.

11. From grass root level; this is again a suggestion about a suitable level of introducing

EMI. According to this proposal English needs to be introduced at primary level because

it can be very helpful for the students when they reach their high school level. There is

only one answer that demands English to be introduced as medium of instruction right

from the beginning of education. Its percentage is 0.4 and valid percent as well is 0.4.

Discussion

This question aimed to measure the attitudinal input of the respondents towards

English as medium of instruction. It involved evaluative predisposition (Rhine, 1958;

Bazerman, 1997; Eagly and Chaiken, 1998; Maio and Haddock, 2010; etc) of the

teachers. The categories induced from the answers are not all precisely related to the

question but in any case they provide very significant information about the topic of

research so they have been considered for the analysis. Such categories provide those

factors which have not been included in the design and plan of this study but are

somehow very important in explaining the whole situation. These factors where facilitate

in making interpretation and drawing conclusion by providing broader perspective to the

discussion there they supply the base knowledge for future studies which can take care of

the factors not included in this study for formal investigation but have emerged as

important factors.

It is important to note that there are many categories which are common among

all or more than one questions. It is because the respondents give them a lot of

importance as key factors. Open-ended items seem to have provided a chance to the

respondents to express their views freely which would have never found a chance in

close-ended items where the choice is restricted to the range provided by the researcher.

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There are only five factors which have their frequency in double figure and only

three having their percentage so. It can be found that a remarkably higher number of the

respondents support English as medium of instruction unconditionally. However, a good

number of the respondents give it conditional support as well. This support cannot be

seen in line with the high motivational level that the teachers have shown towards

English as an important language in general. It also cannot be counted in support of

English as medium at the current time. Naturally, it cannot be counted as their support for

English as medium for which necessary steps are required according to them before its

introduction and implementation.

There is no doubt that a feeling is found existent among the teachers about the

importance of English. At the same time it can also be found that they feel themselves ill-

equipped as teachers for the demands that its implementation makes. There is anti-EMI

feeling as well but it is not high enough to stand significant against the support that has

been shown in favour of it. Among the hurdles in the way of EMI as pointed out by the

teachers inability of the students is serious issue. The lack of responsiveness on the part

of students requires a lot of effort to be made by the teachers and seriously affects

motivation level among them. A solution for it has been suggested by the teachers

themselves according to which effective teaching of English has to be ensured at primary

level.

There are teachers who favour Urdu against English but the number is insignificant and

the possible reason can be personal in terms of lack of competence or socio-cultural and

ideological signification in the backdrop of which English is possibly viewed by them.

There are some other suggestions which cannot be given much importance in view of

their frequency being so low as to render them insignificant. The discussion here

furnishes answer to research question number 1.

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Q2. If you think that teachers are motivated to use English as medium of

instruction please enlist the reasons for their motivation.

Table 190



Percent

Valid

Instrumental 76 29.6 31.5 31.5

No idea 48 18.7 19.9 51.5

Impossibility of

Motivation

52 20.2 21.6 73.0

Motivated 9 3.5 3.7 76.8

Motivated but lack

qualification

27 10.5 11.2 88.0

Perks and privileges 5 1.9 2.1 90.0

Ineffective training 11 4.3 4.6 94.6

Lack of confidence 1 .4 .4 95.0

Facilities and Incentives 4 1.6 1.7 96.7

Urdu over English 3 1.2 1.2 97.9

Optional 2 .8 .8 98.8

Revision of Syllabus 1 .4 .4 99.2

Proficiency courses 1 .4 .4 99.6

Global aspect 1 .4 .4 100.0

Total 241 93.8 100.0


Total 257 100.0

Thematic Categories

1. Instrumental: this category includes pragmatic reasons involved in teachers’ motivation

towards English. It shows instrumental value attached to English by the teachers which

according to Gardner’s model is conceptualized as practical end or utilitarian purpose of

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learning any language (English in this case). This theme has the highest frequency and

hence stands to be the most important among the motives or reasons to learn English

language for the respondents. Its percentage is 29.1 and valid percent is 31.5.

2. No Idea: A large number of participants expressed their ignorance regarding motivation

of teachers and its causes. Such answers have been included in this category. This is the

third most important category for having the third highest frequency. It has highly

significant value i.e. 18.4% but stands definitely below instrumentality with a reasonably

wide difference. However, this difference is not as wide as exists between the first and

third categories of first question. The valid percent in this category is 19.9.

3. Impossibility of Motivation: This category includes the idea that teachers cannot be

motivated for English as medium of instruction. It has the second highest percentage

proving it to be the second most important theme in the list. The percentage of those who

feel that teachers can never be motivated to use English as medium of instruction is 19.9

and the valid percent is 21.6.

4. Motivated: This category shows that teachers are motivated to use English as medium

of instruction. The percentage of this theme is 3.4 and the valid percent is 3.7.

5. Motivated but Lack Qualification: this category shows that teachers want to use

English but they are not competent enough. It means the level of formal education as it

can be found in the statistical analysis of close-ended questions. Qualification has shown

a positive correlation with motivational variables as can be gathered from the statistical

trends on most of the items or statements. This is the fourth most frequent theme with the

percentage 10.3 and valid percent 11.4.

6. Perks and Privileges: this category demands incentives in the form of perks and

privileges which means in other words material benefits for the teachers. It is not that the

respondents feel material benefits to have any direct effect on teachers’ motivation but

that if teachers’ financial worries are mitigated they will start paying attention to their

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competence and make effort to learn English. the percentage of this theme is 1.9 and the

valid percent is 2.1.

7. Ineffective Training: It means that teachers are not properly trained in English language

which implies that they lack adequate proficiency in English language. This problem

according to researcher is the biggest hurdle in the way of this policy. Teachers well

qualified with a necessary proficiency in English language. A system needs to be

introduced by the government to ensure the success of this policy if they sincerely mean

it. To know how far the teachers favour a system suggested by the researcher to promote

proficiency in English and what future they see of such a system. Those who think lack

of good training as a cause for lack of motivation to use English as medium of instruction

are 4.2%, the valid percent of which is 4.6.

8. Lack of Confidence: It covers fear or anxiety the respondents face while using English

as medium of instruction. It simply stands for the tendency to shy away from using

English as medium of instruction out of mere lack of courage to do so. The percentage of

this theme is 0.4 and valid percent is also 0.4 as there is no possibility of any missing

value because the theme has come only once in the discourse.

9. Facilities and Incentives: the answers included in this category suggested providing

facilities to the teachers in the form of audio-visual aids and incentives in the form of

better salaries etc. the percentage of this theme is 1.5 while the valid percent is 1.7.

10. Urdu over English: The responses which prefer Urdu (national language of Pakistan) as

medium of instruction over English have been included in this category. Its percentage is

1.1 while its valid percent stands at 1.2.

11. Optional: It implies that English as medium of instruction should be up to the choice of

the students. Those who would like to have English as medium should be allowed to have

it while those who prefer not to go for it should have the choice to have their way. The

percentage of this theme is 0.8 and valid percent is also 0.8.

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12. Revision of Syllabus: Answers in this category express the need for the syllabus to be

revised. Teachers feel that syllabus is not suitable for having English above students’

level and the contents being unfruitful. Percentage of this category is 0.4 as well as its

valid percent.

13. Proficiency Courses: Teachers have suggested that effective language proficiency

courses should be arranged for the teachers to help them to be motivated in using English

as medium of instruction. The percentage here again is 0.4 and also the valid percent.

14. Global Aspect: Teachers believe that status of English as an international language

makes it important for them to learn it. It can be a possible cause of motivation for

learning English. Its percentage is 0.4 as well as its valid percent.

Discussion

The question focuses on eliciting two things; 1) the perceived motivation level

reported by the respondents as teachers about themselves and their colleagues as the first

hand observers and the participants of the situation and 2) the possible causes according

to the respondents for this motivation. Some categories enlisted in the table are definitely

irrelevant as answers to the given question but still they are significant in providing

useful information in the same way as some did in the first open-ended question. All the

categories whether relevant or irrelevant provide important information which could

surely help in understanding different dimensions of English as medium of instruction

with relation to teachers and teaching.

The highest percentage of first category in the table i.e. Instrumentality highlights

two things; the first that a clearly greater number of respondents feel that the teachers are

motivated to use English as medium of instruction and the second that the most important

cause of motivation among teachers according to the respondents is the instrumental

value of English for them in ensuring better opportunities for them in terms of financial

benefits, academic and social prestige, as well as in career and social mobility. The

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results achieved here support the findings from the close-ended items. The construct of

instrumentality was found to have the highest value among the constructs selected from

socio-educational model. It is one of those constructs in this study which have emerged

as high-value constructs. This result supports Dornyei’s (2004) view that in the contexts

where English is foreign language Instrumental reasons happen to be more important than

the integrative motives in causing language motivation.

There are five themes under this question which have their frequency in double

figure and only four with their percentage in double figure. The second most frequent

theme is expression of a bleak situation which states that teachers can never be

motivated. It has very serious implications for the success of EMI policy at the current

time as well as in future. A very important theme constructed in open-ended item no 4

relates to the issue here where the respondents have clearly asked necessary steps to be

taken before imposition of EMI. Thus it is very important to make required preparation -

the most important being the language training of the teachers - so far as the future

prospects of EMI are concerned lest this policy should fizzle out. The category labeled as

‘No Idea’ has very significant statistical value. The lack of knowledge on the part of

respondents regarding the level and causes of motivation shows lack of seriousness,

commitment and dedication on the part of teachers because they take it all very lightly.

The possible cause for this indifference is a perceived lack of seriousness on the part of

government in taking necessary steps to prepare grounds and to implement it. In simple

words it can be said that government has not lived, in this regard, up to the expectations

of the teachers.

Lack of adequate qualification is found to be a very important factor of

motivation towards EMI. It has been traced as a theme in three out of four open-ended

items. It is the most frequent theme in open-ended item no 3 with a frequency that is

highest among all the categories in all the four open-ended items. Thus qualification

emerges as the most important factor in this study. Training which definitely means

language training of the teachers has also been emphasized a lot by the respondents.

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Monetary benefits, academic and general facilities have also been reported as important

motivational factors. Bilingual orientation has also been of relevance over here.

Q3. If you feel that teachers lack motivation to use English as medium of

instruction please enlist the reasons for their lack of motivation.

Table 191



Percent

Valid

Inadequate

qualification

125 48.6 54.1 54.1

No idea 18 7.0 7.8 61.9

Anxiety related factors 10 3.9 4.3 66.2

Conservatism 7 2.7 3.0 69.3

Lack of interest 8 3.1 3.5 72.7

Students' issues 34 13.2 14.7 87.4

Ineffective training 10 3.9 4.3 91.8

Lack of interest 7 2.7 3.0 94.8

Rejected as FL 4 1.6 1.7 96.5

Low salary 3 1.2 1.3 97.8


Ideological 1 .4 .4 100.0

Total 231 89.9 100.0


Total 257 100.0

Thematic Categories

1. Inadequate Qualification: lack of motivation among teachers has been attributed to low

and poor qualification by a dominant majority of the respondents. This category has the

highest frequency not only among all the themes developed in case of this question but

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among all developed in case of all the four open-ended questions. Thus issue of

qualification remains to be the most important issue regarding motivation of the teachers

in using English as medium of instruction. It has also been found in demographics of

close-ended questions where qualification has emerged to be the most important indicator

out of gender, age and qualification. Its percentage is 47.9 and valid percent is 54.1.

2. No Idea: This category includes answers showing ignorance of the respondents regarding

the lack of motivation among the teachers to use English as medium of instruction. This

is the third most frequent theme under this question. Its percentage is 6.9 and the valid

percent is 7.8

3. Anxiety Related Factors: The answers in this category show that teachers do not feel

affectively at ease while using English which makes them shy away from doing so. The

percentage of this theme 3.8 and valid percent 4.3

4. Conservatism: It involves answers expressing non-progressive approach of old teachers

who prefer to continue traditional method in teaching and resist anything new especially

English as medium of instruction. This attitude of theirs is attributed to lack of

proficiency in English of old teachers for which different excuses are made. The

percentage of this theme is 3.8 and valid percent 4.3.

5. Lack of Interest: The answers which attributed lack of motivation of teachers to mere

lack of interest on their part have been included in this category. It implies disregard of

teachers to enhance their professional skills or knowledge. Its percentage is 5.8 and valid

percent 6.5.

6. Students’ Issues: This category involves problems related to the students. The most

important among these is inability of the students to understand what is taught to them

through English medium. It is the second most frequent theme. Its percentage is 13.0 and

valid percent 14.7.

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7. Ineffective Training: it involves answers which identified lack of proper training as a

cause of lack of motivation among teachers to use English as medium of instruction. It is

the fourth most frequent theme. Its percentage is 3.8 and valid percent 4.3.

8. Rejected as FL: This category involves answers which consider foreignness of English

as a factor that has a negative effect on teachers’ motivation in accepting and using

English as medium of instruction. They think that one cannot be good enough to use a

foreign language as easily and as effectively to teach as s/he can use her/his own

language. The other important reason according to them is ideological. They think

foreign language can damage national identity. Its percentage is 1.5 and valid percent 1.7.

9. Low Salary: Obviously answers in this category attribute lack of motivation to low pay

packages. The percentage of this theme is 1.1 and valid percent 1.3.

10. Urdu over English: This category specifies bilingual reasons for lack of motivation. The

respondents prefer Urdu as MOI (medium of instruction) over English. The percentage of

this theme is 1.5 and valid percent 1.7.

11. Ideological: this category includes ideological basis of lack of motivation among

teachers to use English as MOI. They view English as a threat to Islamic ideology of their

country. The percentage of this category is 0.4 and valid percent 0.4.

Discussion:

In contrast to question No 2 this question aims to elicit the extent to which

teachers lack motivation and the reasons for it. Certain interesting facts can be identified

here. The first and the most significant in this connection is the absence of any irrelevant

thematic category. All the categories here relate to the point in question i.e. the extent of

lack of motivation and reasons for lack of motivation. The second most important is the

low percentage of ‘No Idea’ - expression of ignorance about the point in question by the

respondents - in contrast to its high percentage in case of question No 2. The frequency of

this category i.e. ‘No Idea’ is very low in contrast to its frequency in case of question No

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2. This tendency of teachers to be more expressive in telling about the reasons of lack of

motivation proves them to be clearer about being not motivated than about being

motivated.

It signifies an overall lack of motivation of the teachers towards EMI at present.

