An Evaluation of Syrian Refugee Management Approaches in Lebanon

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An Evaluation of Syrian Refugee Management Approaches

in Lebanon

By

Mohammad Saleh

A thesis submitted to Department of Geography, Environment and Disaster

Management at Coventry University

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of MSc Disaster

Management

January 2015

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Acknowledgment

First and above all, I praise ALLAH, the almighty for providing me this opportunity

granting me the capability to proceed successfully. I would like to gratefully and

sincerely thank my supervisor Mr. Martin Nthakomwa for his guidance, understanding,

patience, and most importantly, his friendship during my graduate studies at Coventry

University. He inspired, encouraged and supported me during the whole process of the

research.

I would also like to thank my Father and Mother for everything they have done for me

and who were next to me at all times. Not to forget, special thanks for Norwegian

Refugee Council Lebanon office, Danish Refugee Council-Zahle Office, UNHCR

Lebanon, Lebanese Ministry of Social Affairs.

I would also thank my gorgeous sister Jinan for her encouragement, appreciation and

cheering me up at all the times. To my friends and classmates, thanks for being part of

this wonderful experience. Lastly, I would thank and congratulate my brother Deeb and

his wonderful wife Faten for their first expected new born girl “Selena” who will be the

blast of our family as well I will be an uncle for the first time in my life.

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Table of Contents

Acknowledgment .......................................................................................................................................... 2

Tables of Figures ........................................................................................................................................... 5

Abstract: ........................................................................................................................................................ 6

List of Acronyms: ........................................................................................................................................... 8

Chapter one: ............................................................................................................................................... 10

The Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 10

1.1 Introduction: ...................................................................................................................................................... 10

1.2 Importance of Refugee Camps: ......................................................................................................................... 11

1.3 Refugee Statistics and challenges: ..................................................................................................................... 12

1.4 Syria and Middle East: ....................................................................................................................................... 13

1.5 Research Aims and Objectives .......................................................................................................................... 15

1.5.1 Objectives: ................................................................................................................................. 15

Chapter Two: ............................................................................................................................................... 17

Literature Review ........................................................................................................................................ 17

2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 17

2.2 The Refugee in International Law ..................................................................................................................... 17

2.3 Protection from Sexual and Gender based violence: ......................................................................................... 19

2.4 Integration for Protracted Refugees: Economic and security concerns ............................................................. 20

2.5 Essential Needs and Services:............................................................................................................................ 22

2.5.1 Food Security and Distribution: Identifying the target groups: ................................................. 22

2.5.2 Shelter: ....................................................................................................................................... 24

2.5.3 Healthcare: ................................................................................................................................. 26

2.5.4 Education: .................................................................................................................................. 28

2.6 Capacity Building and Coordination: ................................................................................................................ 29

2.7 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................... 31

Chapter Three: ............................................................................................................................................ 32

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Research Methodology ............................................................................................................................... 32

3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 32

3.2 Research Philosophy:......................................................................................................................................... 32

3.2.1 Importance of Philosophy: ......................................................................................................... 33

3.3 Research Method: .............................................................................................................................................. 33

3.3.1 Qualitative Data Methods: ......................................................................................................... 33

3.3.2 Quantitative Methods: ............................................................................................................... 35

3.4 Methodology Used: ........................................................................................................................................... 36

3.4.1 Qualitative Strategy: .................................................................................................................. 37

3.5 Data sources: ...................................................................................................................................................... 38

3.5.1 Secondary Data: ......................................................................................................................... 38

3.5.2 Primary data: .............................................................................................................................. 39

3.6 Triangulation of Data: ........................................................................................................................................ 39

3.7 Ethical consideration ......................................................................................................................................... 40

3.8 Data Analysis: .................................................................................................................................................... 41

3.9 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................... 42

Chapter Four: .............................................................................................................................................. 43

Finding and Discussion ................................................................................................................................ 43

4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 43

4.2 Legal Refugee Framework in Lebanon: ............................................................................................................ 43

4.3 Shelter ................................................................................................................................................................ 46

4.3.1 Challenges: ................................................................................................................................. 46

4.3.2 Shift in living conditions: Informal Tented Settlements ............................................................ 51

4.3.3 Demographic changes fears ....................................................................................................... 52

4.3.4 Geographical and Funding Challenges ....................................................................................... 53

4.4 Access to services .............................................................................................................................................. 55

4.4.1 Education barriers ...................................................................................................................... 55

4.4.2 Healthcare and Food Security: ................................................................................................... 57

4.5 Coordination: ..................................................................................................................................................... 59

4.6 Capacity Building .............................................................................................................................................. 63

4.7 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................... 65

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Chapter Five: ............................................................................................................................................... 66

Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................... 66

5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 66

5.2 Explore the history of humanitarian response in the world ............................................................................... 67

5.3 Evaluate the legal and humanitarian instruments and their impact on the management of refugees ................. 68

5.4 Examine the types of approaches of managing Syrian refugees in Lebanon ..................................................... 68

5.5 Research Limitations ......................................................................................................................................... 69

5.5.1 Sample Size: ............................................................................................................................... 69

5.5.2 Time Constraint: ......................................................................................................................... 69

5.6 Recommendation to disaster management and humanitarian practitioners ....................................................... 70

List of References: ....................................................................................................................................... 72

Appendix 1 .................................................................................................................................................. 85

Interview schedule ...................................................................................................................................... 85

Appendix 2 .................................................................................................................................................. 86

Ethical Approval .......................................................................................................................................... 86

Appendix C .................................................................................................................................................. 87

Funding Requirements ................................................................................................................................ 87

Tables of Figures

Figure 1: Distribution of Syrian Refugees in the countries (UNHCR 2014) ............................................................... 15

Figure 2: The consecutive increase in the number of refugees in Lebanon since 2012 (The Daily Star 2014a). ........ 48

Figure 3: Rehabilitation of unfinished houses in Sidon-Lebanon (Disaster Emergency Committee 2013). ............... 50

Figure 4: Informal tented settlements in Beqaa showing their flood-risk and poor sanitation .................................... 52

Figure 5: Current Syrian refugee response mechanism (Shibli 2014) ......................................................................... 61

Figure 6: Complexity of Inter-agency Humanitarian Response (Altay and Labonte 2014) ........................................ 62

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Abstract:

The aim of this research is to evaluate the management effectiveness approaches of

Syrian refugee management in Lebanon. To achieve the research aim, a field

investigation was undertaken and desktop generation of data was also utilised to

explore a range of issues related to Lebanon and humanitarian response in general.

Frameworks, concepts, and issues relevant to the discussion were also explored. In

summary, this research utilised both primary and secondary data. The data that was

used in the research represent a primarily qualitative strategy although some

quantitative data has been utilised to add rigour to the discussion. Semi-structured

interviews with practitioners were the main tool for primary data research. The research

it has been achieved through choosing a sample of humanitarian practitioners who have

worked with a range of organisations and occupied roles among the Syrian refugees’

response in Lebanon. From the primary data, several themes were identified and

discussed, including legal refugee framework, shelter, access to services, coordination,

and capacity building. Identification of themes and evaluation of these themes formed a

ground for discussion.

The findings of the research indicates that Lebanon face an increasing number of

Syrian refugees, which constitute 25 % of their main population. Lebanon is not a

signatory of the 1951 refugee convention, and thus application of refugee’ rights can be

complex. The research has found that organizations follow an urban response

approach, as the majority of Syrian refugees are residing within the host community.

This is because the government does not permit refugee camps because of an absence

of political agreement within Lebanon and also due to security and demographic

concerns resulting from such camps. Thus the research indicates the increasing

number of Syrian refugees and the overwhelming need for services such as health,

education, shelter, infrastructure, and job competition results in tensions among both

refugee and hosting community.

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The research thus discusses the major challenges facing humanitarian organisations

working in Lebanon and how the context impacts on the quality and level of their

humanitarian operations.

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List of Acronyms:

DEC Disasters Emergency Committee

DRC Danish Refugee Council

FI Food Items

HAP Humanitarian Accountability Partnership

HRC Higher Relief Commission

ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross

ICLA Information, Counselling and Legal Assistance

IDMC International Displacement Monitoring Centre

ITS Informal Tented Settlement

IASC Inter-Agency Standing Committee

ILO International Labour Organization

INGO International Non-Governmental Organization

IOM International Organization of Migration

MoSA Ministry of Social Affairs

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

NRC Norwegian Refugee Council

NFI Non-Food Items

OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs

PRS Palestinian refugees from Syria

SNAP Syria Needs Analysis Project

UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights

UNHCR UN High Commissioner for Refugees

UNICEF United Nations International Children Emergency Fund

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

VASyR Vulnerability Assessment for Syrian refugees

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WFP World Food Programme

WHO World Health Organization

WASH Water, Sanitation and Hygiene

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Chapter one:

The Introduction

1.1 Introduction:

It is difficult for anyone who has not encountered forced displacement to understand the

experiences of people who have fled their homes whether as Internally Displaced

People (IDPs) or as people who have crossed borders and are considered refugees.

They, IDPs and refugees, are forced to leave their properties, jobs, hopes, and dreams,

which makes them vulnerable people in need of assistance and protection (Office of the

United Nations High Commissioner, for Refugees 2006).

The 1951 Refugee Convention that was adopted by UNHCR has stated the meaning of

refugee in article 1.A.2: ‘well- founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race,

religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion and is

unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that

country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former

habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to such fear, is

unwilling to return to it’ (UNHCR 2010). Whatever the reasons, displacement results in a

mass of vulnerable people most of whom are children and women and need for shelter

to be accommodated in tented settlements, camps, collective centres, or even private

residences (Kett 2005).

The first international coordination meetings for refugees’ affairs was held when the

League of Nations High Commissioner for Refugees was created in 1921 and appointed

Fridtjof Nansen as its head to respond to and assist more than 1 million Russian people.

Those people had fled due to civil war and the Russian revolution between 1917-1921,

and caused more than 800,000 Russian to be stateless with no national identity after

Lenin revoked their citizenship (Hassel 1991).

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In addition along to the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1922 and absorption

of Armenia into the Soviet Union and the occurrence of the Armenian genocide that

caused millions of refugees to flee into countries like Syria and Lebanon. As one of its

basic humanitarian obligations, the League of Nations played a crucial role fulfilling

those responsibilities, repairing the war damage of the displaced Armenian population,

deporting children and women in one of the biggest humanitarian responses known as

the ‘Rescue Movement,’ and the League of Nations thereafter was considered a

permanent organization in bringing peace and security to the world (Watenpaugh 2010).

The public mood started to change near the end of the Second World War. Relief

responsibilities was adapted and embraced in its fellow feeling for humanitarian relief

and support, for huge crowds streaming from the newly liberated countries that were

formally occupied by the Nazis. The feeling of compassion for and the desire to help

those who were suffering led a well-disposed effort toward assisting displaced people

(Whittaker 2006: 55). Up to this point, the 1951 convention that was adopted by UNHCR

related to the status of refugees is considered to contain the main principles for refugee

protection today, and it was entered into force on 22 April 1954 and was amended by

one protocol in 1967 by giving the convention a universal coverage (UNHCR 2010).

1.2 Importance of Refugee Camps:

The first chapter of the UNHCR statue that specifies the mission and goals of the

organization state that its most important role is to provide ‘international protection for

refugees’ (UNHCR 2006). However, how to achieve this protection was not specified,

due to geopolitical issues; most of the countries have signed the 1951 convention

related to the status of refugees and the 1967 protocol that extends its geographical

coverage, which are the main sources when it to comes to dealing with refugees

(Hyndman 2011). Yet, the wealthiest countries have always tried to avoid the legal

obligations toward refugees, which made it necessary for UNHCR and host countries to

respond and establish refugee camps, although the concept of refugee camps was

not mentioned in the 1951 and 1967 mandates (Hyndman 2011).

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There are currently 700 refugee camps worldwide, all with refugees that hope to be

resettled to new and safer places, or even better, to go back to their homelands, all of

which constitutes a challenge for the international nongovernmental organizations

(NGOS) and UN organizations in providing humanitarian assistance (Million Souls

Aware 2008). Refugee camps are usually organized and set by either international

organizations such as UNHCR, ICRC, NGOS, or even by the host countries. The

purpose of refugee camps is to respond to the mass influx of refugees in case of

displacement and to host the displaced people and protect them by providing the

basic needs for survival, such as food, water, clothing, and basic medical needs in what

is known as ‘care-and-maintenance’ until the availability of a long-term solution

(Gallagher 1989).

Refugee camps can sometimes be the only solution for relief organizations although

they might be out of the mandate for some organizations, such as UNHCR; yet

decisions are being forced even when there is a ‘clash of norms’ in the organization

mandates (Anon 2008). In some situations, camps were adopted by the country of

asylum in a way to assert pressure on other countries or states to implement a durable

solution, because some countries escape from their responsibility in sharing the burden

of the refugees, handing the responsibility of the camps over to organizations such as

UNHCR. Unfortunately, the unfairness in sharing the burden of refugees left millions of

refugees in camps for an extended period of time ('Deardorff 2009).

1.3 Refugee Statistics and challenges:

According to UNHCR global trend, 51.2 million peoples were forcibly displaced from

countries worldwide due to the fear of persecution, generalized conflict, or even

violation of human rights; 16.7 million were refugees; 11.2 million were under UNHCR

mandate and 5 million Palestinian refugees were registered by UNRWA. Adding to this

number approximately 33 million were internally displaced in their own countries and up

to 1.2 million were asylum seekers (UNHCR 2014). According to the report, it was

estimated that approximately 10.7 million newly displaced peoples were forced to leave

their homes due to conflict or fear of persecution in 2013, with an average of 32,000

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individuals per day leaving and seeking protection as compared to 2012 ( 23,400) and

2011 (14,600) (UNHCR 2014).

Despite the growing urgency of the problem, the situation of protracted refugees

continues to be a prominent feature on the international political agenda and in security

concerns and studies. Humanitarian agencies have been left alone to deal with the

uprooted populations and try to mitigate the negative impacts that result from the

prolonged exile, which do not compromise a sustainable solution for protracted refugees

(Loescher 2008). However, the chronic shortfall in funding has always been a challenge

that has hampered the humanitarian organizations’ capacity to deliver the full quality of

services to refugees along with ease of blockades and closure of regimes by avoiding

and neglecting governments’ responsibilities toward displaced people and require new

policy and rules (Abozayd 2009).

1.4 Syria and Middle East:

Currently, the Middle East is being affected by political tensions and conflicts and is a

geopolitical indicator of the most important issues in the movement of people, and this

crisis is leading to an increase in the numbers of refugees all over the region (Kamel

DORAÏ 2014). The Middle East region has had a long history of experience in complex

emergencies with 15 of 22 Arab countries; they constitute 85 % of the region’s

population suffering from ‘protracted conflict situations’ (Musani and Shaikh 2008).

The historical conflict has resulted in the long-term displacement of Palestinian

refugees; Somali and Sudanese internal conflicts have driven millions of them outside

homes, and Iraqis have been displaced to countries like Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan

due to the USA military invasion and civil strife (Mowafi 2011). Yet, geographical

analysis of refugee camps in the Middle East from a local context tends to consider

camps for refugees as urban and it tends to look like ‘poorer informal areas’ (Kamel

DORAÏ 2014). In addition, the Arab spring or the Arab awakening has resulted in a

huge number of refugees displaced in the Middle East and North Africa, which was

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considered one of the biggest challenges among relief organizations (Feuilherade

2012).

“Syria has become the great tragedy of this century - a disgraceful humanitarian calamity

with suffering and displacement unparalleled in recent history,” said Antonio Guterres,

the UN’s High Commissioner for Refugees. “The only solace is the humanity shown by the

neighbouring countries in welcoming and saving the lives of so many refugees.”

(UNHCR 2013)

The reason for choosing the topic of the management approaches for Syrian refugees

in Lebanon is that Syrian crisis has entered its fourth year with no sign of slowing down.

This ongoing conflict has led to the displacement of a large number of Syrian refugees

to neighbouring countries of Syria, with the highest concentration in Lebanon

approximately (1.1 million), Jordan (600,000), and Turkey (800,000) (see Fig 1). Over

70% of registered Syrian refugees live outside of formal camps with many struggling to

find adequate and secure shelter. They also struggle to access information, basic

assistance such as health and education, and to get and/or renew any residency or

registration permits that they need, to stay legal due to increased restrictions imposed

by neighbouring countries (Norwegian Refugee Council 2014).

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Figure 1: Distribution of Syrian Refugees in the countries (UNHCR 2014)

1.5 Research Aims and Objectives

In addition to the previous figures and facts, I have outlined some of the objectives that I

will be covering in the coming chapters. Therefore, this research aims to evaluate the

Syrian management approaches in Lebanon.

1.5.1 Objectives:

Explore the history of humanitarian response in the World.

Evaluate the legal and humanitarian instruments and their impact on the

management of refugee camps.

Examine the socio-political context in Lebanon and how this impacts the type and

quality of humanitarian approaches in Lebanon.

Make recommendations to practitioners and policy makers on the effective refugee

management approaches.

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The introduction has set out to introduce the objectives and problems in refugee camps;

it has given the management aim and objectives. The chapter that follows will introduce

some of the literature related to refugee and their management.

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Chapter Two:

Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

This chapter aims to review literature on theory and practice of refugee management

that has been made available by efforts of academics and researchers. The purpose of

this literature review is to discuss issues related to the policy and management of

refugees, as well as explore and evaluate some challenges that face organizations in

managing refugees.

2.2 The Refugee in International Law

“A fundamental tenet of protection is that refugees are able to secure entry to safe

territory, and the key protection response remains preservation of access for those fleeing

conflict, and protection from refoulement.” (UNHCR 2014)

The refugee protection regime that is within the UNHCR mandate has originated from

general principles of human rights; those protection regimes are found on customary

law obligation of the 1951 convention and 1967 protocol, which are guided by the ‘soft-

law ‘of the international law bodies (Feller 2001). Goodwin-Gill (2007) and Feller (2001)

argued that the 1951 convention has a political, legal, and ethical importance in its

terms. From a political side it represents a global framework that entitles the states to

share the responsibility of the refugees (Feller 2001). From a legal view, it provides the

standards or guidance for principal main actions that should be taken for refugees

(Goodwin-Gill 2007). Lastly, from ethical point of view, it’s considered a unique

declaration by countries to help and protect the vulnerable people around the globe

(Goodwin-Gill 2007, Feller 2001).

However, there has been a much debate among practitioners on the refugee law and its

effectiveness or ineffectiveness in dealing with protection of refugees after the

1980s.The time when the international refugee regime shifted from being largely

accommodative to refugee to being much less due to the change about 1980s in the

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origin of refugees (Thielemann 2006). In the past, and perhaps up to the 1980s,

refugees were predominantly from the north whereas recently this has shifted to

increasingly attract refugees from the south (Barnett 2002). In this case, Refugee law

gives legal space of refugee that is agreed by the international law , but takes into

consideration the State sovereignty principle and the self-preservation and territorial

supremacy principle (Goodwin-Gill 2007).

However, from the legal analysis of refugee regime by Goodwin-Gill refugees are

important, because they are an exception and they are outside overarching framework

(Nicholson 1999: 263). Nicholson (1999) identified that it’s outside overarching

framework, because refugee law remained an incomplete legal regime for protection as

far as asylum seekers and refugees are denied for a temporary protection or refuge and

even for a safe return to their homes.

Nevertheless, clear guidelines are needed on long-term considerations once a situation

stops being temporary and moves into a state of protractedness (Kennedy 1986).

Refugee law remains to be legally incomplete regime for protection in cases of

exception, yet it imports certain legal consequences such as the state’s obligation to

respect the non-refoulement principle (Nicholson 1999). It has a duty to states

cooperate with each other along in accordance with the UN charter; there would be no

exceptions and no refugees if the states fulfilled their obligations (Goodwin-Gill 2007,

Nicholson 1999).

Wilde (1999) identified the responsibility issue as arising most acutely in the context of

so-called ‘development refugee camps.These refugee settlements located in developing

states that don’t have the ability and capacity to fulfil their protection responsibilities

without the assistance of international organizations (Wilde 1999). In this case UNHCR

acts as de facto taking the legal responsibility for refugees (Goodwin-Gill 2007: 469).

Tastsoglou (2007) explained the Kenyan state reaction that was different to the flow of

refugees before and after 1990. In 1980, Kenya was able to host a small flow of

Ugandans and Rwandans who were able to absorb and integrate into the community. In

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contrast, Kenya state was unprepared to host the mass flow of refugees coming from

Somali, the Sudanese civil war, and civil strife in Ethiopia. This reaction led to collapse

of the individual refugee states’ determination, adding to the financial and political

implications resulting from 500,000 refugees, which made the Kenyan state to take a

conservative approach by creating refugee camps (Tastsoglou 2007). In the case of

Syrian refugees, one might ask what is their legal status in Lebanon and how are

organizations dealing with assistance programs in accordance to the legal and

humanitarian instruments?

2.3 Protection from Sexual and Gender based violence:

Women and girls face serious risk during conflicts, such as a lack of legal autonomy,

discrimination, and vulnerability to violence. Throughout the 12 years of internal war in

Peru, women were the main target of brutal violence and rape, to punish those who felt

sympathetic to the opposing side. In the 1980s thousands of Mozambique women were

raped after they had been sheltered in Zimbabwe, as were Rwandan women, who were

exposed to sexual violence on a larger scale during the 1994 genocide (Mertus 2000).