There must be stronger and relatively more evident reasons for lack of motivation than

for the opposite. This tendency is not in contrast to the attempt of the respondents to hide

their real feeling out of the fear of getting exposed as found in close-ended items. It is

because they are actually telling about the problems or pitfalls faced by EMI and not the

lack of motivation. This is the third interesting fact that the category making

straightforward expression of lack of motivation is absent here. One plausible reason for

it can be a high frequency of the expression of ‘Impossibility of Motivation’ in question

No 2 which might be considered as an alternative without repeating it.

It is very important to note that lack of adequate qualification has emerged to be

the most important reason for lack of motivation and inability of the teachers to use

English as medium of instruction. The respondents do not simply mean level of education

by qualification but basically knowledge and competence of English which according to

them is in direct relation to qualification. The percentage value of this category is the

highest among all the categories of all the four questions. Moreover, it is present in

question No 2 and 4 as well. Thus qualification has proved to be one of the most

important and crucial factors in this study. Language education and training is very

important for success of this policy in the light of such results. Motivation and use of

English according to the respondents is to great extent dependent on good education and

training in language of the teachers.

The percentage of only five categories is in double figure. After the category

having theme of lack of inadequate qualification the second highest percentage is that of

the issues related to students which cause lack of motivation among teachers. The major

problem of the students is that of not having good enough background in English to be

able to understand lectures in English. This is one of the themes which were culled from

the answers to open-ended questions. It is attributed to the poor primary education of the

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students which failed to develop their proficiency in English to the minimum necessary

level. Among other important factors is anxiety which has been reported as high in close-

ended items as well. Anxiety has emerged as an important factor affecting motivation

negatively in this study. Language training of the teachers has also emerged as an

important factor under this item also as in other items. Qualification and language

training have been kept as two categories depending on the different words used by the

respondents but it can be assumed quite justifiably that different respondents used

different words to imply the same thing. They expected better or more qualified to have

better proficiency in English while almost same thing was meant by those who demanded

language training of the teachers.

It is very significant to find that there has come only one answer that has raised

the question of the damage that English could do to Islamic ideology of Pakistani society.

It has come in complete contrast with the general perception. Pakistanis have probably

gone beyond this phase of ideological debates. Motivational variation on the basis of age,

though, has not attained much significance in close-ended items but reported to be

significant in open-ended items. This gap is obviously due to the fact that data is self-

reported in close-ended questions which naturally foster a tendency to hide something

one perceives to go against him whereas in open-ended one can report something with the

hope to be considered as reporting about others.

It is important to note that the teachers above 50 years of age are not ready to

accept English as medium of instruction. Some respondents have given preference to

Urdu as medium over English which is also an important theme for its being common

among different open-ended items. The point to be noted here is that preference of Urdu

over English does not imply an overall anti-English attitude. It means that English can be

studied as language but should not be introduced as medium of instruction against Urdu.

There is also a feeling among the respondents that a foreign language cannot be fruitful

as medium of instruction. Low incentives and pay packages also stand in the way of EMI

according to some respondents.

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Q4. Do you think this policy (of English as medium of instruction) will help our

teachers at present or in future to be able and willing to lecture in English? Why

or why not?

Table 192



Percent

Valid

Bright prospects 56 21.8 23.4 23.4

No idea 19 7.4 7.9 31.4

Not present but future 35 13.6 14.6 46.0

Fruitless 36 14.0 15.1 61.1

Necessary steps

required

57 22.2 23.8 84.9

Counterproductive 8 3.1 3.3 88.3

Inadequate qualification 2 .8 .8 89.1

Rgidity of old teachers 4 1.6 1.7 90.8

Global aspect 2 .8 .8 91.6

Contextual issues 3 1.2 1.3 92.9

Ambivalent role 1 .4 .4 93.3

Students' issues 2 .8 .8 94.1

Ineffective training 2 .8 .8 95.0


Suggestions 8 3.1 3.3 100.0

Total 239 93.0 100.0


Total 257 100.0

Thematic Categories:

1. Bright prospects: The views which envision bright prospects of policy of English as

medium of instruction have been included in this category. It is the second most frequent

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theme in the responses to this question. The percentage of this category is 21.5 and valid

percent 23.4.

2. No Idea: It includes expression of ignorance or indifference on the part of the

respondents. This category is not a theme as such but is still an important category.7.3

and 7.9 in view of the frequency of its occurrence. It is the last (fifth) among five most

frequent categories developed from the responses to this question.

3. Not present but future: Views in this category see this policy successful and productive

in future but not at present. This view of the respondents is corresponsive to the

difference found between the results in close-ended questions with regard to motivational

factors related to English language in general and to its status as medium of instruction. It

is fourth among the five most frequent categories developed in response to this question.

Its percentage is 13.4 and valid percent is 14.6.

4. Fruitless: The views which find this policy to be completely fruitless in terms of

improving teachers’ skills and their proficiency in English. It also implies no benefits for

the students in the long run and no change towards better English language competence

in the existing educational system. It is the third most frequent theme here. Its percentage

is 13.8 and valid percent15.1.

5. Necessary steps required: This category views certain preparations as a prerequisite

before introduction of English as MOI. These necessary steps have not been detailed by

the teachers as there was not a separate question on it as it was not a part of this study.

However, they can be inferred from the answers provided in response to other questions.

The most important among them can be selection of qualified teachers and their training,

provision of facilities incentives to the teachers, focus on English language skills of the

students during primary level and revision of syllabus. It is the most frequent item

induced from the responses to this question. The percentage of this theme is 21.8 and its

valid percent is 23.8.

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6. Counterproductive: This category shows completely anti-EMI views. It includes views

which consider introduction of English as MOI damaging in its effect for the output of

our educational system. The percentage value of this theme is 3.1 while its valid percent

is 3.3.

7. Inadequate Qualification: It means that teachers are not qualified enough to use English

as medium of instruction. It is said that almost all the teachers got their education from

Urdu medium schools which is why they are unable to teach through English as MOI. It

has its percentage value as 0.8 and valid percent also as 0.8.

8. Rigidity of Old Teachers: it is same as conservatism of old teachers. It has come as a

strong opinion against the teachers advanced in age above 45 or 50 that they are a hurdle

in the way of English as medium of instruction. The percentage of this theme stands to be

1.5 while its valid percent is 1.7.

9. Global aspect: it includes views of the teachers that English is inevitable in future for

progress due to its global role as a language and also as a language of science and

technology across the world. The percentage of this theme is 0.8 and its valid percent is

0.8.

10. Contextual Issues: this category entails the problems related to the environment where

English has to be used as medium of instruction. This theme is similar to the one

identified in the answers to question number 1 in open-ended questions. The percentage

value of this theme is 1.1 while its valid percent is 1.3.

11. Ambivalent Role: It includes views of the teachers that English as medium of instruction

can have double role i.e. it can prove both to be a bane as well as a boon. The percentage

of this theme is 0.4 and its valid percent is 0.4.

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12. Students’ Issues: It is similar to the themes identified in question no 1 as ‘Students’

problems’ and in question no 3 as ‘Students’ issues’. It has emerged as an important issue

in this study. it has its percentage value as 0.8 while its valid percent is 0.8.

13. Ineffective Training: It has been identified in answers to question no 2 as well as

question no 3. Similar to student related issues lack of proper training has also emerged

as an important factor in this research. It is in response to the training arranged by the

government for these teachers which shows their dissatisfaction with this training. The

percentage of this theme is 0.8 and its valid percent is 0.8.

14. Urdu over English: Answers related to this factor have come in response to all the open-

ended questions. It has been discussed by Gardner (2010) as ‘bilingual orientation’.

Bilingual orientation has emerged as an important factor in motivation to use English as

MOI. The issue of medium as part of educational policy implemented by state is

generally expected to involve bilingual issues which have been noticed in case of this

study. Percentage of this theme is 1.5 while its valid percent is 1.7.

15. Suggestions: this category consists of the suggestions given by the teachers in the

context of EMI policy by government. They have their importance in the sense that they

can be used as guidelines by the policy makers to bring about improvement. The

percentage of suggestions as a category is 3.1 while valid percent for it is 3.3. Following

is the list of suggestions made by the respondents;

1. Better to arrange English speaking course for the teachers during summer

vacation.

2. EMI should be optional in urban areas. In rural areas it is very difficult to

introduce.

3. First Urdu medium be applied then English medium.

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4. Students spend most of their time out of the school. Their time at schools should

be increased. Training for teachers should be arranged during summer vacation.

5. I support as well as resist. Western culture shouldn’t be promoted at the cost of

Islamic identity.

6. Up to middle there should be only Urdu as MOI.

7. Only subject.

Discussion

This question is related to the future prospects of EMI policy. The aim was to

know the level of optimism existing among the teachers which would indirectly indicate

their commitment as well as predict the extent to which it could meet success. It can be

found that five categories have their frequency in double figure and only four have their

percentage in double figure. The most frequent theme is an expression of the need to take

necessary steps before implementation of this policy without which this policy cannot be

successful. Necessary steps actually mean the preparations which are required to be made

in terms of teacher training, revision of syllabus, incentives for the teachers in the form of

better remuneration etc.

This theme here cross-validates low level of motivation reported in the close-

ended items particularly towards English as medium of instruction. The category which

contains the idea that the policy of English as medium of instruction cannot be expected

to do the desired at present but it has bright future has got very significant statistical and

thematic value. Here also by the expression of dissatisfaction with the progress at present

while at the same time being hopeful about the future is similar to the category that asks

for necessary steps to be taken before implementing it. Thus a lot of focus can be found

to have been on preparation of grounds where English has to be implemented as medium

of instruction. The most important preparation that needs to be made is language training

of the teachers which has been enunciated by the respondents under different labels. It

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has been put forth as qualification, teacher training, lack of confidence, lack of interest

demanding almost the same that teachers need to be linguistically prepared for EMI first.

The second most frequent is the theme that the policy of EMI has bright prospects

and is expected to be fruitful for teachers in terms of their preparation to be able and

motivated to use English as medium of instruction. It is in consonance with the gap found

in motivation level of teachers towards English as medium of instruction and English as a

language in general through close-ended items. It is also important to note that there is a

reasonable frequency of the idea that the policy of EMI has no utility in terms preparing

ground for English as MOI. There are people who think EMI to be counterproductive for

its supposed beneficiaries. Inadequate qualification and rigidity of old teachers are two

other very important points which have been found important in close-ended and in other

open-ended items.

Qualification is one of the most important factors found important in language

motivation. Problems related to students have emerged as important category here also

like in other open-ended items. There are people who have not given an equivocal

opinion about the matter and feel that the policy has equal chances to be successful as

well as to fail. It is found in the category which shows that according to the respondents

English has ambivalent role. The theme of teachers’ training can be thrown in with

qualification as both focus almost the same thing. Preferring Urdu over English as

medium can also be found here.

There are irrelevant items also which do not directly relate to the point in the

question. Overall it can be found that majority of the teachers are of the opinion that the

existing situation is not ready for implementing English as medium of instruction.

However, optimism can be traced in the matter that this policy can have promise for

future provided that necessary arrangements are made. The suggestions made in response

to this question are a significant source to make recommendations on the basis of it.

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4.5. Analysis of Interviews

Structured interviews of 25 participants were conducted. The answers by the

participants in this regard and their interpretation have been given in the following. It is

important to mention that the answers by the participants were replete with linguistic

errors due to their low competency in English. No major changes were made in what was

said by them during the process of transcription except where it would render the text

nonsensical. It was done in order to keep it authentic to the maximum.

1. How do you see the policy of imposing English as medium of instruction in schools

by the government of Punjab?

Ans1. This policy is beforehand. First of all, government must upgrade the standard of

teaching staff not only by training but also by recruiting capable men, then, it could prove

effective. .

Ans2. I think this is a barrier in the way of getting education. Our first priority to seek

and get knowledge should be in our mother, our natural language. It is more effective

than that of in English.

Ans3. The policy of imposing English as medium of instruction in schools by the Punjab

Government is not effective and fruitful at present because students do not pay heed to it

as their mother language is Urdu. They are unable to understand the subject matter of

topic easily.

Ans4. In present circumstances, it is not possible to get good results of English medium.

Ans5. This is a good step of the government to be English medium instruction.

Ans6. Imposing English as medium of instruction in schools by the Punjab Govt. is

not good. It is against our national language “Urdu” as well as our culture.

Ans7. EMI Policy is the best but for it would be the competent and high qualified

teachers. Simple Matric pass teachers cannot implement and qualify such policy.

Ans8. The policy of imposing English as medium is the best step of the Government.

Ans9. According to this, the requirement of education in this country, English medium is

a good effort in our country. This step of government encourages the students to be able

to learn in international language and thus be able to compete at international level.

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Ans11: I do not favour this policy because it is very difficult for the teachers to clear the

ideas and concepts of students in second language.

Ans12: Medium of instruction in English language is direction of Punjab government

according to the universe as English is universal language.

Ans13: Not good, because the English language is not our mother tongue

Ans14: Good policy to teach with international progress and initiative in every field.

Ans15: In my opinion English is the best way to educate the students in school.

Ans16: Government of the Punjab has imposed English as medium of instruction, but it

will fail if do so because there is no staff of teachers in Punjab to fully implement it.

Ans17: This policy is good but it can take some time to be an effective policy because

there are many problems which are hurdles in the implementation of this policy.

Ans18: The imposing of English as a medium of instruction is a right step taken by

government of Punjab because English is a need of modern world.

Ans19: It is a good policy imposing English as medium of instruction in schools by the

Government of Punjab.

Ans20: The policy of imposing English as medium of instruction in the schools by the

Punjab Government plays positive role for the bright future of new generation.

Ans21: It is fine if it is done properly as the staff should be equipped with good English

teaching skills.

Ans22: It is the ugliest policy whole the world educates their nation in mother tongue.

Ans23: The policy of imposing English as medium of instruction in schools by the

Government is very useful policy students will be produced with good fluency and

accuracy.

Ans24: It may be gradually with short syllabus and competent teachers.

Ans25: If we see this policy as increasing progress of science and technology, it is need

of present time. But on the other hand when we compare it with international level, we

find it extra burden on our rural society.

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Discussion

It can be found that there are mixed responses to the questions aimed to elicit

feelings of the respondents. There are widely different ideas and in certain cases

conflicting. It is bit difficult to find a clearly dominant trend. However, the positive

feeling towards English as medium of instruction along with the realization that the time

is not suitable for it - mainly because of low qualification of the teachers and inability of

the students to understand lectures in English - is relatively more frequent. Hence, it can

be interpreted that the participants believe English medium education to be important and

useful in the long run but its imposition at present will be unfruitful.