However organizations, as part of their protection agenda for civilians in conflict and

post-war situations, have addressed the issue of gender-based violence: “GBV, its

classified as violence that target men or women because of their sex and/or their

gender constructed social role” (Carpenter 2006). Tastsoglou argued that it is

imperative to articulate against and resist the violence contra vulnerable women in war

zones probably because the insecurity refugee women experience is intrinsically tied to

their non-citizen outsider position, which locates them in the margins within the host

nation state (2007:232).

Researchers have argued that there are measures that can be taken to decrease the

prevalence of sexual violence against women in refugee settings such as education,

income-generating activities and mobilizing the women by community and religious

leaders (Hynes and Cardozo 2000). Women can be included in the distribution of food

items (FI) and other non-food items (NFI), so that they will not force or exploited for

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sexual favours (Hynes and Cardozo 2000). To address this issue, UNHCR formed a

response strategy toward SGBV that are designed within the participatory framework

(Horn 2010). Women refugee involvement and empowerment are central to this

approach, in the prevention activities geared at establishing an integrated response to

deal with the true, lived experiences of vulnerable displaced communities (Horn 2010,

Mertus 2000).

In the Tanzanian camps that hosted refugees, women were empowered and protected

through affording adequate health and knowledge services, such as life-skills training,

education for their children, and monitoring of the camps to insure physical safety

(Mertus 2000:5). For the above facts, the researcher asked what might be the protection

needs for Syrian refugees in Lebanon, especially since women and children constitute

78% of the registered Syrian refugee population who are disproportionally affected by

sexual and gender based violence and are at risk, especially when the mobility of girls

and women are often restricted, which make them vulnerable and difficult to be

reached.

2.4 Integration for Protracted Refugees: Economic and security

concerns

The universal declaration of human rights (UDHR) in article 1 states ‘All human

beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights’ (UN General Assembly 1948).

Although all human rights rights were meant to be universal, but their prioritization

considered political and civil rights as first priority and social, cultural and economic

rights to be second priority (Baloch 2006). Baloch (2006) wondered what will be the

case of refugees living for an extended period of time in Protracted Refugee Situation

(PRS) camps? Will they be deprived from their social rights in integration with the

hosting community and will they be complexly dependent on aid, without been

allowed to have a decent job that fulfils their self-esteem and dignity?

Host countries consider that giving social and economic rights for refugees threaten

their sovereignty and will lead to refugees’ refusal to leave the country once a

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repatriation option is open (Chimni 2000). Jacobsen (2003) argued that the refusal of

integration is attributed to the cost and security concerns, where host governments

may argue that refugees might bring security problems for their community, and it’s

better to keep them in camps to control their movement. On the other side, it has

been argued that increase in crime around or in refugee camps is due to the decline

in standards of living, health, and camp conditions that at times have led to increased

violence and crime on women, children, and militarization inside communities (Mertus

2000). Hosting governments believed that refugees should be restricted in camps so

they are less likely to compete with locals for jobs, health services, and other

resources as a result from mass influx of refugees into community (Jacobsen 2003).

Despite Article 13 (1) of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that

“Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of

each state” (UN General Assembly 1948). Some human rights are not guaranteed

outside camps due to the restriction of movement. This freedom should not be limited to

the displaced people’s country of origin; it should be allowed when someone has been

given legal entry into another country. However, the free movement of refugees in most

refugee hosting countries is not permissible allowed outside camps (Goodwin-Gill

2007).

The refugee limited mobility outside camps in the hosting countries violates an

important right considering that Article 23(1) in UDHR states, “Everyone has the right to

work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and to

protection against unemployment” (UN General Assembly 1948). The restriction of

refugees to camps does in many ways reduce the opportunities for refugees to

participate in national economic growth and increase their resistance. For example

refugees in Guinea were known to have brought knowledge, experience, and skills by

introducing swampland rice and making use of land that had been uncultivated (Arnold-

Fernández and Pollock 2013). What will be the government political opinion regarding

protracted presence of Syrian refugees and how organizations will deal with this issue?

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2.5 Essential Needs and Services:

Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of

himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and

necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness,

disability, widowhood, old age, or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his

control. Article 25(1) (UN General Assembly 1948)

Relief agencies have rightly taken into consideration the difficulties refugees face in

host countries by setting camps, and thus camps are usually provided with the basic

needs such as foods, shelter and health care in accordance with UDHR Article 25(1)

(Agier 2008). Agier (2008) explains that when governments are unable to respond

due to their limited capacity or unwillingness to protect, humanitarian response is

essential. Those programmes prioritize lifesaving needs and are designed to protect

and promote the affected populations livelihoods (Agier 2008, Project 2004: 33).

Wessels (2008) argued that supporting people with basic needs would be acceptable

for a short period of time, but withdrawal of services by NGOS in the long term

causes harm and worsen the situation of people and leave them unsupported due to

their dependency on the aid provided by agencies

2.5.1 Food Security and Distribution: Identifying the target groups:

Food aid has been an important aspect for humanitarian intervention and

development by relief organizations since the Second World War (Clay and Stokke

2000: 17). However, identifying the target groups is an essential tool during food

distribution, this assessment raises a fundamental question, ‘Who is vulnerable to

what? It’s to ensure the aid will reach the right people who need it, in the appropriate

form and quantities through effective distribution methods (Barrett 2005, Coppola

2007: 265, Jaspars 1995: 33). In other words, decisions about food choices need to

be made while taking into account local or familiar diets that are acceptable within the

culture of refugees (Wessels 2008).

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In addition to this, it has been suggested that special needs must be taken into

consideration, such as the very young, sick, elderly, and pregnant or lactating women

must have their own specific nutritional needs considered (Coppola 2007: 265,

Project 2004: 107). For that reason, fieldworkers are advised to secure foods familiar

to the locals as much as possible, in consultation with a nutrition specialist and

consistent with the religious traditions of the community (Harrell-Bond 1986: 235,

Project 2004: 159).Such analysis of food security varies according to people’s

livelihood, their social status, location, the time of year and type of disaster (Project

2004). The Sphere Project indicated that the assessment will reflect how the affected

population received income and food before and after the emergency, which will

allow organizations to phase out the programmes needed during complex

emergencies (Project 2004: 112).

Thus Coppola (2007) explained that there are two ways in which food can be

distributed for victims affected by a conflict, “wet” and “dry” distribution. The dry

distribution, which is called “take home” or “ration distribution,” support the victims as

uncooked ingredients that are packed in bulk for a week or month supply (James

2008) .This allows displaced people to take back aid to their homes and cook, such

as blended food with additional supplements including oil and salt (Coppola 2007:

265, James 2008: 17).

The good thing about dry distribution is refugees can use as much as they want from

the bulk, where families will be likely to eat together. This will positively benefit the

psychosocial situation, mental health of the refugees, and give them more time to

perform other tasks, because refugees will be less likely to wait for a long time in lines

to receive their distribution (Coppola 2007).

Despite its positive effect on the psychosocial status of family, the sale of food aid

from refugee camps near Uvira, Zaire, was a sign of distress and not food excess.

The absence of important components in food baskets of dry distribution in Zaire

camps, such as cooking utensils, caused difficulties in preparing food and limited the

24

ability of refugees to diversify their diet and take care of pressing non-food needs

(Reed and Habicht 1998).

Wet distribution requires large capacities from organizations to provide people with

prepared meals on a daily basis. By doing so, it enables organizations to have

greater control on the food stock and ensures the food is eaten by people regularly

(Coppola 2007: 265). Yet, the distribution of wet food in Gonaives, Haiti, has resulted

in high violence, putting women and girls at risk; such difficulties were due to long

lines of refugee women waiting to receive food (Binder and Grünewald 2010: 74). In

line with the above literature, the researcher wondered how the management of

Syrian refugees’ situations will utilize the resources to ensure delivery to to the most

vulnerable people. How agencies and the hosting government help Syrian refugee

food security, and what might be the programs developed to prevent dependency for

aid among Syrian refugees in the future?

2.5.2 Shelter:

The UNHCR stipulates certain standards and guidelines for refugee camps, yet the

implementation of such standards varies from one camp to another (Loescher, Milner

and Newman 2008, UNHCR 2008). However, shelter is an important factor and

determinant of human survival at the first stages of disaster, a necessary need that

provides security, protection, personal safety, and human dignity during the very hard

circumstances that a person passes through during conflicts (Project 2004: 208).

Ensuring the safety and dignity of individuals requires considerable adequate

assessment of the shelter needs for refugees over a long or short period of time,

where vulnerable immediate needs must be managed with what is available at the

first stages (Coppola 2007: 266).

Many scholars considered the refugee camp as a last resort; it’s preferred to avoid

the camp setting because of the negative consequences that it has on refugees

especially in the early stages of the camp (Davis and Lambert 1995: 556). The camp

provides uncomfortable and unhealthy conditions due to the overcrowding and poor

25

site selection (Coppola 2007). Such camps in the longer term might create

dependency of refugees and will be costly for organizations to sustain, especially

when it comes to donors’ fatigue due to the growing numbers of disasters and their

size, in locations where nations and corporations have run out of funds (Coppola

2007: 530, Davis and Lambert 1995: 556).

Not all the refugees choose to live in camps, and many of the affected people stay in

the hosting community with members that share some of their religious, cultural, and

ethnic values (Coppola 2007, Davis and Lambert 1995: 557, Project 2004: 213). Such

assistance requires shelter support for the hosting community to expand and

rehabilitate the shelter capacity for to better accommodate the displaced people with

adequate appraisal for the resulting demand on the social facilities in the host country

(Project 2004).

However, refugees sometimes need a long time to go back their home country; which

create some of the legal and social problems that might exist over the use of the land

(Davis and Lambert 1995: 558). Such cases existed in Afghanistan for the returnees

from the urban areas who occupied private and public lands without the permission of

the owners or even unrecognized deeds, which exposed them to forced eviction, as

owners and authorities seek to remove them to build new houses (Howard and

Madzarevic 2014).

Norwegian Refugee Council and Internal displacement monitoring centre have

recorded cases between November 2010 and June 2013, where it was estimated that

557 families affected by forced eviction in Afghanistan, which was due to the lack of

clear and effective legal treatment whether or not those affected by eviction have the

legality to stay or not (IDMC 2014). Consequently, the increase number in Syrian

refugees arriving in Lebanon and the living conditions they face raises the question of

the applicability of refugee camps that can accommodate this large number of

refugees.

26

2.5.3 Healthcare:

Health is an essential issue to consider during an emergency. According to World

Health Organization (WHO), “health is a state of complete physical, mental and social

wellbeing”, it’s considered one of the most essential human rights that requires proper

shelter, nutrition, and sanitation (James 2008). No matter how good the situations of

refugee and internally displaced populations arriving into camps, the refugee camps

continue to provide a relatively unhealthy environment to vulnerable people due to

poor water and sanitation, which cause high morbidity (Hanquet and MEDECINS

SANS FRONTIERS 1997: 124, James 2008: 32).

Such situations in emergencies require immediate emergency first aid to cover the

health needs; however such unhealthy environments require an adequate health

assessment to identify the level of healthcare for the affected population through a

Crude Mortality Rate (CMR). CMR is a measure of the number of people die each

day per 10,000 to identify what problems do exist in the area for better control and

treatment (Coppola 2007: 270). When such controls are interrupted, like access to

clean water and shelter, people start experiencing communicable diseases resulting

from the cold, rain, and heat, and such prevention techniques might be through

maintaining essential healthy environmental and living conditions (Coppola 2007:

271, Noji 1997).

It has been emphasized that relief health workers must understand the importance of

the link between environmental conditions and the populations’ health status in

providing effective health services; for example, immediate education regarding

diarrheal illnesses resulting from contaminated water supplies and improperly

prepared food , purifying water actions, and other preventative measures are needed

(Noji 1997:65, Biran et al. 2012).

The use of education in changing behaviour has resulted in health benefits among

people. In one study, a 48% risk reduction in diarrheal diseases resulted from the use

of hand soap for washing in a non-camp setting, and a 17 % reduction was shown

27

due to the use of clean water supplies (Cairncross et al. 2010). However, achieving

such health benefits requires additional efforts in changing refugees’ behaviour and

remains a major challenge for relief workers to sustain (Curtis et al. 2001). The

combination of behaviour change and infrastructure improvements is one of the tools

that humanitarian agencies try to reduce the risk of infectious diseases among camp

residents (Biran et al. 2010).

For example, when it comes to hygiene and sanitation levels at camps, UNHCR

standards is to provide 1 latrine per family, yet camps in Kenya depend on a

community latrine, and there is still a struggle in meeting sphere standards

(Vadlamud 2002). IRC, which is a relief agency, has established education system

activities in three camps (Thailand, Kenya, Ethiopia ) through staff recruitment from

the camps. It has used a combination of education, communication, and information

support for refugees to improve their behaviour for an adequate use of resources, to

prevent disease contamination and improve healthcare for wellbeing (Biran et al.

2012).

Accessing healthcare for refugees continues to be difficult (Kemp 1993). Kemp (1993)

argues that access to healthcare requires communication and that difficulties in

communication have lead refugee agencies to consider health care with low priority.

In many cases NGOs face difficulties in working and communicating with healthcare

providers due to the increased number of refugees who need healthcare and the

overworked staff that lack knowledge about health related problems and treatment

(Biran et al. 2010, Kemp 1993). How can refugee management be effective without

the presence of an adequate healthcare system that provides assistance? How can

agencies prioritize those health needs and identify the most vulnerable among Syrian

refugees, especially now that there is more than 1 million Syrian refugees in

Lebanon?

28

2.5.4 Education:

“Education is the closest thing to magic in the world. Nothing can transform a person’s

life the way education can. It instils confidence and gifts people with a voice. Apart from

the obvious benefits of a better lifestyle and a more meaningful life, education can lead to

a better society at large; a society with people aware of their rights and duties “(UNICEF

2013)

The 2011 global monitoring report focused on the hidden issues in conflicts, revealing

that 42% of the world’s children do not attend school and live in places of conflict

(UNESCO 2011). Such percentage has created a lot of concerns among organizations

and has advocated for the right of education for children, due to its great benefits.

These benefits include physical protection as children in emergencies are the earliest

and most frequent victims of violence and providing education promote a sense of

normalcy and hope (Kirk and Cassity 2007).Thus, whether the permanency of the

refugee children in the new environment is long or short time, education is essential as

it avoid them from being considered a lost generation (Egwu 1987).

However, Yates and Bradely (2000) argued that education is considered secondary in

importance, whereas general priorities focus on the basic needs of shelter, food, and

healthcare. Indeed, being in settlements for long periods of time made it necessary to

provide education to refugees, in order for them to develop self-reliance and skills to

cope with their situation (Kirk and Cassity 2007). Education can prepare refugees for a

return to their country of origin and if not possible for integrating in the host community

or being transferred to a third country as part of resettlement process as they learn and

engage in the programs offered by agencies (Yates and Bradely 2000, Egwu 1987).By

offering education, agencies fulfil a legal and moral duty in accordance with the

international declaration and convention of human rights (Yates and Bradely 2000: 178).

But, implementing education in protracted situations encountered challenges (Angwenyi

2013, ISIK-ERCAN 2012).These challenges exist when there is a possibility of

integration into a new community, where the hosting country system of education

should be taught in camps. These create parents’ preference for their children to be

29

taught in their native language or education system, if the repatriation option is available

to facilitate and ease their transition into their country of origin educational system

(Angwenyi 2013). ISIK-ERCAN (2012) identified that life experience difficulties by

refugees in the new society are due to the inability to learn language, causing emotional

and academic challenges and resulting in trauma for refugees.

Researchers argued that such trauma and pressure faced by refugee children might

cause them to incur psychological problems that affect their academic and behavioural

performances, especially when the situation is protracted (Hurley et al. 2014). Still,

supporting refugee children with education requires policy makers and agencies to

better understand the needs of refugees and to try to explore the best possible ways

communities and schools form a coherence framework to support development of those

children (Suárez-Orozco and Todorova 2007).

Such process will bring positive results on the integration of refugee children among

societies and would bring positive academic and economic results to the hosting

country (Suárez-Orozco and Todorova 2007). Hence it is the responsibility of the

hosting community and educators in creating the framework through which development

of the children would be met (ISIK-ERCAN 2012, Suárez-Orozco and Todorova 2007).

As the Syrian crisis continues, education for refugee children is a concern, and this

makes clear the need for an education system. But the question is: How would such a

system be present? Will it be better for Syrian students' integration into the Lebanese

schools? And what might be the obstacles?

2.6 Capacity Building and Coordination:

Researchers argued that in previous years, there had been a distinction between the

UNHCR protection role and relief assistance, especially in light of the additional

humanitarian programs that are dependent. However, programs related to assistance

and protection projects tended to mingle together and were extended beyond

employment, integration, or self-sufficiency projects to cover internally displaced

people and returnees to their countries (Goodwin-Gill 2007: 500, Smillie 2001). The

30

UNHCR agenda on protection mentioned the way of linking refugees and their host

community together; such linkage depends mainly on integration and development to

the community capacities (UNHCR 2003).

Capacity building is an interaction of human and social capital along with the

organizational resources that exist within a community that can be used to solve

community problems and improve their well-being (Chaskin et al. 2007). It’s operated

through social process, organizations’ efforts, and the community networks that exist

among them (Chaskin et al. 2007: 7, Ladek 2007). Vocational training was one of the

key activities for capacity building in Iraq, which lead to income generation by IDPS

and decrease their dependency on agencies (Ladek 2007).

In addition, IOM supported the neighbouring governments with technical assistance

and trained Iraqi NGOS to improve their ability in assisting IDPS and to better disaster

preparedness, to ensure best practices in camp management. Despite that link,

agencies have failed to recognize the importance of partnership between NGOS,

community, religious organizations and governments, which undermine the local

capacity and create dependence among displaced people (Smillie 2001). Such failure

in coordination is related to the environment that organizations work in, which is not

encouraging (Stephenson 2005). While all the relief organizations have the same

goal—helping people and reducing their suffering—their mission, primary motive, and

the operational way in dealing with refugees may differ (Balcik et al. 2010).

In all ways, developing the capacity of people requires a joint collaboration and

partnership between community groups, agencies, and governments that will

increase the effectiveness and ability of organizations and groups to peruse their

aims contribute to the adequate implementation of programs (Chaskin et al. 2007,

Skinner 1997: 18). Such implementation in capacity building should be systematic,

taking a look at the development needs of organizations; comprehensive, by looking

at the needs of the affected individuals in the community; and forward looking, taking

31

into account existing situations by planned programs that represent the needs of the

organizations and community (Skinner 1997).

As this coordination is essential in refugee issues, how could agencies in Lebanon

provide development program assistance for Syrian refugees? And how could the

coordination be between relief organizations, UNHCR, and the Lebanese government

in maintaining refugee progress and capacity building during the implementation of

the development programs?

2.7 Conclusion

This chapter discusses the literature review regarding refugees within refugee camps.

The literature includes different views from researchers regarding protection of

refugees through international law, healthcare systems, education, food aid, and

capacity building and its effects on the future of refugees. The chapter that follows will

discuss the methodology used in generating and analysing.

32

Chapter Three:

Research Methodology

3.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses the methods that have been identified and utilised for this

research and provides the rationale and logic behind choosing them. The methodology

and a range of strategies and techniques will be discussed. Within this process, this

section will also identify the limitations and ethical issues that impacted on the process

of utilising the chosen methodology, and techniques of the research will have been

achieved. It is also the purpose of this research to provide the strategy and methods for

analysing the data that will be generated through using this methodology.

3.2 Research Philosophy:

Research philosophy is defined as the development of the research background,

research knowledge and its nature (Saunders 2009). It guides the research through a

whole framework that contains the beliefs, perception, and understanding of other

theories and practices (Cohen 2000).This enhances the research while creating clear

relationships between research objectives in an attempt to answer questions through

the creation of new knowledge (Cohen 2000, Gliner and Morgan 2000). Potter (2000)

argued that several components of research philosophy exist: ontology, epistemology

and methodology.

Ontology is a tool of enquiry for philosophical assumptions that enables the researcher

to understand the descriptive nature of science according to a certain theory that does

not need to be true (Jacquette 2002). However, epistemology is the theory of

knowledge, especially with regard to its methods, validity, scope, and the distinction

between justified belief and opinion (Bryman and Bell 2003). Methodology includes the

theoretical and systematic analysis methods that have been applied to the specific

research; it includes concepts such as theoretical models, concepts, and qualitative or

quantitative techniques (Saunders 2009) .

33

3.2.1 Importance of Philosophy:

There are several reasons why research philosophy is important. Research philosophy

enables the scientific knowledge to back up the researcher’s beliefs and increase its

credibility through the use of research methods to generate new knowledge (Potter

2000). This philosophy enables the researcher to avoid unnecessary work through

identifications of the limitations of certain approaches (Crossan 2003).