2. What would you say about the reaction of teachers towards this policy?

Ans1. The members of English loving staff in Punjab are not very high in all over

Punjab. Most of them are unable to speak or write. Some of them are not able to read

enough with correct pronunciation. That is why what we can expect from them.

Ans2. Majority of the teachers don’t like this policy. The main reason is that the students

don’t give output. They behave like deaf children.

Ans3. Most of teacher’s reaction towards this policy is irresponsive. They have

responded towards this policy negatively.

Ans4. Some teachers are in favour but most are against it.

Ans5. Newly appointed teachers don’t feel hesitation in adopting the policy but teachers

of old age don’t like this.

Ans6. Students do not pick up the peaks of knowledge through this policy. This policy is

decreasing their knowledge.

Ans7. Teachers agree to face every challenge for their duties but environment is not

suitable. Students listen to every word but they do not convey their feeling due to

environment because Urdu and English mix up in their minds.

Ans8. Teachers take it positively.

Ans9. It depends on the teachers only. Qualified teachers encourage it and some old

teachers are not showing good behavior regarding this policy.

Ans11: They do not favour this policy. They say that the student who speaks Punjabi at

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home and Urdu at school how he can understand English easily. Our environment does

not support English language as medium of instruction.

Ans12: As students feel problem, teachers also feel problem about this policy of medium.

Ans13: The reaction of teachers towards this policy is poor because most of old teachers

are only matric pass.

Ans14: The reaction of teachers towards this policy is satisfactory and requires many

steps to be taken.

Ans15: Teachers feel it easy to transfer the knowledge.

Ans16: Due to lack of English knowledge most of the teachers are applying Urdu as

medium of instruction.

Ans16: Teachers are not at ease regarding this policy. They have to do extra labor to

teach the students in Urdu as well as in English.

Ans17: The reaction of teachers is not well. Because in teaching sector the teachers are

old minded and they feel burden. They feel burden by teaching English and enjoy

teaching other subjects.

Ans18: Majority of teachers are in favor of this policy and they want that this policy

should continue with facilities.

Ans19: Some teachers against this policy because they are not able to teach English

properly.

Ans20: The teachers with low qualification feel difficulty. So their response is negative

the teachers having masters in their subjects find it enjoyable.

Ans21: All the teachers are worried because due to this policy teachers’ result is falling.

Ans22: Teachers explain has information with activity student and teacher are busy

teacher use pictures cards etc in text to increase understanding. He will feel active.

Ans23: Teachers are ready but mostly students can’t understand and teachers are worried

about it.

Ans24: Teachers are teaching two languages Urdu and English at a time. In spite of this

reality that they are well educated, they cannot convey their knowledge to students

properly in English language.

Ans25: Some teachers have interest towards this policy but some teachers don’t have

interest because they don’t want to teach English in school.

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Discussion

Again mixed responses can be found here. However, a dominant trend can be

identified in this case. The reaction of teachers towards the policy of imposing English as

medium of instruction is considered by majority of the interviewees as negative. The

question here is more focused in terms of the interest to know what teachers feel to be the

ground realities about it after the policy is imposed. It means that the question is not

about evaluation of EMI in general but the response towards its practice. This is why a

negative response has been reported here. The trend marked here is quite in consonance

with the findings from the questionnaire used in this study. Overall, it has been found that

the interviews with the heads (in-charges/principals) of the schools have produced similar

themes as have been obtained from both the close as well as open ended items of the

questionnaire. In this connection qualification of the teachers is one of the most important

factors. It has been a universal theme in this study that the old teachers, who are

representatives of obsolete methods and generally are at a loss in oral proficiency of

English, show an antagonistic attitude towards this policy. Thus newly recruited teachers

who are believed, at the same time, to be better qualified and having a modern

progressive attitude are found to be pro-EMI.

However, the opinion that this policy is inopportune is found unanimous in this

study. Almost all the teachers and principals agree on this single point that adequate

training in language proficiency for the teachers is required. One important point that was

noted in case of open-ended item 1, theme 12 is very important in this context. According

to this point special attention is required for primary education which can play a key role

in developing some rudimentary understanding of English among the students to improve

the intake at secondary school level where they are expected to grapple with relatively

advanced subject-matter and language.

Another important point that has come in response to this question states that the

teachers worry about their results. Introduction of EMI has created problems for the

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students as they find very difficult to digest anything imparted in English to them. This

point further enhances the importance of proper primary education rich with the stuff to

develop skills and knowledge in English language. However, this point is not to be taken

on its face value as the problem can possibly be teacher-created where a non-proficient

teacher makes lame excuses as a bad workman quarrels with his own tools. One thing

remains important whatever the case be that a proper language training of the teachers is

inevitable. The point raised by the respondents, that many steps should have been taken

before promulgation of the policy is found to be in line with the running argument.

3. How far are the teachers motivated to lecture in English?

Ans1. The teachers are not excitedly attracted towards English. However they can be

fascinated towards English by providing proper training and English speaking

atmosphere.

Ans2. To some extent, especially in English period. They use English vocabulary.

Lecture method is discouraged.

Ans3. The teachers are not motivated to deliver lectures in English as most of the

teachers are not skilled in speaking English.

Ans4. A few teachers are ready but the results are not satisfactory.

Ans5. New teachers are motivated and feel comfortable in having this type of instruction.

Ans6. English language is against the values of Muslims as well as Pakistani teachers. So

it is very difficult to motivate them to give lectures in English.

Ans7. Teachers are ready to deliver their lectures in English but some obstacles are in the

way.

1. Specimen lectures should be provided to the teacher.

2. Such as students and teachers should also be facilitated by laptops so that teachers

improve their knowledge and gain new strategies of education and be able to deliver their

abilities in front of students as well as fellows and other people.

Ans8. Half of the teachers are motivated and the others hesitate due to continuous

training programmes by government they will also be motivated.

Ans9. No

Ans11: The teachers are not motivated properly to lecture in English. Lecture in English

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has been imposed on them. First they should be trained for this measure. There is no

proper training for them.

Ans12: Teachers are motivated by the government of Punjab to use English as medium

of education in Punjab. Most of teachers don’t use English medium.

Ans13: They are motivated to lecture in English 50% because the listeners do not

understand foreign language English.

Ans14: The teachers are fully motivated for teaching English especially the highly

qualified or graduate staff than those who are OT, Junior or matriculate teachers.

Ans15: By telling them the benefits of English language.

Ans16: Teachers should be trained for this purpose.

Ans17: Teachers are not motivated rather they want to teach in Urdu.

Ans18: Teachers can be motivated as English lecturers by providing training classes, new

syllabuses and by giving chance to discuss with foreign agents.

Ans19: Majority of teachers are in favor of this policy and they want that this policy

should continue with facilities.

Ans20: Majority of the teachers are against this policy because they can teach the student

in Urdu easily. That is why they are against this policy.

Ans21: Mostly teachers are not motivated.

Ans22: If a teacher is qualified and has good command in English he will easily be

motivated. If the teachers are not selected on merit they will never be motivated.

Ans23: Teachers will be motivated to lecture in English with activities. All the students

and teachers will find information. All the students will be motivated and will enjoy

teaching.

Ans24: It is not a problem of the teachers. It is problem of the people of a nation who

want to explain their concept and contribution in Urdu their mother tongue.

Ans25: When a teacher lectures in English to Urdu speaking students, it is equal to

showing light to a blind man. Because students cannot get required knowledge. As a

result the reaction of students is not positive which disappoints teachers. So, teachers feel

themselves in serious tension.

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Discussion

It can be found that there is a variety of ideas related to the issue of the extent to

which teachers are found to be motivated in using English as medium of instruction.

However, it is clear that a dominant majority of the teachers according to the participants

(principals/heads) are found not to be motivated. But in the same connection, it is

significant to note that they believe them to be motivated after sufficient training. Same

idea has been noted in the data through open-ended items and can be related with the

trend proving difference on the basis of qualification to be significant in a large number

of close-ended items. Thus the prospective motivation of the teachers linked with the

training and better qualification of the teachers is in consonance with the theme that

necessitates some preparatory steps to precede the implementation of EMI in open-ended

item 4.

Many important reasons for lack of motivation among teachers in this regard can

be found in the answers. The most important among these is lack of proper training and

inadequate/low qualification. The second most important is the problem of students who

do not respond at all to English which makes the whole exercise futile and consequently

worrisome for the teachers. The concerns of the teachers are valid about the students but

at the same time they cannot be exonerated from their responsibilities. Their inability to

communicate properly for not being proficient enough in the target language (English)

might render them incomprehensible for the students. So they need to improve their own

skills by taking serious interest. This is what has been pointed out by the participants here

that focus of training should be on spoken proficiency.

One more important point, noted here, substantiates the old and young teachers’

difference with regard to their affective response to English as medium of instruction.

The participants have been unequivocal about lack of motivation and skills among the

aged or old teachers. These people are staunch supporters of maintenance of status quo

which helps them to survive in the teaching profession. Same has been found in the data

gathered through open-ended questions. Its implications are of much importance for the

strategic plan designed by the government. They have somehow or the other to be dealt

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with in such a way as not to be a hurdle in the way of this policy otherwise they can be a

serious threat to its success. The teachers demand specimen lectures which should be

ready to deliver in soft-copies/videos which they would be able to use in the class. It is

dangerous if they are intended to be crammed and then delivered as it is in the classes.

They would be least understandable for the students; hence, no learning process will take

place. Proper way out can be nothing other than developing proper Oracy skills in

English of the teachers and for this purpose intensive, effective and elaborate training

programs can be introduced by the government.

It is very significant to note that ideological concerns have not emerged as

important. It has been mentioned only once in open-ended items and then here also. So, it

can be concluded that the negative perception of English; that is commonly expected in

Pakistan especially in rural areas where people are relatively more conservative and more

strongly attached to their religion and social values is almost extinct.

4. Do you think that the training for the teachers can be useful for them?

Ans1. Training can be useful and effective only for those teachers who have strong basis

and have a little bit interest in English.

Ans2. Yes

Ans3. It is absolutely right that for the teachers it can be useful but the problem is

proficiency and training is needed. But all the teachers are not capable of learning

English through training.

Ans4. Only training is not useful.

Ans5. Yes of course, training for the teachers will be beneficial for them.

Ans6. Training is useful for those people who can understand. But our teachers do not

understand English so training in English is useless.

Ans7. No, because the environment is obstacle in it. Teachers get training from the

institute where they will deliver. The environment of students should be changed, then

the training staff will be effective.

Ans8. Yes

Ans9. Yes

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Ans11: It is very important to arrange training for the teachers. It is necessary. It will be

very useful and helpful for the teachers.

Ans12: Training of teachers is very useful for them as most of our teachers are physically

untrained even after getting the degrees of B. Ed, M. Ed etc.

Ans13: The training for the teachers is useful somehow most teachers do training for

TADA.

Ans14: Yes, absolutely it will be most effective.

Ans15: I think the training of the teacher can be useful.

Ans16: Yes.

Ans17: Yes, training can be useful for them

Ans18: Yes, the training for the teachers has good impact on them. They will gain

confidence and teach English enjoyably.

Ans19: Basic thing to motivate teachers is to make them aware of the importance of

English.

Ans20: The training of the teachers will play positive role in their future life. After

training they are able to teach the students in a better way.

Ans21: Certainly. It should be according to the modern trends of teaching.

Ans22: Majority of teachers are M.A. M. ed. Training is useful for them. But students are

so poor that they cannot follow the teachers properly.

Ans23: Teacher training course can be very useful for them.

Ans24: Yes.

Ans25: I admit this that teacher training is useful and need of the time. Because it

polishes the knowledge of teachers. But at this point we cannot deny this reality that

training and practical works have differences.

Discussion

The responses elicited through this question have greatest uniformity. A clearly

dominant trend here is its distinguishing point. The question aimed to elicit evaluation of

the utility of training provided to the teachers. Data shows clearly that training is

considered very useful and if not the only way out then at least the most important way

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out despite the fact that the training provided for the time being is held in serious doubt

by almost all the teachers and principals alike. However, certain limitations to the

suitability and use of training have to be understood according to the participants. They

say that the training cannot be useful for all the teachers. They suggest sort of

specialization in this regard. According to this view those teachers who teach such

subjects which have nothing to do with English e.g. Urdu or any other of the type need

not be trained in English as it will be a sheer waste of time for them.

There is an important observation that only training cannot serve the purpose

well. There are other measures and steps required to achieve the objectives of training.

They possibly are the facilities which could make pedagogical process effective. Again

there are demands which are made to the government that multimedia, AV aids and other

material incentives/benefits should also be provided. Making of proficiency certificates

necessary for the teachers can also be taken as an effective measure towards this end on

the basis of results found in its favour in open-ended item.

5. How far do you think that the teachers feel threatened by English as medium of

instruction?

Ans1. More than 85% teachers are totally threatened or afraid of English as medium of

instruction.

Ans2. Teachers feel threatened by English as a medium of instruction.

Ans3. A large number of teachers feel threatened by English as medium of instruction as

they have been educated in Urdu medium. They have been teaching the students in Urdu

for many years.

Ans4. The bad result is a great threat to teachers and students cannot produce good

results through English medium.

Ans5. Teachers of old age really feel threatened by adopting this medium of instruction.

Ans6. It is true that English medium is a serious threat for our teachers because students

do not learn and teachers are penalized.

Ans7. Some teachers feel threatened whose qualification is low. Most of the staff is

highly qualified. They do not have any threat from English as medium of instruction.

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Most of the teachers use this method in the lectures in class rooms.

Ans8. I do not think that all the teachers feel threatened by English as medium of

instruction.

Ans9. Not at all

Ans11: The teachers feel threatened by English as medium of instruction as they have no

proper training for this. They have no practice of speaking English.

Ans12: Most of the teachers are threatened by English as medium of teaching or

instruction because majority of them don’t know enough English.

Ans13: Yes they think English medium threatening and mother language is necessary to

understand easily.

Ans14: Almost 57% teachers feel threatened by English as medium.

Ans15: No, the teachers do not feel threatened by English as medium of instruction.

Ans16: When they are not trained for such purpose, they will feel so.

Ans17: While teaching in English they do not feel at home. While teaching in English

moreover the results are not as good as are satisfactory while teaching in Urdu.

Ans18: Teachers feel threatened because some of the students in class are very

intelligent. They ask questions from the teachers and they hesitate to give the answers of

the question.

Ans19: Yes, training is very important for teachers.

Ans20: Majority of the teachers consider this policy as a threat for them. English is

school language in Pakistan. According to them school should be Urdu medium.

Ans21: I think there is no such case.

Ans22: Teachers are not threatened by English. Syllabus should be according to the level

of students.

Ans23: Teachers do not use activities they use translation system. Students and teachers

are threatened by English if the teacher use but if they avoid the feeling is good.

Ans24: Yes if the results of 5th, 8th, 9th and 10th is good.

Ans25: Teachers are well educated but the students in front of the teachers are poor,

illiterate and laboring society so teachers feel threatened.

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Discussion

This question is related to the anxiety teachers, presumably, feel while teaching

the classes where they need to use English as medium of instruction. It can be found that

the anxiety level among teachers has been reported to be very high though the reasons are

told to be various. The biggest reason for this is mere lack of confidence, resulting from

low proficiency or no proficiency in spoken English, leading to augmented anxiety level

in its turn. It is important to note that almost all the reported intensifiers of anxiety are

linked to low proficiency level of the teachers. This low proficiency has been discussed

as having multifarious causative factors. Whatever the reasons be, the viable solution

stands to be proficiency enhancement measures through effective language training of the

teachers.

Another important point to be noted here is students-related problems. Their

inability to understand lectures delivered in English has emerged as one of the most

important points in this study. In case of lack of students’ response; the fear of poor

output for which teacher could probably be held responsible causes anxiety among the

teachers. The demand expressed here that the syllabus should be revised so as to be made

easy for the students; can be linked here as one of the suggested solutions to this problem.

It has been suggested by the teachers that primary level education should have proper

language training to prepare students for the next level i.e. secondary level. Qualification

has also been counted as a relevant factor so that low qualification results in higher level

of anxiety. This point has been raised by the teachers in open-ended items and

demonstrated through the results from close-ended-items as well. Concern raised in case

of the old teachers has also been found here. There exists a clear divide between old and

the young teachers regarding anxiety. Old teachers feel relatively far less comfortable

with English as medium of instruction. The young and newly recruited teachers, on the

other hand, have been reported to be more confident due to their better Oracy skills in

English.

Another important point related to the feeling of anxiety and discomfort with EMI

is attributed to teachers’ own experience as students. According to this point their own

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exposure to EMI during their student life does really make a difference so that those who

went for science subjects feel less threatened or almost not threatened by EMI while

those who studied humanities during their student life feel more threatened by it.

Actually, medium of instruction for science subjects used to be English from 11th grade

onward while for humanities it was Urdu. Hence, teachers with the background in science

had exposure to EMI and for this reason they are reported to be more comfortable while

using EMI during their teaching.

There are quite a few opinions that the teachers do not feel threatened at all which

stands in clear contradiction to the results produced on the basis of a dominant majority

of the respondents. In the end, the point that teachers are afraid of some students who

happen to be smart does not have any solid grounds. Moreover, it stands in contradiction

to the findings having sound bases in this study according to which most of the students

do not understand anything taught in English. It nullifies the point that students pose a

threat to the teachers due to their knowledge or smartness which may lead to anxiety

among the teachers. So, it can be concluded that most of the teachers feel threatened by

EMI except those who are relatively more qualified, have studied through English as

medium of instruction or have got better Oacy skills in English. The most important

solution can be the improvement of Oracy skills through proper language training.

6. What strategy can be worked to make and enable our teachers to lecture in English?

Ans1. English is second language and teachers with strong basis in it are interested. A

teacher can be enabled and motivated towards English as medium of instruction.

Ans2. Teacher training and other source of medium English useful for them.

Ans3. I think that there should be;

1) English speaking course for teachers.

2) Teachers recruitment based on English speaking.

3) Proper and continuous training like a year for teacher.

4) Only English speaking intended training must be given.

Ans4. If the social status of the people of Pakistan can be changed. The teachers will be

able to show their abilities even in English.

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Ans5. Teachers must be motivated by different activities so that there should be

impressive learning.

Ans6. Only those who are Masters in English can follow this policy otherwise, the people

having the degrees in any other subject cannot follow this.

Ans7. Most of the teachers are working with the government policy and they use EMI in

classrooms. Government should make available ready-made specimen written lectures.

Laptop is the need of time and need of education particularly for teachers.

Ans8. Two points that; 1) Recruitment on pure merit basis 2) secondly continuous aim

full, meaningful short courses from time to time.

Ans9. By improving the English of the teachers using some sources like training etc

Ans11: They should be given proper training and atmosphere for this purpose.

Ans12: Punjab government showed different strategies of English medium using DSD

and other sources but can’t change the medium.

Ans13: Matric PSTS and inter pass teachers should be trained. English language training

courses are very necessary for them.

Ans14: Refresher courses should be held for teachers’ motivation.

Ans15: The strategies can be 1) training should be necessary 2) to overcome the

hesitation teachers should talk in English to each other 3) English courses should be

necessary.

Ans16: MTs should be trained first of all and then M.Ts can train the teachers to teach in

English.

Ans17: Teachers should be given training and they should be facilitated by full time

trainers to improve their English and teaching methods.

Ans18: We can set up a proper plan for English lecturer teachers. We can provide

training classes provide new edition dictionary of the editors and make them aware of the

need for English language.

Ans19: English is not threat just to take important steps for this is needed.

Ans20: They have to work hard to deliver lecture in English because they are not able to

deliver lectures in English.

Ans21: Our environment and facilities do not favor this trend. Our students are having

mixed ability. We follow G.T.M and in G.T.M it is not possible. In our exams there is

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translation so both the languages are used.

Ans22: English is not a problem for the teachers. The problem is that policy changes

every year.

Ans23: Because they do not know that words in a sentences join to make sense in

relation to each other. In short students understand the lesson if the teacher’s lesson is

clear with activities and AV aids.

Ans24: Again sorry thing because of ill-planning and misunderstanding between the

nation and the rulers.

Ans25: English language courses for teachers should be introduced. It is also role of

media to give information to students. Environment of students at their social level must

be educated.

Discussion

This question aimed to elicit useful and workable plans to goad teachers

successfully into using English as medium of instruction. The responses show clear

trends. Language training of the teachers by far stands to be a clearly dominant point. The

opinions are phrased differently with similar implication. It is in consonance with one of

the most important findings in the study that teachers need to have adequate qualification

along with proper training in English language especially speaking skills. It has been

suggested that at least one year continuous training in spoken English should be offered

to the teachers. It is a very important proposal and can be introduced for in-service

teachers for which a mechanism can be designed.

Another important point in this connection is the proposal to induct linguistically

trained teachers. It can work if a monitoring body by the government is introduced which

ensures proficiency for the teachers through certification which can be considered as a

prerequisite to apply for a teaching post in a special cadre. Training has been emphasized

a lot by almost all the respondents whether they are teachers or principals (in-

charges/heads) of the schools. This is why it can be expected to incur a positive response

from most of the teachers. It is the desire of the teachers that they are provided with

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readymade lectures on all the topics in English. However, this strategy has a very limited

use. It may work only if the purpose is to know the techniques and the methods of

teaching following those as models and then adapting according to the existing

circumstances. But if the purpose, on the other hand, is to cram everything from the

lectures and reproduce that as it is in the class then it is going to be useless because, in

that case, the students won’t be allowed to ask questions or stop and make the teacher

explain things for their understanding. Thus the whole venture will end in smoke.

In order to motivate the teachers it is also suggested by the participants that

monthly tests for the teachers should be introduced. It is to be seen with serious doubt as

instead of motivating it will ingrain antagonistic attitudes. Inconsistency in government

policy is still another problem pointed out by the participants. This has been one of the

unfortunate things that government of Pakistan has ever had wavering decisions in this

regard. They have never been able to make a final decision with regard to medium of

instruction. It is due to the complexity of existing situation and lack of will to make a

well thought out decision after taking all the stakeholders on board. The most painful in

this regard is that education has never been a priority with the policy makers in this

regard. The government of Punjab at least is required to stand by the decision that has

been taken in introducing English as medium of instruction. It needs to be kept in mind

that things will definitely require time to settle properly. It is a big and important decision

which, if has been taken, needs to be stood by otherwise the result will be nothing more

than another story of one more failure.

7. If the government introduces a system of Proficiency Exams for teachers which

everyone has to pass for a certificate on which they should get special perks in their

salary, how far will it help teachers in developing their ability to lecture in English?

Ans1. It can be effective for those teachers who have interest in English but do not have

time to improve English due to economical pressure.

Ans2. Yes it will be very much helpful.

Ans3. Proficiency exams for teachers are very useful for teachers. It will develop their

ability.

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Ans4. It will help the teachers but the system should be changed otherwise “energetic”

teachers will carry the day.

Ans5. If the government launches such a program, teachers should take it with great

interest and it will be motivating.

Ans6. Pakistani teachers wanted more and more salaries according to their duties as well

as their output. They do not want any special increment in their salaries. It can improve

them only 1%.

Ans7. It can be helpful but it is not justice with those teachers who invest his life for the

education in past. Their knowledge will not be so fresh and they will not be able to

refresh their knowledge because of over age and less qualification.

Ans8. It will be very fruitful policy.

Ans9: Of course yes

Ans11: Yes I believe it is good idea.

Ans12: It is not possible for the government to change the medium. Even when the

medium is in Urdu most of our teachers especially in rural areas use Punjabi or local

language as medium practically.

Ans13: Matric and Inter pass teachers should be trained. For them English language

training courses are very necessary.

Ans14: Developing ability depends on the subject the teacher teaches. For example there

are Arabic teachers, Urdu teachers and mother tongue teachers. Mother tongue learning is

also compulsory for nation’s identity and preservation of culture.

Ans15: Yes, I agree that this activity will improve the abilities of the teachers to educate

the students.

Ans16: This policy was applied in 1999 but failed. Teachers unions are very effective in

Punjab, such policy cannot be implemented.

Ans17: This is a kind of irritating thing for teachers so they will oppose it. Moreover, our

system cannot evaluate them correctly. Anyhow, it can help teachers to improve their

teaching abilities.

Ans18: If the government introduces such a system then teachers will work hard for the

subject of English. The teachers are skilled and do not hesitate from teaching this subject.

Ans19: Different types of activities can easily be made which can help teachers in

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English like, seminars, trainings and courses etc.

Ans20: They will be against this policy. According to them English is a second language

not first language. We can make more progress through Urdu than English.

Ans21: It would be wonderful endeavor.

Ans22: Question shows threat for the teachers all the teachers will pass and agree for

exam but this exam should also be necessary for all administration and college and

university teachers.

Ans23: This is good effort it will help teachers in developing their ability to lecture in

English.

Ans24: Salary and special passes are not issued. Issue is that nation wants to speak in

Urdu learn and explain in Urdu in better way.

Ans25: It can be good step for increasing ability of teachers. But on the other hand we

are teaching Urdu speakers. How can we give them better in English in spite of our

brilliant knowledge when the students can learn but they can never reach understand

things in depth?

Discussion

The plan presented to the principals in this question was much appreciated by

them. A demand raised by the teachers in questionnaire data also amounts to the same. It

has emerged as a clarion call for proper training of the teachers. The dominant opinion

here is beyond doubt approval of this proposal. However, there are certain other opinions,

observations and reservations/concerns. Such opinions do not carry weight against the

prevalent trends in favour of it shown by substantive data in this regard.

One of these is that teachers might not be motivated through this plan as their

interest actually lies in getting higher salaries and not such fringe benefits/minor benefits.

So, the teachers according to this view point are expected to show a certain disregard for

this proposal. This opinion should not carry much weight mainly because of two reasons.

First that it is an individual’s opinion in this question. There can be found but few

mentions of salary in the whole study as a major incentive for the teachers in this regard.

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Secondly, the teachers are already interested in training and developing their language

skills without any immediate monetary benefit, so, what if they are offered monetary

benefits plus academic recognition. It is expected to work well and above all a dominant

majority of teachers have demanded a proper language training for themselves so if they

are offered the same it will for sure motivate them and put them in better composure with

regard to EMI.

The opinions against this proposal cannot, however, be overlooked. There is one

response that finds this plan to be unfair for the old teachers. Yet another finds it to be

absolutely not feasible in rural areas and there is still another one that finds this proposal

to be irritating for the teachers. These opinions again do not have enough weight to be

taken seriously because they are the opinions of individuals on one side while on the

other they are against the trends showing appreciation and desire of teachers for such a

mechanism backed up by a substantial support of data gathered in this regard.

8. Do you feel that the teachers are confident enough to lecture in English?

Ans1. Mostly not but some teachers can be moulded into English atmosphere by

providing proper training and English spoken atmosphere.

Ans2. Only some teachers are confident enough to lecture in English.

Ans3. The teachers are not confident enough to deliver lecture in English. A great deal of

teachers feels shy of spreading English. They avoid delivering lecture in English; some

are unable to do that.

Ans4. Yes.

Ans5. Newly recruited lecturers have full competency and confidence.

Ans6. Not at all.

Ans7. Why not, teachers are ready to lecture in English but A.V AIDS are not enough.

Government should give A.V aids to improve lecturing in English. Students can

understand by A.V aids and gain knowledge directly.

Ans8. 50% teachers are well confident.

Ans9: Yes

Ans11: No, they are not confident enough to lecture in English. They hesitate because

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they feel that they do not have competency to speak English.

Ans12: Our teachers are not confident to use English as medium. They are disturbed to

lecture in English.

Ans13: No, teachers are not confident enough to lecture in English because they have

only passing marks or 45% marks in English in their degrees.

Ans14: Almost 45% teachers are confident.

Ans15: I think teachers are confident to lecture in English.

Ans16: I think no

Ans17: I think, some teachers are confident but majority will not be confident to lecture

in English.

Ans18: No, teachers are not confident to deliver lectures in English because they are not

well aware of modern languages. They like talking in their local languages rather than

Urdu.

Ans19: It helps teachers in developing their ability to lecture in English.

Ans20: The majority of the teachers are not confident to lecture in English because

English is not their mother tongue.

Ans21: Our teachers lack speaking skills so they are not so confident but a few teachers

have confidence rather they enjoy it.

Ans22: In cities all students are confident but students of rural areas do not understand.

Ans23: Teachers are not confident enough to lecture in English.

Ans24: Mostly if the environment is provided.