3.3 Research Method:

For the purposes of this research, qualitative approaches were primarily utilised,

although some quantitative aspects were also used. Further to the point, it has been

argued that the way research questions and logic of any study are framed so that

research can be clearly qualitative or quantitative; such logic is meant to flow naturally

through the design, data collection, and data analysis (Punch 2006). Different

methodologies in data collection are explained by researchers as a result of different

purposes where achieving it requires different types of data analysis (Dey 1993).

3.3.1 Qualitative Data Methods:

It has been argued that the strategy of qualitative research in data collection and

analysis emphasize the use of words rather than quantification (Bryman and Bell 2003).

Qualitative approach allows researchers to study people’s experience with the use of

specific research methods, such as the use of published documents, in-depth

interviews, focus group discussion, observation of participants, and other projective

techniques (Collis and Hussey 2003, Hennink, Hutter and Bailey 2011, Walker 1985).

These methods provide an in-depth understanding of the issues that face people and

the context that they are in by exploring new topics (Hennink, Hutter and Bailey 2011).

Such research approach is interpretivist, constructionist, and intuitivist (Bryman and Bell

2003, Hennink, Hutter and Bailey 2011). But qualitative research is criticized for being

too subjective and impressionistic where the findings often rely on the unmethodical

views about what is important or not (Quimby 2011). It can sometimes create

34

knowledge upon the personal relationships that the researchers build during a study,

which makes it difficult to integrate data from different respondents (Bryman and Bell

2003: 423, Quimby 2011: 80).

Although quantification is a good way of slicing up phenomena to become a detached

element of the overall framework, qualitative methods are an effective tool in

contributing to the development of a meaningful quantity (Anderson 2010, Moriarty

2011, Sofaer 1999). On the opposite side Bryman and Bell (2003) considered the

qualitative research as unstructured and depend upon the researcher skills , therefore

it’s difficult to conduct a replication in generating data since there are no adequate

standards as it depends on researchers’ predictions. Nevertheless, qualitative methods

create links between procedures and resulting outcomes (Moriarty 2011).

Therefore, it is critical to understand and establish the contextual framework of the

research, because it improves the researcher’s sensitivity to the qualitative data

research collection for a better interpretation (Collis and Hussey 2003: 143, Moriarty

2011). However, such tools in integration of data makes the analysis more demanding

and time consuming, where the collection of information can be deputed or delegated to

another researcher and makes the data difficult to be synthesized (Walker 1985: 29).

Hence qualitative data enhance the circumferential vision of the research by providing

a rich description of phenomena that is important for the inquiry at early stages, thus

qualitative research is not only used as descriptive but it help the research to move

further from inquiry toward ‘more meaningful explanation’ (Moriarty 2011).

On the other side, qualitative method is argued that it’s difficult to generalize the findings

because the interviews or the research is being set on a small sample of individuals in a

certain community or organization (Bryman and Bell 2003: 423).

Such limited finding for generalization makes the research lack reliability and validity,

which makes the research ambiguous on how it was analysed and the conclusions

lack transparency in dealing with topics (Bryman and Burgess 1994, Bryman and Bell

2003, Quimby 2011). Another aspect associated with qualitative research is that it

35

cannot be generalized to the overall population, because data is collected from a small

sample of individuals (Anderson 2010). On the contrary, Naturalistic observation, such

as structured interviews, is considered one of the tools for data collection in qualitative

methods, which enable the researcher to observe behaviour and document it without

being initially fully aware the type of data that will be meaningful and useful (Madrigal

and McClain 2012).

3.3.2 Quantitative Methods:

Quantitative data is a numerical tool and includes numbers used to generate new

information through classifying features, counting and constructing a statistical model to

explain what was observed (Babbie 1992, Punch 2005: 55). Researchers defend the

use of quantitative methods as it’s an attempt to manipulate variables to show a certain

phenomenon that validate the research and objective, and such objectivity is achieved

by preventing the personal biases of the researcher to affect or influence the

interpretation and data analysis through examining and segregating the common

relations between the variables in the study through a strategy designed to achieve

certain comparison (Punch 2005, Punch 2006, Taylor 2000: 69, Wellington and

Szczerbinski 2007). Such design of Quantitative research can be either experimental,

where certain subjects are measured before and after a treatment, or descriptive, where

issues about certain phenomena is measured once (Babbie 1992).

Several preoccupations reflects the epistemologically grounded theory of the acceptable

knowledge, thus the use of quantitative methods in social research makes the study

broader and promotes the generalization of results through involving greater subjects

(Bryman and Bell 2003: 169). Moreover, the use of quantitative methods allows more

objectivity of results, since these particular types of methods are designed to give data

summaries that support the generalization concept through involving few variables and

more cases to ensure the validity and reliability through the use of particular procedure

(Babbie 1992).

36

It is argued that the generalization concept is limited by the fact that statistical analysis

is based on collected samples for a specified time, place, and respondents, which

makes the validity of the statistical analysis assumption to be false (Pole and Lampard

2002: 241). Moreover, quantitative researchers failed in distinguishing the world of

nature from people; in other words it tended to turn a blind eye on the differences

between the natural world and the social (Bryman and Bell 2003).

Yet, it also reflects that answers from respondents will not show what people really feel

and create a constant view about participants’ social life that is somehow independent

(Babbie 1992, Bryman and Bell 2003: 175). On the contrary, Bryman and Bell (2003)

argued that the data can be replicated through applying those specific procedures and

standards, which then can be analysed in order to be compared with previous results.

3.4 Methodology Used:

It has been argued that there is no single scheme for planning a research; the research

purpose determines the methodology used and its design. Setting up the research

requires a balancing and harmonizing act between what is workable and coherent and

what is considered a planned possibility (Cohen 2000).

For the purpose of this research, the chosen study has mainly relied on the use of the

qualitative data methods, where most of the data were as words rather than

quantification or numerical interoperations. The use of qualitative methods is considered

more appropriate in the type of chosen research questions that need to be addressed

for this work, and it focus on the organizational experience (Cassell and Symon 1994). It

has been argued that inductive qualitative research leads to establishment of laws,

models, and theories; using this path by researchers allows them to adopt existing

theory for a proposed research study and propose a theory to test (Tucker, Powell and

Meyer 1995).

Yin (1984) argued that the use of qualitative methods is more appropriate when trying to

understand complex social phenomena; it aims to seek the appropriate knowledge

37

about the main fundamental characteristics before stating a theory. It is noted that there

are three major data-gathering techniques linked to qualitative research: enquiring,

examining, and experiencing. Such use of qualitative techniques immerses the

researcher within a certain context and produce questions for a further understanding of

a certain issue (Wolcott 1992).

3.4.1 Qualitative Strategy:

3.4.1.1 Interviews:

The following research will be using interviews as a tool for qualitative data strategy,

where interviews were among the most familiar tools for collecting data in qualitative

research (Bryman and Bell 2003: 210, Dicicco-Bloom and Crabtree 2006, Punch 2005).

The researchers explained the concept of the interview as being a two-way

conservation that is set up by the interviewer to gain information from a chosen

participant and attempts to learn from the participants’ point of view, to display their

experience meaning and to give scientific explanations of their ideas and the

participants’ own perspective (Blumberg, Cooper and Schindler 2008: 281, Brinkmann

2015: 3, Patton 1990). Further to this point, researchers use interviews instead of direct

observation due to the fact that not everything can be observed, such as intentions,

feelings, and peoples’ thoughts (Patton 1990: 278).

Researchers identified that a qualitative research interview can be a structured interview

in which the researcher uses a detailed list of questions similar to a questionnaire in

quantitative study. These are semi-structured where the interviews usually start with a

specific question, but it allows the interviewee to elaborate more about his thoughts and

opinions. An unstructured interview usually starts with a participant narrative and

doesn’t have any of the specific questions to cover (Blumberg, Cooper and Schindler

2008, Pole and Lampard 2002: 128).

For the purpose of this interview, the researcher focussed on the use of semi-structured

interviews, because structured interviews often generate quantitative data (Dicicco-

Bloom and Crabtree 2006). Using the semi-structured in-depth interview allows the

38

researcher to pry deeply into personal and social matters and to inform multiple

research questions, including how certain situations or events are perceived by people:

What are the attitudes? Such research questions will be sufficiently focused during the

interview on the respondents’ common experience about the topic discussed (Crabtree

and Miller 1999).

3.4.1.2 Sampling Frame:

The selected sample of interviewers were among practitioners from different

organizations who had previous experience in emergency relief and early recovery

through providing education, shelter, distribution of food and non-food items, and

organizations concerned with statelessness and refugee status procedures. It has been

stated that choosing samples is based on a repetitive process for a purposeful sampling

that aims to maximize the richness and depth of the given data to answer the research

question (Dicicco-Bloom and Crabtree 2006).The selected sample was chosen based

on a non-probability purposive sampling, which is a subjective approach by which

certain relevant characteristics portray the selected population that is relevant to the

topic studied, by which researchers make informed theoretical decisions (Blumberg,

Cooper and Schindler 2008: 253, Pole and Lampard 2002).

3.5 Data sources:

3.5.1 Secondary Data:

The researcher used a number of sources for data collection for the research, including

both secondary and primary data. Secondary data was utilised, and this is data that is

collected and generated by someone else for other purposes (Blumberg, Cooper and

Schindler 2008). Library-based documents were among the secondary sources which

produced a critical synopsis for journals, books, and newspapers that are related to the

research; policy-focused reports aimed to examine relevant policy decisions; computer-

based reports that specify data sets that have been previously analysed, and historical

reports and documents from archives (Blaxter, Hughes and Tight 2010: 151) .In

addition, the analysis of research materials depended mainly on secondary sources

39

such as regional, local, and international instruments, journal articles, media reports,

and statistics from relevant organizations that were validated and credible.

Since secondary data is readily available, the strength of this source is that researchers

can immediately analyse the data and try to find an answer for the research issue

(Blumberg, Cooper and Schindler 2008). However, the use of secondary data has

inherent weaknesses. These weaknesses are due to the fact that the data will have

been originally collected with the specific research problem that might not fit perfectly

with a research questions that other researchers attempt to address. (Blaxter, Hughes

and Tight 2010, Blumberg, Cooper and Schindler 2008: 316). Further to the above

argument, it is one of the key reasons for choosing secondary data, since it gives the

researcher the ability to gain theoretical viewpoints and in this case insight into the

management of refugees phenomena in Lebanon.

3.5.2 Primary data:

Another source is primary data collections that aim to help the research question in

tailoring the researcher needs (Punch 2006). For the purposes of this research personal

interviews were used to collect the data where a schedule of questions was designed to

fit the situation and context. The main advantages for primary data is that it focus on

specific issue presenting original, unbiased and up-to-data information (Blumberg,

Cooper and Schindler 2008). However, Bryman and Bell (2003) stated that researchers

might incur high costs due to the longer periods researchers stay in the field collecting

data.