Ans25: Yes, teachers are confident to lecture in English but this is possible only in city

areas where the environment is educated. But in villages to teach student in English is

difficult for teachers so, they feel guilty.

Discussion

The respondents are divided on this question but still a dominant trend can clearly

be seen indicating that the teachers are not confident enough to lecture in English.

Majority of the respondents think that most of the teachers do not feel comfortable while

teaching in English. Naturally, it is attributed by them to their lack of proficiency, low

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qualification and no exposure to English. The cure that is suggested by the respondents is,

interestingly, training in English language. Proper training of the teachers especially in

spoken English is one of the most important themes in this research. Teachers are found

to be sufficiently motivated but lack of proficiency comes in the way so far as

implementation of this policy is concerned.

Training can fill the gap between teachers’ attitudes and motivation towards

English as medium of instruction and their attitude and motivation towards English as a

language of international import in general. Researcher sees this gap more as a

consequence of poor educational and teacher training policy and not something of

teachers themselves or an outcome of the social perception of this language. The findings

in this study prove that an antagonistic attitude and negative perception of English has

minimized even among the most static and conservative segments of the society in under-

developed areas of Pakistan. The requirement is to make a viable policy in this regard.

It is important to note however, that quite a good number of the principals believe

that teachers are fully confident in using English as medium of instruction. There are

others also who believe that the number of teachers who are confident enough to use EMI

and those who are not is almost equal. Whatsoever the case may be, most of the teachers

are not potentially ready to make use of English as medium of instruction despite the fact

that they admit the importance of English for their own career as well as for the students.

Pedagogical environment prevailing in these schools is purely teacher-oriented

and they are in full command. This is why; there are minimum classroom-related or

student-related reasons for the teachers to lose their confidence while teaching through

English as medium of instruction. Also, majority of the teachers in these schools have

uniformity in their pedagogical approach and outlook in this regard so there is minimum

reason to experience fears. However, the fact that most of the teachers are non-proficient

stands to be the most important reason for the teachers to lose their confidence - if they

ever do – and the biggest hurdle for them to use English as medium.

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In conclusion it can be said that internal factors for lack of confidence among

teachers to use EMI are higher than the external ones and the most important cause for

this is low proficiency in English language itself. While reporting about self-confidence

in teaching through English as medium of instruction a misunderstanding cannot be ruled

out any how. A possible tendency among teachers to mistake the focus of the question is

likely. The probability to take this question as an attempt to elicit the feeling of

helplessness on the part of teachers to face the students is very likely. As a result, the

probability of dissimulation in self-reporting about confidence to teach through English

as medium of instruction cannot be dispelled easily.

9. How far will the teachers be willing to lecture in English if given free hand in the

class?

Ans1. The burden can be lessened upon the teachers by providing free hand to the teacher

from completing institutional syllabus.

Ans2. Yes, some intelligent and hardworking teachers like it.

Ans3. The teachers will not deliver lecture in English if they are given free hand

Ans4. Free hand is not enough but response is necessary.

Ans5. They can make it better for their education if they are given free hand.

Ans6. Teachers are willing to lecture in Urdu and in their mother language because

students follow their talk.

Ans7. Certainly, teachers are ready to do so but government should raise their salaries

like Subject Specialists and Professors so that they can give attention to their subjects and

do work only on the studies and skill development.

Ans8. Some 50% of teachers will hesitate but training will remove this hesitation.

Ans9: Some of them will choose English.

Ans11: The teachers will not be willing to lecture in English because on the other hand

students will not be able to understand. They use translation method.

Ans12: No, nothing of our staff members willing to lecture in English.

Ans13: 20% teachers will agree because they have less skill to speak, write in English.

Ans14: Well educated teachers will be willing to lecture in English and matriculation or

F.A will feel threatened in doing so.

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Ans15: Teachers willingly try to give information in English.

Ans16: They will not use English.

Ans17: Class room environment of schools in villages is not as favourable for teachers to

be willing to lecture in English so if he is given free hand he would like to teach in Urdu

as well.

Ans18: If teachers are given free hand in class and no pressure over him by the head of

institute the teachers will not give proper attention to the students. So the teachers are not

well impressed by imposition of English in schools.

Ans19: Majority of the teachers feel confident to lecture in English.

Ans20: They will prefer to deliver lecture in Urdu language than English.

Ans21: Some teachers will enjoy but most of the teachers who have no proficiency will

feel it burden.

Ans22: Teachers should use audio video aids and helping books and also have computer

hints at home.

Ans23: They will probably not be in English if the teacher is given free hand in the class.

Ans24: No they are not willing in my view but up to some extent i.e in Science or Maths

may be.

Ans25: If we give relaxation to our teachers by trusting them, they can give knowledge

and education at high standards in any language and any environment to all the students.

Discussion

The answers show a clear trend against willingness to use English as medium of

instruction. It is in keeping with the low tendency to use English as medium of instruction

accrued from willingness to communicate scale in the questionnaire. A low level of

willingness to use English as medium of instruction in the classes and to use it for

communication in certain other specified situations is reported to be very low. It can be

found from the responses of the participants that most of them do not expect teachers to

use English while teaching in the classroom if they are given full freedom to use medium

of their choice. It is of course true as what else can be expected from the teachers who are

mostly non-proficient in English.

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Naturally, some difference of opinion can be seen here as well. Majority of the

respondents believe that most of the teachers will never use English in the circumstances

specified in the question while some, on the other hand, believe that up to 50% might be

willing to use it. Quite a few believe that some teachers might use but their number is

extremely low. But the opinion that majority of teachers would use English as medium is

obviously not reliable because it stands to be in conflict with undeniable ground realities

which have emerged as very significant findings in this study. It will obviously go against

the findings from willingness to communicate scale in the questionnaire and the

difference found in case of motivation towards English as medium of instruction and

English in general as a language. Thus willingness to actually use English as medium of

instruction or for the sake of communication in a particular situation is found to be very

low. The views of principals align with the low level of willingness reported by the

teachers at large in the questionnaire.

How far teachers believe English to be important for their career?

Ans1. As English is a lingua franca and language of communication and technology this

makes the teachers willing readily to learn English language.

Ans2. Majority of teachers do not have ability to teach the English medium and their

career will also be affected by it.

Ans3. Although teachers consider English very important for their career but they do not

pay heed to English. Therefore, learning of English is least among them.

Ans4. They believe it important but the response of students disappoints them.

Ans5. Teachers believe their English is important for their fame.

Ans6. The teachers who have to stay in Pakistani society do not improve their English. It

is the need of time of those people who want to go to other countries but not teachers.

Ans7. A lot of teachers think that English is important for their career but another tongue

is so necessary for us. It does not mean that we should leave our mother tongue or our

national language and make all the efforts for English. Teachers are ready to learn

English and lecture in English. Our people learn English only for services and for

earnings. English is so important for people and for teachers because it is the source of

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their income.

Ans8. Now because of the dominance of English language traders believe in its

importance. I am also of this view because it is an international language and of

developed countries.

Ans9: English has much importance so it is compulsory to adopt English because it is

international language.

Ans11: As English is an international language, they are aware of its importance.

Ans12: Teachers believe English is the major problem of their career. They don’t give

importance to English even for their career and they feel problem in this sense.

Ans13: The teachers believe that English is important for their career. They learn English

only for pass marks. They do not learn tenses themselves and do not teach tenses to

children. They insist on cramming.

Ans14: Teachers’ seniority and promotion is on their academic and service scenario

regardless of their ability to teach in English. Career development should not be solely

dependent on ability to teach in English but other subjects and high wages are also

compulsory.

Ans15: Teachers know, it in fact that without English they have many hindrances to get

success in the knowledge of science.

Ans16: They think it important but feel unable to use it as medium. They have no interest

because they do not have good background in English.

Ans17: English is very important for teaching for those teachers who want to have great

career. So those teachers who are not ambitious regarding their career give no importance

to learning English.

Ans18: Teacher on seeing the society of modern world wants to learn basic English.

They believe that modern language is the need of this developing world, and they make

much effort in this sector.

Ans19: Without English in the present time we can’t spend life especially in Pakistan.

Ans20: It is no, doubt they believe that English is important for their career because

English has become international language.

Ans21: They consider it very important even they try to improve to the limit of their

sources.

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Ans22: Learning English is not a problem but why only teachers. Office workers and

civil servants should also improve their English. Teachers should be provided laptops, so

that they can improve their language skills.

Ans23: While reading teachers cannot understand pronunciation stress and intonation

patterns of the English language for improved communication. Teachers and students will

have to learn whole the life.

Ans24: Yes, they think it important but difficult also.

Ans25: This is age of science and technology and English language is important to get

advanced knowledge. So, after taking knowledge in English language teacher can

improve and promote their career.

Discussion

There exists complete clarity in the trend of data here. It has been reported that

most of the teachers consider English to be very important for their career. It actually

shows instrumental value the teachers attach to English according to the perception of the

principals. It is interesting to note that in this regard the principals have a perception that

substantiates the teachers, responses in this regard. In questionnaire data utilitarian value

of English was reported to be very high by the teachers. This trend supports Dornyei’s

(2004) idea that in EFL (English as Foreign Language) contexts instrumentality happens

to be more relevant and consequently more important than integrativeness. Dornyei

actually criticized the central position of integrativeness as a motivational construct in

Gardner’s socio-educational model because according to him it becomes less relevant in

FL contexts. It was proved through different studies.

Some very influential indigenous scholars have proved prestige position of

English in Pakistan (see for example Rehman, 1997 & 1998; Huppauf, 2004; Haque,

1983 & 2002; Rassool and Mansoor, 2009; Asif, 2013). According to them English has

ever had a very compelling position as the language of power and social mobility in

Pakistan. It has ever had great instrumental value for the people of Pakistan and has been,

for this reason, a burning issue as to be or not to be the medium of instruction. English

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has been a social class marker and social class determiner in Pakistan. It has its

importance for material benefits as well as for positions of power in civil services (for

more detail vide first chapter). In view of such reasons it is not difficult to understand the

instrumental value given by the teachers to this language.

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CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

1.1. Introduction

This chapter concludes the study. It provides a comprehensive summary of the

introduction, methodology, analysis and interpretation of the data in the light of

theoretical grounding provided by existing literature in the area. Findings of the study

have also been provided in this chapter along with the recommendations for solution

of the issues emerging from the introduction of English as medium of Instruction in

the state run schools of Punjab province of Pakistan. Some suggestions have been

made for future researches on the bases of the findings of this study. At the end a

statement has been made as researcher’s response to the situation informed by this

study.

1.2. Summary

The primary aim of this study was to measure level of readiness of the teachers

teaching at secondary school level in the public sector schools of rural areas of Punjab

(province of Pakistan) to use English as medium of instruction (EMI) in terms of their

attitude and motivation. In the second place, the hybridization of two very influential

models i.e. socio-educational model and Willingness to Communicate (WTC) model was

tested through its application as the theoretical framework for this study. It was done

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mainly following three studies; the first conducted by MacIntyre and Charos (1996), the

second by Yashima (2002) and the third by Hashimoto (2002). All these three studies

have one point in common that they used a hybridized framework consisting of the two

models already mentioned. However, they differed in their hypothesized paths. In this

regard Yashima’s study differs from the other two for hypothesizing a path from

motivation to WTC and not the other way round. The later was done for the first time by

MacIntyre and Charos (1996) and replicated by Hashimoto (2002). The path was not

found significant by MacIntyre and Charos while it was found significant in the study by

Hashimoto. Quite similarly the path hypothesized by Yashima was not found significant

which has been found significant in this study.

The issue of medium of instruction has ever had focal position in the educational

policies in Pakistan. The decisions in this regard show the history of oscillations between

Urdu and English during different regimes. It all depended on the particular vision and

inclination of the ruler/s of the time. Different educational policies over time gave it

different status and role in education. In face of all such vicissitudes English continued to

hold a very influential position as the official language of Pakistan bestowing it in this

way the status of language of power and a tool of social status. Almost all the Pakistanis

wish to learn it in view of its importance; hence, English has ever enjoyed a silent or open

support as medium of instruction.

Despite realization of the importance of English one of the major hindrances in

the way of success in developing adequate proficiency in this language is related to

substandard/defective teaching. The teachers hold key position here as the success or

failure is due more than anything else on the effectiveness of their input. Therefore, the

proficiency of teachers in English is the first prerequisite to promote proficiency in

English among the students. The policy of government of Punjab can be seen as an effort

or step towards this end. The training and step by step introduction of English as medium

at different levels has been done surely after a lot of serious consideration in response to a

long lasting wish of the people interested to ameliorate their education. Still, the

problems involved in it cannot be overlooked. The first and foremost being the issue of

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poor proficiency or competence of teachers to use English who have been reported

through many studies, conducted in this regard, not having their proficiency level above

the learners of any level.

In realization of importance of the role of teachers and the place of their

motivation within this role, current study was designed to investigate the attitude and

motivation of teachers as reflection of their potential readiness to teach using English as

medium of instruction. For this purpose, two broad objectives were conceived; the first to

explore the attitude and motivation of teachers and the second to verify the nature of

relations among the variables in socio-educational model and WTC model. To achieve

the first, close-ended part of the questionnaire was supplemented by open-ended items as

well as interviews. They were used also in view of the importance given to qualitative

approaches in measuring language motivation by some influential scholars like Dornyei

(2007) and to cross validate the data gathered through close-ended questions. The close

ended part consisted of the constructs taken from the selected models which were

operationalized by adapting items from the standardized questionnaires i.e. AMTB

(Attitude and Motivation Test Battery) from socio-educational model and WTC scale

from WTC model to the possible extent. Only one construct i.e. English Language

Learning Experience was included as additional variable to test the claimed expandability

of these models especially socio-educational model. This construct was used in response

to the importance attached to it by Dornyei (2004) and then by Nakata (2006).

In the framework adapted for this study from the two models, Willingness to

Communicate (WTC), used as WTCE (Willingness to Communicate in English) in this

study, was taken as dependent factor. It was done, in the first place, following its

conceptualization by MacIntyre (1994) in his pyramid model as the antecedent to

linguistic behavior. The second reason for it was the distinction created by researchers

between attitudinal and action motivation who blamed socio-educational model for

treating it more as something attitudinal while on the other side WTC model covers its

action part. Yashima’s (2002) study can be considered its third reason where WTC was

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taken as effect of motivation or attitudinal motivation to be more correct. Thus a

hybridization of both the models was used to broaden the canvas of this study.