3.6 Triangulation of Data:

Triangulation is an important tool for research. It has been argued that the term refers to

a number of techniques that are utilised to strengthen the validity of research, including

for example the use of secondary, primary, and organizations’ reports in combination

with multiple methods in social research (Burgess 1993: 107). Furthermore, it is argued

that there are two types of methodological triangulation: within method and across

method (Bekhet and Zauszniewski 2012).

40

For this research primary and secondary data sources were utilised to assist with

triangulation. Indeed within this triangulation approach both interviews and secondary

sources of information were used. The use of the two primary and secondary sources

may be referred to as triangulation (Bekhet and Zauszniewski 2012). Using

methodological triangulation has been a beneficial tool in supporting the confirmation of

the data, enhanced the understanding of the study, and increased its validity (Blaxter,

Hughes and Tight 2010, Bryman and Bell 2003, Patton 1990). In addition, the use of

triangulation strengthens research outcomes and aims to decrease individual method

weakness, which will make the data more comprehensive (Bekhet and Zauszniewski

2012, Cassell and Symon 1994).

3.7 Ethical consideration

Ethics have been categorized as a crucial element in any social research (Loue 2002).

Ethics involve the study of the right behaviour by addressing the questions how to

conduct the research in a responsible and moral way (Cooper and Schindler 2008). It

addresses how the proposed methodology can be used properly to guide the research

from the start of the study until the completion and publication of results (Blumberg,

Cooper and Schindler 2008, Oates, Kwiatwoski and Coulthard 2010). Considering

ethical issues enables researchers to find solutions for the difficult social situations by

engaging in a strict evaluation of projects that will allow them to understand the

compromises made when doing the methodological methods of the social research

(Burgess 1993: 120).

Ethical considerations ensure the researchers to protect the confidentiality of the

information given by respondents and the anonymity of the respondents (Blumberg,

Cooper and Schindler 2008). Since this piece of research relied on interviews, the

principles of good practice were pursued by complying with all legal and ethical

requirements of Coventry University and the research project proceeded following

permission from all relevant parties. During the research process and consistent with

ethical considerations, the research protected the privacy and freedom of participants

through an informed consent form, which was given to participants prior to interviews to

41

explain the purpose and nature of the research so as to give interviewees the

opportunity to freely decide whether or not to take part in the research.

3.8 Data Analysis:

Having discussed the issues in this research, it seems appropriate to deal with the way

in which data was analysed. It has been stated that before the researcher introduces

and analyses the possible data analysis techniques he or she needs to acknowledge

and realise that analysis is a continuous process, which cannot take place in vacuum

(Erlandson 1993). This is a result of the continuous knowledge the researcher gains

when interacting between the research tools and respondents, where for each interview

conducted more knowledge is generated, not just for the studied phenomenon but also

for interview guide (Blaxter, Hughes and Tight 2010, Erlandson 1993: 112).

The research is mostly qualitative as it relied mainly on the use of secondary data

(books, journal articles, organizational reports) and interviews from representatives of

NGOS that have been working with refugees. The researcher depended mainly on the

grounded theory in analysing the qualitative data. Bryman and Bell (2003) defined

grounded theory as it’s a theory resulted from data derived through systematic

gathering and analysis throughout the research process (2003:585).

Analysis of semi-structured interviews depended upon identifying, coding, and

categorizing the themes presented in the data. By using the coding system, every

interview will be classified and assessed according to analytical categories through

which the data will be broken down into components and every interviewee given a

name (Flick et al. 2004). As a tool for coding qualitative information, the researcher will

use thematic analysis, which is identifying the themes and categories that were

produced from a variety of sources, which arises from data derived from people (Jupp

and Sapsford 1996: 291).

When analysing the secondary data, the researcher focused on the construction of the

social reality of the events, and documents were viewed through which the social

42

powers are found, and they are approached from a cultural context and viewed as a

mean of persuasion (Blaxter, Hughes and Tight 2010). The focus on the cultural and

social aspects are due to the fact that the researcher believes that documents, sources

or other studies are a result of human activities created on the basis of certain theories

and ideas through a certain procedure that will be employed by the researcher making

the documents readable in a description of reality (Flick et al. 2004). Thus the resulting

understanding of the previous concepts guided the researcher to analyse previous

documents from a social context, where experiences of people and meanings of

documents were treated in an objective way and were not marginalized.

3.9 Conclusion

This chapter discusses the methodology used in the research. It has identified

strategies, methods, and a number of tools for data collection and analysis. It also

discusses some ethical considerations and limitations that researchers took into

account during the design and field research stages of this work. Thus, the chapter that

follows presents the findings generated by the tools explained above and engages in

data analysis, with a view to arrive at the key issues and conclusions for this research.

43

Chapter Four:

Finding and Discussion

4.1 Introduction

The aim of this chapter is to present, discuss, and identify the key issues generated

from the primary data. Thus the presented themes will evaluate and highlight the key

elements of Syrian refugee management in Lebanon and examine this within the wider

context of refugee management in different parts of the world. Thus as part of the

presentation of this data, themes will be identified and critiqued. Based on the data

generated from primary research and interviews long broad themes are categorized,

including legal refugee frameworks, which impact refugees in Lebanon, Shelter, and

access to services by refugees, Coordination and capacity building for refugees and

Lebanese local organizations to cope with the increasing pressure of refugees. The

separate evaluation and discussion of those themes will lead the researcher into the

relevant conclusion.

4.2 Legal Refugee Framework in Lebanon:

One of the major themes that was observed during the primary data collection from

interviews was the legal status of refugees in Lebanon and how such an issue has an

impact on the provision of services to refugees by humanitarian relief organizations.

Such impact includes the livelihood of refugees.

Within the response to Syrian crisis, all the interviewees stated that Lebanon hosts a

large number of Syrian refugees, mainly in Bekaa and North Lebanon. Thus it was

suggested that such a huge influx of refugees created many management problems in

supporting refugees through provision of relevant services. PM3 Interviewees observed

that the increase in the number of refugees was likely to worsen the situation. In spite of

this worsening state of circumstances, it was suggested that Syria lacked legal

frameworks within which services of refugees would best be provided. PM3 elaborated

that Lebanon lacks the specific regulations and legislation related to rights and status of

44

refugees. It was stated that these difficulties made it extremely imperative to work with

the social affairs and ministry of interior to facilitate refugees’ access to the services that

are critical to their experiences.

One key issue that was elaborated on by some interviewees, PM1, PM2, and PM3,

during the interviews, is that Lebanon is not a signatory for the 1948 Universal

Declaration of Human Rights. In addition, interviewees observed that Lebanon is not a

signatory to the 1951 UN Convention and 1967 Protocol related to the status of

refugees. As such it means that the Lebanese government has no obligation as a

country for asylum. PM3 stated that the majority of refugees enter Lebanon in a legal

way, but those who enter in an illegal way or without any prior authorizations are under

the risk of being deported or fined, and this is the case of most Syrian refugees and

asylum seekers in Lebanon.

On the one hand, PM4 explained that the repatriation of the Syrian refugees is the best

durable solution and most preferred by Government of Lebanon, but on the other hand

the government would like to work within the spirit of the “non-refoulement” principle,

acknowledging that the return for Syrian refugees to their home country has to be

consistent with refugee laws and include political solutions to address this crisis. PM1

argued the principles of the 1951 convention and stated:

There are some parts of the 1951 convention [that] are customary, so they apply on all

countries even if they didn’t sign the convention such as the principle of ‘non-refouelment.

Indeed, this is clearly mentioned in the statue of the international court of Justice Article

38(1)b, which clearly states ‘international customs, as evidence of a general practice

accepted as law’ (International Court of Justice 1945). In accordance to this point it

means that it applies during disputes in correlation with the general international laws

and this law makes countries that have not signed the convention like Lebanon to abide

by this legal stipulation. Thus, the government is obliged to respect these rules (Feller

2001, Vang 2014).

45

It would seem that there are difficulties in applying what may be seen as an obligation to

the Lebanese government to manage refugees and that in the process Syrian refugees

cannot be forcibly returned to their country of origin when they enter illegally or remain

for a longer time when they are under threat. These principles urge refugees not to go

back to their countries where they might face persecution and make them benefit from

such rule until they are considered to no longer have refugee status (Goldner Lang

2013).

Interestingly, the analysis of secondary data showed that one of the major reasons for

Lebanon accepting Syrian refugees was because the Lebanese government is in fact

abiding by the spirit of the Bilateral agreement for Economic and social cooperation and

coordination, that was signed by Lebanon and Syria in 1993. This agreement authorized

the freedom of work, stay, employment, and the practice of economic activities between

the nationals of the two countries (International Labour Organization 2014). Lebanon

has therefore maintained an open-border policy to Syrians which allows refugees to

work in the country; it showed lenience toward refugees that have not regulated their

stay according to Lebanese law (International Labour Organization 2014).

Conversely, PM1 debated this situation as complex, because by the same bilateral

perspective of thinking about Syrians, the affected people are not recognized as

refugees and thus are not recipients of international refuge protection. This state of

affair means that people from Syria must have the right of residency through costly visa

procedures, which would be prohibitive to many refugees. Thus, PM3 observed that this

situation affects 75 % of refugees residing in Lebanon. Indeed, without the required

entry or stay documentation Syrian refugees are classified as ‘illegal’ migrants with

limited legal status (Aranki and Kalis 2014).

Examining this issue from the perspective of the wider experiences of refugees, it

seems that there is a gap for refugee protection in most refugee contexts. As a matter of

comparison, in Guinea refugees from Sierra Leone were extremely vulnerable to

imprisonment and arbitrary arrest in towns, at checkpoints, or even in the camps due to

46

the fear of them being rebels or combatants (Nowrojee and Strand 2001). It would seem

that countries tend to handle refugee situations in many different ways.

Indeed without the valid permission to stay in Lebanon, Syrian refugees suffer in

accessing basic needs such as food and shelter. PM3 expressed their concerns

about this issue and stated:

The decrease in support by the international donors to enable organizations to cover

the cost of assistance and the continuous conflict in Syria make refugees worry about

their future in covering the cost of their needs

Likewise, PM1 identified another difficulty for a refugee with limited legal refugee

status: Lebanon is divided; for this reason one has to explain to the hosting

community how to provide refugee assistance. Similarly, PM2 response seems to

support the observation made by PM1 in suggesting that cultural frameworks and

appreciation of politics are essential to any response to refugees and protection.

Thus, it’s argued that such humanitarian actions have to be aware of its limitations

that politics could create while responding (Minear and Weiss 1995).