The constructs selected for this were purely based on the criteria of relevance in

the context of the study. From socio-educational model Interest in Foreign Language

(IFL), Desire to Learn English Language (DLEL), Instrumentality (INST), Attitude

Towards English as Medium of Instruction (ATEMI) and Anxiety (ANX) in using

English as medium of instruction were selected while from WTC model Willingness to

Communicate in English (WTCE) was selected. The two other important constructs of

WTC model used in other studies (already mentioned) i.e. Perceived Communicative

Competence and Language Use Anxiety were compensated by keeping Linguistic Self-

Confidence (LSC) as alternate to Perceived Communicative Competence while Anxiety

existed as common construct in both of the models. One additional construct i.e. English

Language Learning Experience (ELLE) was taken from Dornyei’s attribution theory to

test it in the framework of hybridization of Socio-educational model and WTC model

with significant findings. A significant path from ELLE to motivation has been found in

structural equation modeling which indirectly affects WTCE. It means that positive

experience in language learning encourages the learner in the form of heightened level of

motivation which increases the chances of use of the language for communication by the

learner.

The items used to operationalize the constructs were either self-designed or

adapted or in certain cases taken as it is from the scales used in the selected models. In

this exercise items used under all the constructs were modified to treat English as

medium of instruction except in three constructs i.e. IFL, DLEL and ELLE where the

items treated English as a language in general. When data was analyzed clear and very

significant trends both for measuring on-ground motivation as well as theoretical

implications were found which were cross-validated through open-ended data as well as

interviews. A clear distinction was found in trends of the responses towards English as a

language in general and towards English as medium of instruction. The constructs

dealing with English in these two distinct statuses and roles were found to make

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exclusive groups which proved that affective response to any language is complex and at

the same time situation specific. A language may receive multiple variety of response

from the same people with regard to different status and role of a language in various

situations. Teachers in this study have shown high level of motivation for English in

general as a language and also as medium of instruction in future but relatively low level

of appreciation for its implementation as MOI at present.

This study can be divided into two parts clearly on the basis of its contribution

where the first contribution of the study is in terms of measuring on-ground motivation of

the participants of this study while the second stands to be a theoretical contribution. The

first is covered by first three research questions (1, 2, and 3) while the second by the last

four (4, 5, 6, and 7). To answer first three research questions findings in general, from all

parts of the questionnaire as well as interviews, were to be used while the last four

questions depended particularly on the close-ended part of the questionnaire. For the

theoretical part regression, correlation and structural equation modeling were used as part

of the statistical method most suitable for the purpose.

A cross-sectional survey was conducted in 6 districts (administrative units) of

Punjab selected from the list ordered on the basis of HDI (Human Development Index) so

that two were selected from the top, two from the middle and two from the bottom of the

list. It was done to minimize the possible biases in sampling. However, within the

districts selection of schools was made on convenience basis because ensuring equal

representation of all the Tehsils (administrative sub-units of a district) was practically

impossible. Only one district i.e. Faisalabad stands exception to it to some extent as data

was collected from rural areas of two different Tehsils while in all the others data was

collected from one Tehsil (the districts of Punjab, in most of the cases have two or three

Tehsils). Only those teachers were asked to fill the questionnaires that had to cope at

some point with English as medium of instruction. For interviews at least two principals

were selected from each of the districts.

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The data gathered can be divided broadly into two categories on the basis of its

nature while its analysis was done in different parts corresponding to the research

questions raised in this study. Data on the basis of its nature can be classified as narrative

data collected through open-ended items of the questionnaire and quantitative data

collected through close-ended items of the questionnaire. On the other hand, analysis can

roughly be divided into seven parts. First includes single item analysis, second includes

construct wise analysis, third includes analysis of correlations among selected constructs,

fourth includes regression analysis, fifth includes structural equation modeling, sixth

includes analysis of data from open-ended items and the seventh includes analysis of the

interviews.

Each part of the analysis was used for its respective purpose. In the first part

single item analysis was done to find an answer mainly to research question number 3

which aimed at knowing how far demographic factors could predict language motivation

of the participants. Qualification in this connection was found to be the most significant

predictor of the motivation level of the participants while gender and age were found to

be significant in relatively fewer cases. However, out of the later two, age emerged as

more important in close-ended data which was cross-validated by the open-ended or

narrative data as well. Construct wise analysis was made to know differential tendencies

in nature of the motivation shown by the participants. Correlation analysis was used to

explore the relationship between different selected constructs. It was found that the

constructs, in their tendency to group distinctively into two, showed relatively higher

mutual correlations than with the cross group constructs. Regression analysis was used to

find the extent to which the independent variables explained the dependent variable. It

was found that due to the differential responses to the variables treating English as a

language in general and to those treating it as medium of instruction a somewhat low

level of regression was noted. Structural equation modeling was used to know how far

the independent variables were responsible in causing the dependent variable. Finally

open-ended items and interviews were used to explore the matter in greater depth and to

cross-validate the findings from close-ended part of the questionnaire.

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This intensive exercise on data analysis produced important results in this study.

It provided worthwhile insight into the situation. The understanding of problems and

pluses resulting from this study has provided points which could be used for moving

forward in equipping the teachers with what they require. Only this is the way how much

desired objective/wish/aspiration of the nation in general and the young generation in

particular could be actualized. This is how all the students without any division on the

basis of rural-urban or social class can be prepared to compete at the national as well as

international level (Kamran, 2010). The findings in connection with the models used also

have valuable theoretical implications. The most important among these are; 1)

confirmation of the path from motivation (collective label used for the summative effect

of variables from Gardner’s socio-educational model) to WTCE that was not confirmed

in Yashima’s (2002) study, 2) significant causative relationship of ELLE with motivation

proving the potential expandability of socio-educational model and 3) discovery of LSC

as inadequate replacement of Self-Perceived Communicative Competence in WTC

model. Following are the findings accrued on account of data analysis;

5.3. Findings

1. A predominantly positive attitude of teachers can be seen towards English language.

They do not believe English to be against their culture, ideology and religion. It is

interesting to find that in open-ended questions some people, on the contrary, consider it

a tool to spread Islam among the nations across the globe.

2. Almost all the teachers are not ready to use English as medium of instruction in the

classrooms at present. However, a dominant majority of them believes it to be a good

policy for the future provided some necessary steps are taken or preparations made.

3. Teachers realize more positively the importance of English as language, its global role

and the promises it carries due to such a role. They feel strongly the need for proper

proficiency in it but do not favour its implementation as medium of instruction at present.

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4. Teachers feel that a lot of preparation is required for the successful implementation of

this policy lest it should fail.

5. Three things have been given key importance in teachers’ motivation towards EMI. The

first and foremost among these is adequate language training of the teachers, the second

is students irresponsiveness to anything taught in English and the third is lack of

incentives as well as pressure.

6. Teachers believe that the primary education (up to grade 5) would play a key role in

developing the trend of using English at secondary schools level (from grade 5 to grade

10).

7. Mostly teachers do not find current trainings by the government in this regard very

useful. They demand for meaningful trainings of long durations with particular focus on

developing language skills.

8. The anxiety teachers face when required to cope with English medium or while using it

in the class is reported to be very high both in close-ended questions as well as

interviews.

9. A dominant majority of the teachers have reported an overall good experience with

English as a subject during their studentship.

10. The interest of teachers in foreign languages is above average, their desire to learn

English language is average, their instrumental reasons of learning English are high, their

confidence with English is high, their experience of learning English is highly positive,

their attitude towards English as medium of instruction is averagely positive, their

anxiety with EMI is above average, their willingness to use English as medium is almost

below average.

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11. A strong futuristic belief has been traced among the participants about better proficiency

among teachers. It was inferred from the views of the teachers that newly appointed

young teachers were better in their proficiency. They were also reported to be relatively

more motivated to develop their skills and more interested in using English as medium of

instruction.

12. Gender has not proved, overall, to be an important factor of difference in the level of

motivation to accept and use English as medium of instruction. It is found highly

significant in only 15 out of a total of 57 items. Further, out of the 15, it remained highly

significant in only 8 while in rest of the 7 it was mildly significant. Gender has not been

pointed out as relevant factor anywhere in the open-ended data as well.

13. In the items where gender remained significant male respondents were found to be

relatively more motivated towards English as medium of instruction.

14. Age overall is reported to be an important indicator of motivation towards EMI. It is

more so, on the basis of open-ended data because in close-ended part it has been found

significant only in 13 items that is less than the number of items gender is found

insignificant in.

15. It has been found in open-ended items, with regard to age, that the older people are less

favourably disposed towards EMI. However, it can be found that the results from close-

ended items show no clarity in this regard. The reason for it was taken to be a possible

attempt on the part of the old to censor their actual feeling or opinion.

16. Qualification has proved to be very important catalyst of motivation and positive attitude

towards EMI. It has been found significant in close-ended items as well as open-ended

data including interviews. However, its strongest advocacy can be found in open-ended

part of the questionnaire.

356

17. It was observed that in most of the items, in close-ended part of the questionnaire,

frequency of neutral responses had been quite high. It was interpreted as the result of the

perception of its being effective way to hide their actual feelings. However, the

possibility of confusion also cannot be ruled out but existence of this trend to this extent

renders the former interpretation more logical.

18. Teachers have highly supported the policy of introducing a system of making proficiency

certificate compulsory for the teachers which would entitle them to special perks in their

salary as well as recognition.

19. Through the results of correlations the variables tended to make clearly two groups.

Those dealing with English in general as a language made one group while those dealing

with English as medium of instruction made another. Variables in both the groups

showed higher correlations with the intra-group variables than the cross-group ones.

20. It was found in regression analysis also that each of the independent variables IFL, DLEL

and ELLE explain the dependent variable (WTCE) relatively less than each of INST,

LSC, ELLE, ATEMI and ANX do. Thus regression analysis also proves a clear grouping

of the variables.

21. ELLE (English Language Learning Experience) is found to be a very significant

construct of language motivation (aggregate of the variables from socio-educational

model). However, it has shown no direct causative influence on WTCE in this study.

Thus it can be made a useful part of socio-educational model which proves the

expandability of this model.

22. Though this study did not focus much on instrumental-integrative dichotomy of language

motivation propagated by Gardner’s socio-educational model but still from the results it

has been found that instrumental reasons of motivation to learn English remained

preponderant with the participants in this study. It substantiates Dornyei’s (2004) view

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that instrumental motive remains more important in EFL contexts distinct from ESL

contexts.

23. A significant path from motivation to WTCE has been found through structural equation

modeling. Thus the path hypothesized by Yashima (2002) but not confirmed has been

confirmed in this study and motivation has proved to be a significant cause of WTC

(Willingness to Communicate). If a discussion in Hashimoto (2002) is followed then it

can be said that attitudinal motivation leads to action motivation.

5.4. Fulfilment of Objectives

The objectives of this study have been achieved. It has been found that the teachers

despite having positive attitude towards EMI are still not practically ready to use EMI in

the classes while teaching. However, the future prospects of this policy are construed to

be fairly bright on the basis of teachers’ optimism about it. But the success in this regard

is still considered subject to effectiveness of teachers’ training and the level of their

qualification. As far as prediction about future proficiency in English of teachers is

concerned; its prospects with the young and the more qualified are bright because the

former find it important for their career while the latter find it easy. Finally the expansion

of socio-educational model has been successful, the path from motivation to WTC has

been confirmed and recommendations have been made to cope with the issues

discovered.

5.5. Contribution of the Study

The contribution of this study can be seen on two levels i.e. theoretical and contextual.

With regard to the first its contribution is in the following two ways;

1. It has successfully tested the expandability of socio-educational model which was

advocated by the founder of this model. It was done by integrating variables borrowed

from elsewhere into the hybridization of socio-educational and WTC models.

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2. This study has tested and confirmed motivation as causative factor of WTC

following a study by Yashima (2002). It was hypothesized in that study but not

confirmed in the path analysis through Structural Equation Model.

On the contextual level this study has made contribution by studying motivation

of the teachers from rural areas for the first time at such a scale. It has highlighted

ground realities pertaining to the choice of English as medium of instruction. This issue

has always been critically important in educational policies of Pakistan. So, it has made

worthwhile contribution by bringing into focus the issues of the key stakeholders having

pivotal role in success or failure of this policy.

5.6. Recommendations

1. Government should arrange intensive language training of long duration for the teachers.

It should mainly focus on their oracy skills. However, pedagogical skills suitable to the

use of EMI should also be made part of such training.

2. The focus of government should center more on primary education. Short-term teacher

training that is already introduced by the government should give more importance to the

primary teachers. A mechanism to ensure the use of English as MOI at primary level may

be made.

3. Syllabus should be changed to make it more comprehensible for the students. It has been

commonly observed that the text books written by Pakistanis have generally more

outlandish vocabulary and involved structure. It is because the writers become

excessively bookish in the conscious attempt to produce accurate language. The result of

this effort is usually more technical vocabulary and complex structure. It is all due to lack

of command on ordinary or common language. It can be found by comparing the word

problems in the text books included in the syllabus of government schools and from the

syllabus of Cambridge for O’ levels. Even the language of other science subjects i.e.

Physics, Chemistry and Biology can also be compared for similar results.

359

4. In view of the above, government should engage the writers of content subjects (i.e.

subjects in which English is used just as medium and not for its sake) with this point in

mind that they should have very good command on language and the skills to render

concepts in easily comprehensible style.

5. A body or institution should be introduced on the pattern of IELTS that should grant

proficiency certificates to the teachers. The evaluation should be only on the basis of oral

proficiency (oracy). These certificates should be made compulsory for all the teachers

already in-service and the new appointments should be made subject to the possession of

this certificate. Incentives should be offered on earning such a certificate.

6. Government should use the competence, experience, exposure and skills of the elitist

English medium schools of the country and in this regard an MOU can be signed with

such school systems. Workshops can be conducted in collaboration with such schools

during summer vacation.

7. Highly proficient language teachers can be hired by offering lucrative salaries in schools

for purely language teaching purpose in each high school (secondary school). They

should work as language trainers for teachers as well as the students. Their responsibility

should be developing only speaking skills. They can be given jobs on contract which

should remain subject to the results for becoming regular.

8. It is researcher’s own experience that in the existing academic approach conversational

English is not promoted at all. Therefore, it is feared that in training the type of English

imparted to the trainee-teachers would be bookish, formal and technical in structure and

vocabulary. It proves to be a setback when it comes to the spoken and proves to be

unfruitful. Hence in the trainings conversational English should be focused.