Protection has been highlighted by researchers as critical issue that governments need

to take into account while assessing refugee situations in accordance with the

international law (EDWARDS 2012). Such international protection provides the

minimum rights for people in the mass influx of such refugee situations can be assured

through adequate collaboration and assessment of refugee needs between the hosting

government and relief organizations (EDWARDS 2012, Goodwin-Gill 2007)

4.3 Shelter

4.3.1 Challenges:

A second theme that emerged during the interviews is the difficulties both Syrian and

Palestinian refugees arriving from Syria (PRS) face in finding adequate shelter. As can

be appreciated, shelter provides one the basic needs and created challenges for relief

organizations in responding to this need. PM 2 stated:

47

In each village there are a huge number of refugees renting garages and homes, [and]

there are no more places to accommodate this big number which impose difficulties for our

organization to provide services since the refugees are distributed all around Lebanon.

While discussing shelter, all responders had noted that at the beginning of the Syrian

war there was no problem in the shelter sector, as Syrian refugees who fled to Lebanon

lived with families and relatives in the Lebanese host communities. PM1 and PM2

agreed that mainly refugees lived in Bekaa and North Lebanon, places that are located

at the borders of Syria. PM1 suggested that the reason for this trend is because these

areas are relatively cheap and characterised by the social cohesion among people living

in these areas. Similarly, PM3 elaborated that this is a normal situation in any part of the

world as the refugees tend to go to areas where they feel comfortable and think their

needs will be met at minimum cost.

The suggestion relating to cost seems similar to what some researchers have observed,

that refugees’ first resort is to live with a hosting community and members that share

some of their religious, cultural, and ethnic values (Coppola 2007, Davis and Lambert

1995:557, Sphere Project 2004:213). Indeed, many refugees in Africa (DRC, Somalia,

Rwanda, Liberia), due to the sectarian and ethnic conflicts that happened in their

countries, chose to stay in neighbouring countries where they had shared similar

linguistic, economic, and social links with the hosting community (Crisp 2002).

Further to this and in agreement, PM3 suggested that:

Living within the host families is the most preferred option for us as it lessen the risk of

exploitation and mistreatment of the displaced population and allows refugees to live

normal life.

However, as the conflict continued the number of refugees have increased, and

according to PM1 and PM3, from 40,000 in 2012 to 400,000 in 2013 and up to 1.5

million in 2014. This large influx has had an impact on organisation programmes due to

the large refugee numbers.

48

Figure 2: The consecutive increase in the number of refugees in Lebanon since 2012 (The Daily Star 2014a).

All the respondents highlighted the issue of the limited capacity for Lebanon and

resources along with low wages and limited job opportunities, which made it difficult for

Syrian refugees to afford rent. PM1 stated:

Because there are no camps and no systematic shelter system, it means that refugees

have to find shelter solutions which are very difficult and expensive. So even some Syrian

come and have same savings but now most refugees have to stay longer than they thought

and this means people will run out of money.

Indeed, refugees’ stay for a longer time than expected and this can create some of the

legal and social problems over the use of land (Davis and Lambert 1995: 558). To avoid

these problems in Syria, PM1 explained that there was a need for assessment by

UNHCR and other organizations for the best shelter solution for Syrian refugees. This

assessment around the organization is essential because the number of refugees is

high compared to low shelter units.

49

PM1 and PM3 explained that one of the major shelter solutions that were found by

refugees themselves is living in unfinished houses. PM1 and PM2 argued these housing

units might be in accordance with minimum standards of shelter protection as they

consist of walls and roofs. However, these houses sometimes have no windows, doors,

or even sanitation facilities that are in accordance with the Sphere project and Universal

declaration of human rights (UDHR). PM3 agreed on this point and stated:

Many refugees now live in unfinished buildings such as garages, and houses that don’t

offer sufficient protection in winter season

The Sphere project suggests the adequate shelter in emergencies be provided, ‘where

materials of a complete shelter cannot be provided, the provision of roofing materials for

a minimum covered area should be prioritized’ (2004:220). PM1 and PM2 explained that

their operations in Lebanon have come up with shelter solutions such as rehabilitation

and renovation for unfinished houses in different parts of Lebanon, where refugees are

hosted.

This type of assistance supported the Lebanese people in rehabilitating their unused

apartments and rooms and has added more housing units into the market. In addition,

organizations have tended to improve and develop Lebanese infrastructure and initiated

development projects to cope with the increasing number of refugees. Indeed this was

one of the benefits of self-settlement in Guinea, where villages hosted refugees and

they received development through enhancing their services and support through

benefiting from the cash for rent that was given to refugees, which improved their

livelihood (Black 1998).

On the contrary side, PM4 operations’ role was in creating collective shelters, such as

unused schools, with the help of and coordination with local authorities, being important

in this regard. PM2 argued that this task can be successfully achieved by way of

coordination with the local authorities and host community. Provision of shelter is

always expensive and time consuming for aid organisations, but its importance cannot

be denied. According to PM3:

50

One of our biggest challenges in the humanitarian response in Lebanon is shelter

PM3 observed that each unfinished building had to be assessed and identified

individually in order to be renovated, adding to it the problem of difficulty in finding new

housing units as Lebanon is considered a small country with limited resources and

capacity.

Figure 3: Rehabilitation of unfinished houses in Sidon-Lebanon (Disaster Emergency Committee 2013).

However, PM2 explained that this situation, which is becoming more protracted,

requires prioritisation by response organizations in both affordable shelter and carefully

undertaking rehabilitation based on risk and vulnerability assessments at minimum

standards in disaster response. Researchers argued that having relevant information by

organizations rely on having an adequate judgment and analysis, for the needs are

considered the best type of assessment (Darcy and Hofmann 2003).

The minimum standards in shelter indicated that vulnerability assessment that is

undertaken should include actual potential security threats, such as the social and

economic vulnerabilities of the groups (Sphere 2004:213). In reality, NGOS were able to

address the social conditions of the Syrian refugees, but the continuing increase in the

number of refugees made organizations prioritize and therefore not able to address the

51

economic vulnerability of individuals. Interestingly, the respondent suggested that the

best solution is reducing the flow of Syrian refugees and encouraging the flow of aid into

Syria itself.

4.3.2 Shift in living conditions: Informal Tented Settlements

PM1 and PM2 observed that Syrian refugees tended to have a shift in living conditions

due to the shortage of housing units in Lebanon as well as the increase in the rental

costs, which made agencies unable to cover the high cost rent for these shelter units

that were paid at times for them. PM1 elaborated that refugee living conditions changed

due to the depletion of their savings and high living costs, compared to Syria, which

made them, live in informal tented settlements (ITS). However, PM1 argued that

informal tented settlements that exist in Lebanon are often accompanied with poor

sanitation facilities and are not in accordance with the minimum shelter standards

relating to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH).

These refugee living conditions threaten life and health, especially during winter

months. PM3 noted that a rise in infectious diseases has occurred, which is an

indication of overcrowding among Syrian refugees whereby more than one family live in

a tent. Indeed, refugee camps and informal settlements provide an inadequate

environment to vulnerable people, as overcrowding, poor sanitation, and hygiene cause

high morbidity (James 2008). This fact made thousands of Sudanese struggle in

Uganda to find adequate shelter as they faced a shortage of water in their settlements,

which caused many to go without bathing for weeks causing tension among both

communities in competing for water (Crisp 2002).

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Figure 4: Informal tented settlements in Beqaa showing their flood-risk and poor sanitation

4.3.3 Demographic changes fears

During the interviews the researcher wondered about the reason for not having refugee

camps that would facilitate a response and access to services. PM1 and PM2 stated

that the Lebanese government has strictly refused the idea of establishing refugees’

camps for Syrian refugees. PM3 have strongly supported the Lebanese government

policy on this by arguing that this approach provides the best option for refugee

integration within the host community but still considered refugee camps as a last

resort. This implies that building refugee camps always have been considered an option

in cases of refugee influx that helps in centralizing the relief efforts while still being a last

resort option (Loveless 2013). Interestingly, in the case of Lebanon, it would seem that

the opposition to refugee camps are not in relation to integration but rather for other

reasons as PM2 noted

‘Refugee camps have always been known by their permanency’.

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In addition, PM4 explained that Palestinian refugees who had been to stay in Lebanon

for a short period of time in 1948 are, until now, still there and account for a population

of 500,000. It was further suggested that Palestinian refugees will have been seen as a

key aspect (stakeholder) in the Lebanese civil war that lasted for a period of 15 years.

According to PM1 this matter would best be dealt by political mechanisms considering

the fragility of the country. Lebanon as a country is built around political allegiances with

security-sensitive sectarian, regional, and partisan sensitivities. Such sensitivities play a

part in shaping Lebanese government policy considering the level of political

vulnerability brought by demographic changes from refugee influx into Lebanon by

mainly Sunni Muslims (McVeigh 2013). According to the Lebanese minster of foreign

affairs, Gibran Bassil:

Naturalisation of Syrian and Palestinian refugees will cause a serious damage to

Lebanon demography.

The Lebanese problems associated with sectarianism issues and demographics may

perhaps be compared to the situation that affected Kosovo. Displaced people who had

escaped from Kosovo and Metohia to Serbia remained in the country and integrated

within the society and constituted a noticeable percentage from the Serbian population

(Nikitovi and Luki 2010). Nikitovi and Luki (2010) elaborated that fear of demographic

changes can have a potential change in political systems or adjustments that have a

potential to increase tension among the hosting community itself, and refugees. These

demographic changes resulted in a change of individuals and behavioural local groups

and created a risk in reshaping the economic life cycle of the countries (Lee 2003).

4.3.4 Geographical and Funding Challenges

In addition to the issues above relating to demographic changes in Lebanon, the

interviewees identified another issue relating to the difficulties of setting up camps in

Lebanon due to the location of camps and funding challenges. Lebanese Social Affairs

Rashid Derbas stated during an interview with Voice of Lebanon:

54

We have agreed within the Cabinet that there are vast tracts of land in Al-Aboudiya

and Masna’a which are areas on the borders of Syria where camps could be

established (The Daily Star 2014b).

Regarding the contrasting Derbas idea, PM1 argued that one of the major challenges

for refugee camps is that, geographically speaking, Lebanon is a very small country, so

finding a place to set up a refugee camp is difficult. PM2 agreed on this point but also

observed that there are potential difficulties if camps are set in far from markets and

access to health services. This could be contributing to a difficult situation, as there is

always a need to have the consent of the hosting community. However, PM3 disagreed

about the idea of locating camps next to the borders and stated:

‘Refugee agency is still worried about the danger that the refugees in these areas could

be exposed to’.

It’s been argued that the process of selecting a site is an essential thing in camp

planning and poor site selection will certainly threaten the security of refugees and

damage the relationship between the hosting and the refugee community, sustainability

of the essential resources, and success of aid operations (Corsellis et al. 2005,

International Council of Voluntary Agencies 2000). The case of Guinea is an important

example that supports this idea, where a cross-border attack made villages and refugee

camps vacant near the borders, which obliged international organizations to pull out

their teams from the area and caused the death of hundreds, and made them flee back

to other areas (International Council of Voluntary Agencies 2000).