9. In response to the vehement demand expressed by the teachers in the survey for this

study specimen lectures on all the English medium subjects can be provided to the

schools. They can help teachers not only in teaching effectively content of the subjects

360

but it can be useful in enhancing proficiency among them as well. It can be an intensive

listening practice for them in terms of language learning.

10. A package of phonological training should be prepared whereby every concerned teacher

should be benefitted. It will help them in having correct pronunciation and being self-

dependent for future learning in this regard. It will also have positive consequences for

their confidence, increase their interest and motivate them for the purpose.

11. The candidates having masters in ELT with good proficiency in the English language

should be hired as a special case. They could be vehicle in language training of the

teachers in each of the respective schools. They could also teach subject of English to the

students.

12. Steps should be taken to change the evaluation method in English. Oracy can be

introduced with nominal credit in terms of marks as a first step towards this end. It can be

started with 10% or even 5% of the total marks of the subject of English.

13. Corresponsive to what is stated in point 12, GTM (Grammar Translation Method) should

be abandoned in favour of DM (Direct Method) step by step.

5.5. Suggestions

1. In the future research female teachers should be focused more properly.

2. A very important area for future research can be the effectiveness of training being

provided to the teachers of public sector schools of Punjab to answer three broad

questions:

a) How far have such trainings been successful in equipping the teachers with

adequate skills to be able to use English as medium of instruction effectively?

361

b) How far have these trainings been successful in motivating the teachers to use

English as medium of instruction?

c) What are the possible reasons in case of failure of such trainings?

3. If the studies could be initiated on need analysis of these teachers, with respect to their

expected tasks as teachers of content subjects teaching through English medium of

instruction, it will be very fruitful and a service to the nation indeed.

4. It is important and intriguing that this study has found a distinction between motivation

towards English as medium of instruction and as a language and especially as

international or global language. This difference instigates the research on differential

motivation towards any language corresponding to its status, role etc.

5. It is suggested for future researches in the light of suggestion 4 the questionnaires may be

designed focusing purely on EMI. It will help in developing on the findings of this study

related to the difference noted between affective responses to EMI in particular and

English as a foreign language in general.

6. An exploratory study can be conducted to discover the nature of relationship between the

satisfaction of these teachers with their careers and their level of motivation to employ

EMI. Also, the value teachers attach to their ability to use EMI for their successful career

as a teacher or their respect can be probed into.

5.6. Limitations of the Study

1. The actual frequency of English language use or self-reported frequency of its use in

academic situations involving EMI has not been included as part of this study. It was in

the first place due to context where the participants might have never engaged in using

English for teaching or communication and in the second due to the geographical expanse

of the area where survey was to be conducted.

362

2. An equal participation of both the genders could not be ensured in this study due to

strong values of this society against male female interaction where the researcher could

not engage female at par with the male.

3. The study has been to a certain extent restricted in its purview or scope due to its

dependence on the selected models. However, an effort was made to overcome this

shortcoming by including open-ended questions as well as interviews but still it is felt by

the researcher that it could be made more flexible and more responsive to the context.

5.7. Discussion

In the light of the findings; estimating potential readiness of the teachers is not

difficult. The teachers are not at all ready for the time being to make use of English as

medium of instruction in the classes. It is mainly because they do not consider themselves

proficient enough to lecture in English. The other serious problem pointed out by the

participants is non-responsive students. The teachers report that they feel helpless when

the students do not understand anything if they be taught in English. These factors add to

the complexity of the situation and it calls for serious, devoted and systematic efforts to

be made.

Its implications are of much importance for the strategic plan designed by the

government. They have somehow or the other to be dealt with in such a way as not to be

a hurdle in the way of this policy otherwise they can be a serious threat to its success. The

teachers demand specimen lectures which should be ready to deliver in soft-copies/videos

which they would be able to use in the class. It is dangerous if they are intended to be

crammed and then delivered as it is in the classes. They would be least understandable for

the students; hence, no educational process will take place. Proper way out can be

nothing other than developing proper Oracy skills in English of the teachers and for this

purpose intensive, effective and elaborate training programs can be introduced by the

government.

363

Data shows clearly that training is considered very useful if not the only way out.

It is so despite the fact that the training provided for the time being is held in serious

doubt by almost all the teachers and principals alike. However, certain limitations to the

suitability and use of training have to be understood according to the participants. They

say that the training cannot be useful for all the teachers. They suggest a sort of

selectiveness in this regard. According to this view those teachers who teach such

subjects which have nothing to do with English e.g. Urdu or any other subject need not be

trained in English as it will be a sheer waste of time for them.

The demand to revise syllabus can be considered as one of the suggested solutions to this

problem. Syllabus should be revised and care should be taken in the light of

recommendation made above (no. 3). It has also been suggested by the teachers that

primary level education should have proper language training to prepare students for the

next level i.e. secondary level. It is a very useful suggestion and needs proper attention.

The government of Punjab at least is required to stand by the decision that has

been taken in introducing English as medium of instruction. It needs to be kept in mind

that things will definitely require time to settle properly. It is a big and important decision

which has been taken and needs to be stood by otherwise the result will be nothing more

than another story of one more failure.

It has been found that the teachers’ evaluation of English as a language shows

their realization of global imperatives. They give it much value as an international

language as well as language of science and technology. Therefore, they consider it a

very useful tool for their academic and professional progress as well as recognition. The

instrumental value they attach to English can also be found in their realization of its role

as a tool to social mobility and power position.

However, it is disappointing to note that the teachers are, at the same time, almost

not willing to use English as medium of instruction while teaching. The biggest problem

364

in this regard is lack of proficiency of the teachers in speaking skills. So, what simply

needs to be done is to make these teachers attain at least minimum level of required

proficiency to begin with. In other words, they need language training. So, it may not be

as difficult as it has been made through inadequate measures. It can be done by

understanding certain important points and taking proper measures.

First of all, the approach of training needs to be changed. Instead of focusing

solely on how to cope with English medium subjects, proficiency of the teachers should

be focused and enhanced. It will provide them required confidence and comfort in using

EMI by reducing their anxiety. Then in the second place, the base/canvas of this training

needs to be increased so that each and every teacher has equal chance for proficiency

development. The other help in this regard can be strict and fool proof measures by

ensuring fair evaluation of the performance of the teachers.

Introducing certificates of proficiency can be a very useful step towards this end.

Its mechanism could be developed. The bodies that would be authorized to evaluate and

award certificates ought to be free of black sheep/expedients. Teachers, however, cannot

be terminated and they should not be but their promotion/increments can be made subject

to this examination. This policy will definitely open chances for the black sheep to take

advantage and exploit by taking bribes and awarding certificates. But, such problems

should not prove worrisome when the determination to accept the challenge is alive and

the objectives so high.

Urdu though easy but still is the first language of almost none of the students in

rural areas of Punjab. In certain cases their vernacular (generally a dialectal variation of

Punjabi) happens to be widely different from Urdu. Still they learn and speak Urdu when

they are exposed to it. Researcher’s own experience in this regard is (in retrospective)

useful. At primary level all that was read in Urdu made little sense until teacher’s version

of explanation in Punjabi retold the whole thing in Punjabi. To speak Urdu remained a

dream till after grade 10 when it was started to be used as medium of instruction. The

365

first exposure to Urdu in spoken was at intermediate level wherefrom the researcher

started speaking Urdu.

In view of all this, why not English if the teachers are trained and motivated to do

the due. The argument to be advanced here is that the students in these areas learn Urdu

as L2 despite its being their national language. If they are provided a parallel exposure to

English as a language along with Urdu it should not be surprising that they would have

good proficiency in English as well. There will of course be difference between the effort

they will have to make in learning English and in learning Urdu as well as outcome in

both the cases. In English definitely their achievement is going to be less with greater

effort than in Urdu. But, it is far better than having almost no achievement at all.

It is important to be noted that Urdu prepares them for competition at national

level while English at international level. The world of present day has become global

village and a globalized corporate sector is getting stronghold across the world. Job

market and the national progress are linked with understanding such imperatives and in

responding properly to them. It is need of the time to prepare global competitors or

citizens of the world. It is useless to stop such changes they run as part of ever moving

wheel of change effected by nature as all-encompassing. The only rational way to deal

with it is by accepting its challenges instead of resisting it. As Aitchison (2001), quotes

from John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester.

Since ‘tis Nature’s Law to change

Constancy alone is strange (p. 3).

366

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387

APPENDIX A

QUESTIONNAIRE

Dear Participant! It is indeed a great pleasure for me to have a chance of getting information

about your interest in English as Medium of Instruction (EMI). I am a lecturer in English at

National University of Modern Languages (NUML), Islamabad. I need data for my Ph. D thesis

in the form of your views about EMI. I earnestly hope that you will answer all the questions

candidly and with maximum frankness because the worth of my research undoubtedly depends on

the straightforwardness you uphold in the expression of your ideas and feelings. I solemnly

declare that the information you provide will be used only for the above mentioned purpose and

that complete confidentiality shall be ensured regarding your identity and personal information. I

thank you for the cooperation.

Name: (Optional) Dist: Tehsil:

Gender

Age:

Qualification:

Answer Key: Please follow the key below to select suitable number in order to show the

extent to which you agree or disagree with each of the given statements.

Strongly Agree=7 Agree=6 Slightly Agree=5 Neutral=4 Slightly

Disagree=3, Disagree=2, Strongly Disagree=1

IFL

1. I wish I could speak many foreign languages perfectly.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

2. I wish I could read newspapers and magazines in many

foreign languages.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

3. I would really like to learn many foreign languages. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

4. If I planned to stay in another country, I would try to learn

their language.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

5. I enjoy meeting people who speak foreign languages. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

6. Studying foreign languages is not enjoyable. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

7. I really have no interest in foreign languages. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

8. It is not important for us to learn foreign languages. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

9. Most foreign languages sound crude and harsh. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Male Female

20 – 30 yrs 31 – 40 yrs 41 – 50 yrs 51 – 60 yrs Above 60 yrs

SSC HSSC BA/B Sc MA/M Sc M Phil PhD Other

388

DLEL

10. I have a strong desire to know all aspects of English.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

11. If it were up to me, I would spend all of my time learning

English.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

12. I want to learn English so well that it will become natural to

me.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

13. I would like to learn as much English as possible. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

14. I wish I were fluent in English. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

15. I’m losing any desire I ever had to know English. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

16. To be honest, I really have no desire to learn English. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

17. I haven’t any great wish to learn more than the basics of

English. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

INST

18. Lecturing in English is important because I will need it for

my career.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

19. Lecturing in English is important because it will show me

as more educated.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

20. Ability to speak English is important because it will be

useful for me in getting a good job.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

21. Lecturing in English is important because other people will

respect me more if I do it.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

22. I can earn a good name for myself by lecturing in English. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

LSC

23. I am sure I can speak very good English if I try to learn it.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

24. I have never found English to be a difficult language. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

25. I am competent enough to lecture in English. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ELLE

26. I always got very good score in English as a student.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

27. English has been one of my favourite subjects during my

studies.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

28. I always had greater appreciation for my English teacher

than for the teacher of any other subject.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

29. English was never found a difficult subject by me as a

student.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

30. I loved learning more and more English during my student

life.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

31. I wish I were taught every subject through English as

medium of instruction when I was a student.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ATEMI

32. English is the best medium to teach through.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

33. The subject of English should also be taught directly

through English without any translation into Urdu or any

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

389

other local language.

34. It is best for the students to explain everything to them in

English.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

35. English medium will bring the neglected children of rural

areas at par with those who study from good English

medium schools of urban areas.

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

36. I would prefer to deliver lecture in local language rather

than English.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

37. It is far better to use Urdu than English if vernacular has to

be avoided in any case.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ANX

38. I never feel sure of myself when I am teaching through

English medium in the classroom.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

39. I shall probably be uncomfortable to know that I shall have

to speak English while teaching.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

40. It frightens me to think that I may not be able to explain

anything in English.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

41. I start to panic when I have to teach in English without

preparation.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

42. While teaching in English I get some what nervous. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

43. Even if I am well prepared I shall feel anxious in the

classroom when I have to lecture in English.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

44. I don’t feel like going to the class where I have to use

English to teach.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

WTCE If it is left to your own choice, how often will you choose to speak in English in

the following situations?

Answer Key: Always =7 Usually =6 Frequently =5 Sometimes =4

Occasionally =3 Rarely =2 Never =1

45. Answering the students’ questions 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

46. Explaining difficult concepts to the students 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

47. During routine lecturing in the class 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

48. While putting questions to the students 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

49. While advising the students in the class how to improve

their study skills in different subjects

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

50. While joking with the students in the class 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

51. For general chit chat with the students in the class 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

52. While giving instructions to the students in front of other

teachers

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

53. When teaching to a class where all the students are

strangers

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

54. When advising the students in general 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

390

55. While admonishing the students in the class

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

56. While talking to the students out of the class in the school.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

57. While addressing the students during assembly in the

morning.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Note: You have the choice to answer the following questions either in English or in Urdu.

58. Express your feelings about English as Medium of Instruction in our schools.

59. If you think that teachers are motivated to use English as medium of instruction

please enlist the reasons for their motivation.

60. If you feel that teachers lack motivation to use English as medium of instruction

please enlist the reasons for their lack of motivation.

61. Do you think this policy (of imposing English as Medium of Instruction) will help

our teachers at present or in the future to be able and willing to lecture in English?

Why or why not?

Participant’s Signatures:_______________________________

391

APPENDIX B

(Interview Questions)

1. How do you see the policy of imposing English as medium of instruction in

schools by the Punjab government?

2. How would you explain the reaction of teachers towards this policy?

3. How far are the teachers motivated to lecture in English?

4. Do you think that the training for the teachers can be useful for them?

5. How far do you think that the teachers feel threatened by English as medium

of instruction?

6. What strategy can be worked to make and enable our teachers lecture in

English?

7. If the government introduces a system of Proficiency Exams for teachers

which everyone has to pass for a certificate on which they should get special

perks in their salary, how far will it help teachers in developing their ability to

lecture in English?

8. Do you feel that the teachers are confident enough to lecture in English?

9. How far will the teachers be willing to lecture in English if given free hand in

the class?

10. How far teachers believe English to be important for their career?

392

APPENDIX C

QUESTIONNAIRE (For Pilot Study)

Dear Participant! It is indeed a great pleasure for me to have a chance of getting information

about your interest in English as Medium of Instruction (EMI). I am a lecturer in English at

National University of Modern Languages (NUML), Islamabad. I need data for my Ph. D thesis

in the form of your views about EMI. I earnestly hope that you will answer all the questions

candidly and with maximum frankness because the worth of my research undoubtedly depends on

the straightforwardness you uphold in the expression of your ideas and feelings. I solemnly

declare that the information you provide will be used only for the above mentioned purpose and

that complete confidentiality shall be ensured regarding your identity and personal information. I

thank you for the cooperation.

Name: (Optional) Dist: Tehsil:

Gender

Age:

Teaching Experience:

Qualification:

1. General

2. Professional

If you availed the chance to participate in the training arranged by government

for the teachers of English medium please mention your level of satisfaction

with the usefulness of this training for you.

English is mixed in our family language;

Male Female

20 – 30 yrs 31 – 40 yrs 41 – 50 yrs 51 – 60 yrs Above 60 yrs

Less than 6 yrs 6–12 yrs 13–18 yrs 19–24yrs 25–30yrs Above 30 yrs

SSC HSSC BA/B Sc MA/M Sc M Phil PhD Other

PTC CT B Ed M Ed Other

Highly satisfied Satisfied Slightly

Satisfied

Neutral Slightly

Dissatisfied

Dissatisfied Highly dissatisfied

Always Usually Frequently Sometimes Occasionally Rarely Never

393

Have you ever completed any language course for spoken

English?

Answer Key: Please follow the key to select suitable number in order to show your level of

agreement or disagreement with the given statements. Strongly Agree=7 Agree=6

Slightly Agree=5 Neutral=4 Slightly Disagree=3, Disagree=2,

Strongly Disagree=1

IFL


7 6 5 4 3 2 1


foreign languages.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

3. I would really like to learn many foreign languages. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

4. If I planned to stay in another country, I would try to

learn their language.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

5. I enjoy meeting people who speak foreign languages. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

6. Studying foreign languages is not enjoyable. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

7. I really have no interest in foreign languages. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

8. It is not important for us to learn foreign languages. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

9. Most foreign languages sound crude and harsh. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

10. I would rather see a TV program dubbed into our

language than in its own language with subtitles.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

DLEL


7 6 5 4 3 2 1

12. If it were up to me, I would spend all of my time

learning English.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

13. I want to learn English so well that it will become

natural to me.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

14. I would like to learn as much English as possible. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

15. I wish I were fluent in English. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

16. Knowing English isn’t really an important goal in my

life.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

17. I sometimes daydream about dropping English. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

18. I’m losing any desire I ever had to know English. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

19. To be honest, I really have no desire to learn English. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

20. I haven’t any great wish to learn more than the basics of

English. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Inst

21. Lecturing in English is important because I will need it

for my career.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

22. Lecturing in English is important because it will show

me as more educated.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Yes No

394



7 6 5 4 3 2 1

24. Lecturing in English is important because other people

will respect me more if I do it.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

25. I can earn a good name for myself by lecturing in

English.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

26. My promotion is somehow linked with my ability to

lecture in English.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

27. Lecturing in English can bring nothing good for me. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

LSC 28. I don’t need to make a lot of effort to learn English

language.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

29. I am sure I can speak very good English if I try to learn

it.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

30. I have never found English to be a difficult language. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

31. I am competent enough to lecture in English. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ELLE


7 6 5 4 3 2 1

33. English has been one of my favourite subjects during my

studies.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

34. I always had greater appreciation for my English teacher

than for the teacher of any other subject.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1


student.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

36. I loved learning more and more English during my

student life.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1



7 6 5 4 3 2 1

38. English has always been a difficult subject for me to

manage as a student.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ATEMI


7 6 5 4 3 2 1


through English without any translation into Urdu or any

other local language.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

41. It is best for the students to explain everything to them in

English.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

42. English medium will bring the neglected children of

rural areas at par with those who study from good

English medium schools of urban areas.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

43. English medium has created problems for the teachers. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

44. The teachers are not properly trained to explain things in

English to the students.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

45. It is my passion to use English as Medium of Instruction

in the classes.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

395

46. I would prefer to deliver lecture in local language rather

than English.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

47. It is far better to use Urdu than English if vernacular has

to be avoided in any case.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

48. If the students are taught through Urdu or Punjabi as

medium of instruction it will not affect their career.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

EMI Anx



7 6 5 4 3 2 1

50. I shall probably be uncomfortable to know that I shall

have to speak English while teaching.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

51. It frightens me to think that I may not be able to explain

anything in English.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1


preparation.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

53. I don’t know why some people get so upset while

teaching through English medium.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

54. While teaching in English I get some what nervous. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1



7 6 5 4 3 2 1


English to teach.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

57. I feel perfectly confident when I have to teach using

English as medium of instruction.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

WTCE If it is left to your own choice, how often will you choose to speak in English in

the following situations?

Answer Key: Always =7 Usually =6 Frequently =5 Sometimes =4

Occasionally =3 Rarely =2 Never =1

58. Answering the students’ questions 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

59. Explaining difficult concepts to the students 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

60. During routine lecturing in the class 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

61. While putting questions to the students 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

62. While advising the students in the class how to improve

their study skills in different subjects

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

63. While joking with the students in the class 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

64. For general chit chat with the students in the class 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

65. While giving instructions to the students in front of other

teachers

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

66. When teaching to a class where all the students are

strangers

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

67. When advising the students in general 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

68. While admonishing the students in the class 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

69. While talking to the students out of the class in the 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

396

school.

70. While addressing the students during assembly in the

morning.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Note: You have the choice to answer the following questions either in English or in Urdu.

71. Express your feelings about English as Medium of Instruction in our schools.

72. If you think that teachers are motivated to use English as medium of instruction

please enlist the reasons for their motivation.

73. If you feel that teachers lack motivation to use English as medium of instruction

please enlist the reasons for their lack of motivation.

74. Do you think this policy (of imposing English as Medium of Instruction) will help

our teachers at present or in the future to be able and willing to lecture in English?

Why or why not?

Participant’s Signatures: ____________________________

397

APPENDIX D

(Authentication of the questionnaire)

IFL


From AMTB item 1


foreign languages.

From AMTB item 21

3. I would really like to learn many foreign languages. From AMTB item 42

4. If I planned to stay in another country, I would try to

learn their language.

From AMTB item 65

5. I enjoy meeting people who speak foreign languages. From AMTB item 85

6. Studying foreign languages is not enjoyable. From AMTB item 12

7. I really have no interest in foreign languages. From AMTB item 32

8. It is not important for us to learn foreign languages. From AMTB item 55

9. Most foreign languages sound crude and harsh. From AMTB item 76

DLEL


From AMTB item 9

11. If it were up to me, I would spend all of my time

learning English.

From AMTB item 29

12. I want to learn English so well that it will become

natural to me.

From AMTB item 51

13. I would like to learn as much English as possible. From AMTB item 73

14. I wish I were fluent in English. From AMTB item 92

15. I’m losing any desire I ever had to know English. From AMTB item 61

16. To be honest, I really have no desire to learn English. From AMTB item 81

17. I haven’t any great wish to learn more than the basics

of English.

From AMTB item 99

INST

18. Lecturing in English is important because I will need it

for my career.

Adapted from AMTB item

15

19. Lecturing in English is important because it will show

me as more educated.


35




59

21. Lecturing in English is important because other people

will respect me more if I do it.


79

22. I can earn a good name for myself by lecturing in

English.

Self designed

LSC Self designed

398

23. I am sure I can speak very good English if I try to learn

it.

24. I have never found English to be a difficult language. Self designed

25. I am competent enough to lecture in English. Self designed

ELLE


Self designed

27. English has been one of my favourite subjects during

my studies.

Self designed

28. I always had greater appreciation for my English

teacher than for the teacher of any other subject.

Self designed


student.

Self designed

30. I loved learning more and more English during my

student life.

Self designed



Self designed

ATEMI


Self designed


through English without any translation into Urdu or

any other local language.

Self designed

34. It is best for the students to explain everything to them

in English.

Self designed

35. English medium will bring the neglected children of

rural areas at par with those who study from good

English medium schools of urban areas.

Self designed

36. I would prefer to deliver lecture in local language

rather than English.

Self designed

37. It is far better to use Urdu than English if vernacular

has to be avoided in any case.

Self designed

ANX



Adapted from AMTB

item16

39. I shall probably be uncomfortable to know that I shall

have to speak English while teaching.


75

40. It frightens me to think that I may not be able to

explain anything in English.


60


preparation.

Self designed

42. While teaching in English I get some what nervous.


80



Self designed

399


English to teach.

Self-designed

45. I feel perfectly confident when I have to teach using

English as medium of instruction.


39

WTCE

46. Answering the students’ questions

All the items in

this section were

developed on the

pattern of WTC

scale used by

Hashimoto

(2002) which in

turn is based on

the one used by

MacIntyre

(1996)

47. Explaining difficult concepts to the students

48. During routine lecturing in the class

49. While putting questions to the students

50. While advising the students in the class how to improve their

study skills in different subjects

51. While joking with the students in the class

52. For general chit chat with the students in the class

53. While giving instructions to the students in front of other teachers

54. When teaching to a class where all the students are strangers

55. When advising the students in general

56. While admonishing the students in the class

57. While talking to the students out of the class in the school.

58. While addressing the students during assembly in the morning.

400

APPENDIX E

(The WTC scale used by Hashimoto, 2002 which was adapted for this study)

DIRECTIONS: Below are 20 situations in which a person might choose to

communicate or not to communicate. Please presume that you have completely

free choice to initiate or avoid communication. Please indicate in the space at the

left the percentage of times you would choose to communicate in English in each

type of situation.

0 %= never, 100 %= always

1. Talk with an acquaintance in an elevator.

2. Talk with a stranger on the bus.

3. Speak in public to a group (about 30 people) of strangers.

4. Talk with an acquaintance while standing in line.

5. Talk with a salesperson in a store.

6. Talk in a large meeting (about 10 people) of friends.

7. Talk with a janitor/resident manager.

8. Talk in a small group (about 5 people) of strangers.

9. Talk with a friend while standing in line.

10. Talk with a waiter/waitress in a restaurant.

11. Talk in a large meeting (about 10 people) of acquaintances.

12. Talk with a stranger while standing in line.

13. Talk with a shop clerk.

14. Speak in public to a group (about 30 people) of friends.

15. Talk in a small group (about 5 people) of acquaintances.

16. Talk with a garbage collector.

17. Talk in a large meeting (about 10 people) of strangers.

18. Talk with a librarian.

19. Talk in a small group (about 5 people) of friends.

20. Speak in public to a group (about 30 people) of acquaintances.

401

APPENDIX F

(Detail of the Interviews Conducted)

Sr. No Name School Tehsil/District

1. Chaudry Safdar Govt. High

School 508/9D

Sahiwal/Sahiwal

2. Muhammad

Alam

Govt. High

School 423GB

Tandlianwala/Faisalabad

3. Azhar Walyat Govt. High

School 400GB


4. Dost Ali Govt. High

School 615GB


5. M. Ayyaz Govt. High

Schools Sihal

Rawalpindi/Rawalpindi

6. Ghullam Rasool Govt. High

School 442GB

Samundri/Faisalabad

7. Muhammad

Bashir

Govt. High

School 479GB

Samundri/Faisalabad

8. Muhammad

Shafique

Govt. High

School 40/3R

Okara/Okara

9. Qazi Azhar

Mahmood

Govt. High

School Trahia


10. Ghazanfar

Hussain

Govt.

Elementary

school Sangral


11. Muhammad

Iqbal Baati

Govt. High

School 90/M

Bahawalpur/Bahawalpur

12. Ijaz Hussain

Shah

Govt. High

School 402GB


13. Ghammay Shah Govt. High

School 455GB


14. Shahadat Ali Govt. High

School 38/D

Okara/Okara

15. Muhammad

Khalid

Govt. High

School 100-

A/6R

Sahiwal/Sahiwal

16. Khursheed Govt. High

School

Chakoki

Minchinabad/Bahawalnagar

402

17. Fouzia Anjum Govt. High

School

Ganeshpora


18. Sharifan Bibi Govt. High

School

Minchinabad


19. Muhammad

Aslam

Govt. High

School 89/6R

Sahiwal/Sahiwal

20. Zahoor-ul-Haq Govt. High

School 59GD

Sahiwal/Sahiwal

21. Khawaja Asif Chamb Kalyar Bahawalpur/Bahawalpur

22. Ch. Muhammad

Zulfiqar

Khan Ghalwan Bahawalpur/Bahawalpur

24. M. Alam Jafari Govt. High

School

Sahiwal/Sahiwal

403

APPENDIX G

District Wise Human Development Indices

(Punjab Province) Sr. No Districts HDI 2005 HDI 1998 Annual Rate

of Change

(%)

1. Jehlum

.7698 6866 1.6

2.

Shekhupura

.7301 6201 2.4

3.

Kasur

.7132 5896 2.8

4.

Bhakkar

.7058 5828 2.8

5.

Gujranwala

6958 5621 3.1

6.

Sahiwal

6955 5645 3.0

7.

Chakwal

6937 5841 2.5

8.

Rawalpindi

6932 5920 2.3

9.

Lahore

6882 5994 2.0

10.

Sialkot

6882 5820 2.4

11.

Khushab

6851 5856 2.3

12.

Mandi Bahuddin

6849 5908 2.1

13.

Leiah

6828 5658 2.7

14.

Mianwali

6819 5692 2.6

15.

Hafizabad

6793 5552 2.9

16.

Pakpattan

6729 5288 3.5

17.

Faisalabad

6722 5992 1.7

18.

Okara

6696 5505 2.8

404

19.

Khanewal

6671 5430 3.0

20.

Sargodha

6616 5618 2.4

21.

Jhang

6589 5546 2.5

22.

Narowal

6553 5544 2.4

23.

Rahimyar Khan

6528 5685 2.0

24.

Attock

6522 5554 2.3

25.

Bahawal Nagar

6470 5505 2.3

26.

Multan

6437 5308 2.8

27.

Vehari

6430 5381 2.6

28.

Toba Tek Singh

6381 5999 0.9

29.

Gujrat

6367 5546 2.0

30.

Rajanpur

6347 4780 4.1

31.

D G Khan

6307 5191 2.8

32.

Muzaffar Garh

6201 5076 2.9

33.

Bahawalpur

6182 5370 2.0

34.

Lodhran

6144 5160 2.5

(Taken from the report published by SPDC Pakistan in 2007)

an exploration of motivation and attitude of teachers towards ...

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