Without the essential risk and vulnerability assessment for the security threats, it will be

deemed impossible to establish such camps. The assessment is essential in respecting

the protection of refugees and their hosting community. PM1 explained that respecting

the opinions of refugees (regarding where they want to settle and also their religious

beliefs) need to be taken into consideration. PM1 and PM2 agreed that if their agencies

decided to set up a camp in a location where people do not feel safe or secure, or

people from a certain sect within the hosting community did not want them to be

present, then this would mean having empty camps. By understanding people’s

55

perceptions this will assure effective refugee management and facilitate the delivery of

services to beneficiaries and people in need (Coppola 2007, Hyndman 2011).

PM4 explained that some of the fears resulting from the Lebanese government’s

decisions of assigning the management of camps to UNHCR and other aid agencies

are due to the high cost resulting from running those camps. PM1 argued that despite

problems facing many refugees, the host population (many Lebanese citizens) are in

need while facing difficult financial and economic pressures and also need support as

well.

Such ideas seem to arise because, according to PM2, host communities have lost

income due to job competition, lower incomes than in previous years, and a decline in

services that are already poor in Lebanon. Indeed, as an example, some situations in

other countries such as in Africa were considered to have an impact on the gross

national product per person (GNP) of the hosting country (Harrell-Bond 2000). The cost

of refugee protection and safety, and their dignity, should not be neglected and is one of

the organizations priorities, and this is costly in terms of development, maintenance,

and camp administration (Corsellis et al. 2005, Harrell-Bond 2000).

4.4 Access to services

4.4.1 Education barriers

A third theme that was found during the collection of primary data is the way

organizations support refugees with services, such as education. It was critical to

understand how refugees’ access to services, in light of their limited legal status in

Lebanon. PM1 explained that because majority of education system in Lebanon is

privatized, many Syrian children in Lebanon do not attend school due to the fact that

many Syrian families cannot cover the costs of their children’s education. Examining

the secondary data, a report by Save the Children estimated that 300,000 refugee

children in Lebanon did not attend school (Save the Children 2013) .PM3 stated:

56

Unfortunately, the international community is underfunding education for refugee

children and the vulnerable hosting community and more money is needed to cover this

gap.

In fact, all the participants agreed that limited funding means organizations cannot

support all of the people’s needs, and furthermore, this situation creates a major barrier

in the response stage. PM1 explained that as Lebanon has not permitted refugee

camps and refugees have resorted to living among the Lebanese community, this has

imposed a stress on educational services. Despite its significant level of response, PM4

explained that Lebanese citizens are largely affected by the refugee influx and Lebanon

already does not have a political consensus and enough funding, which result in an

increase in pressure on the services as Lebanon as a small country. PM4 elaborated

that Syrian refugee response is not just one of humanitarian concern but it is also a

threat to the public services in the nation.

Yates and Bradely (2000) highlighted the issue of underfunding and consideration for

education by aid agencies of secondary importance. It had been stressed by the

humanitarian organizations that fulfilling children’s education is part of the legal and

moral duty in accordance with the International Declaration of Human Rights convention

(UDHR). Examining the secondary data has revealed that the financial barrier is not the

only constraint that makes it difficult for the lack of education, but the need for the

proper documentation and language barriers imposed a challenge for organizations and

refugee children as well (REACH 2014).

There seems to be a gap in the humanitarian response. For instance, children in

Dadaab refugee camps had limited opportunities to receive the adequate needed skill

and education due to underfunding and the language barriers (Rackley 2006). These

concerns regarding education voiced by humanitarian organisations are due to the

increased emphasis on the right of education and the benefits it can create for young

refugee young (Kirk and Cassity 2007). Kirk and Cassity (2007) argued that the

resulting benefits include cognitive and physical protection and promote a sense of

normalcy for a better hope by creating an educational development experience and

57

continuity in the programs. This argument was supported by the respondents stating a

need to re-consider priorities and meeting these protections needs.

4.4.2 Healthcare and Food Security:

Similarly, participants in the research have highlighted the major pressure on the health

services in Lebanon. Refugees were faced by an increasing risk of bad health status

and trauma. As PM3 stated:

The shortage in services such as health and education will increase as the hosting

community started to feel this pressure and this will cause competition on resources

among refugee and poor hosting community.

PM4 identified that the shortage in health service created inter-linked problems that

have effects on the health situation for refugees and are considered a challenge for

organizations to maintain. PM4 further explained that inadequate shelter conditions that

refugees are living in and lack of awareness, inadequate heating, food insecurity, and

poor sanitation and hygiene are increasing people’s vulnerability to health problems. In

addition, lack of awareness among the refugee community about proper sanitation and

hygiene that people have to follow when living in informal settlements. Similarly,

Caimcross et al. (2010) seem to support this point and mentioned that suitable

education and hygiene have led to risk reduction in health problems among refugee

community.

Examining the secondary data, a report by AMNESTY supported the literature by

revealing that the poor situation of shelter such as the overcrowding in informal

settlements (ITS) have increased risk for the spread of diseases in Lebanon such as

polio and measles among others (AMNESTY International 2014). Although

organizations and health institutions have progressed in controlling such communicable

diseases in camp settings and other forms of shelter, it creates a big challenge for

health workers to minimize its effects when it impacts a large geographical area

(Connolly et al. 2004).

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In addition to the discussion above, PM4 noted that the Lebanese government does not

have a clear national strategy to cope with the continuous needs for refugees due to the

limited resources and privatized systems. Contrary to this point, PM3 believed the

organizations had received sufficient funds to meet a substantial part of refugee needs.

However, PM3 elaborated that the increasing number of refugees meant that costs

were rising, and there was a need for UNHCR to implement more rehabilitation projects

for hospitals and infrastructure, although admittedly this requires a lot of money.

Generally, refugee situations present major challenges for relief organizations when it

comes to health care. For instance, the Kenya health care system is largely privatised

due to the lack of quality public health care, which made the primary reasons for not

accessing health care is because it is expensive (Mohamed et al. 2014).

On the other hand, participants in the interviews mentioned that food support was

implemented through religious organizations, and registering with UNHCR would

provide assistance through food vouchers and E-cards. These systems benefited

wholesalers in making more profits. However, secondary data has shown a negative

impact of these food systems on the Lebanese market. The previous study examining

the impact of the injection of money by organizations in Lebanon to assist Syrian

refugees showed that prices of basic commodities experienced a noticeable rise due to

the increase of demand for these products (SNAP 2014).

Supporting this argument is the fact that Somalia food insecurity was not due to a

shortage of food but to an increase in prices, due to large sums of money injected by

organizations into the country where it was estimated that a 300% price increase in

local grains resulted (Loewenberg 2011). PM3 insisted that refugees should not be

dependent on aid and discussed the importance of refugee independence, which would

improve the refugees’ lives especially since funding is decreasing due to donor fatigue,

and there is a need to search for more sustainable solutions. PM1 clarified that already

Syrian refugees are resilient and they are able to cope with the changes that

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organizations implement. Indeed, PM2 explained a type of resilience on the part of

refugees and stated:

The level of resiliency among Refugees made them start helping each other, especially

the new comers which implies there is an adequate need for identifying the most

vulnerable when assessing.

Such decisions must be in accordance with the sphere book related to assessment and

analysis standard 2 and UNHCR handbook for emergencies. It take into consideration

the extremely vulnerable refugees, stating ‘where people are at risk of malnutrition,

programme decisions are based on demonstrated understanding of the causes, type,

degree of malnutrition’ (Project 2004: 115). Indeed ensuring aid to reach the right

people is essential during emergencies, through effective distribution methods, taking

into consideration vulnerable groups (Coppola 2007, Barret 2005).

4.5 Coordination:

A fourth theme arising from data focussed on the level of humanitarian coordination

among responders, and the infectivity is due to the lack of resources, limited capacity,

and inadequate information flow channel that had a major impact in the humanitarian

assistance. PM1 stated:

The challenge here is that we have limited resources, so even if there is coordination

there are no enough services; however it’s essential to maximize the use of resources

that are already limited.

All the participants explained that they have enjoyed a partnership with the Lebanese

government. PM3 elaborated that this strong partnership reflected on their work on the

ground through working with the High Relief Commission (HRC), which had a good

impact on assistance. However, while examining the secondary data, Shibli (2014)

argued that this response lacks an overall strategic and contingency planning (see fig.

6). Thus in such a humanitarian crisis, response must be coordinated in an effective

way to achieve the objectives of the designed programs (Brabant 1997).

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Although there is no strategic response, still this coordination in such an environment

helps to avoid a duplication of services and maintained a referral mechanism between

organizations, which is a positive thing. On the contrary PM4 considered that response

included a wide range of actors within humanitarian contexts, including many

international (INGO), local, and faith organizations, which compound humanitarian

response.

Despite of the response complexity, PM1 discussed the importance of communication

between organizations, especially when resources and capacity are not enough. PM1

explained that there is a need for organizations to coordinate with each other in

planning programs so that there is no overlap and duplication of services. PM2

supported this point and insisted that organizations have to keep other responders

updated, to ensure the services are delivered in the right way. Many issues lead to

coordination obstacles in disaster relief, such as the previous post-disaster relief

environment, an increase in the number of actors, and limited resources that cause

responders to fail to make an effort or find it difficult to coordinate (Balcik et al. 2010b,

Fenton 2003).

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Figure 5: Current Syrian refugee response mechanism (Shibli 2014)

Nevertheless, PM1 argued that humanitarian actors are facing the difficulty of proper

coordination due to the fragile political and economic situation in Lebanon. An argument

that was supported by the secondary data found that major challenges in poor

coordination and the creation of a proper emergency plan that provides effective aid is

due to the politicisation for the humanitarian assistance (Shibli 2014).

Coordination means agreeing on specific approaches that take into consideration the

hosting community and refugee needs, which is difficult due to the different political

agendas that organizations have. On the contrary, PM4 found coordination between

various donors by finding the best solutions have been hampered by contradictory

values and visions, which have the potential to create obstacles. Indeed, this approach

was criticized by some researchers who noted that while relief organisations had a

critical role within humanitarian situations to help vulnerable people, there were

contradictions in their mission and that their primary motives differ (Balcik et al. 2010a).

On the other hand, it was argued that cooperation and coordination activities among

62

NGOs do not affect the organization autonomy and the risk for losing its independence

does not exist (Mattesich and Murray-Close 2001).

Failure of system effectiveness in a humanitarian response seems to be similar in other

parts of the world. For instance, the 2007 Haiti earthquake made the government

unable to respond to the disaster due to its fragile capacity and governance. Response

among aid organizations in Haiti found obstacles related to reliability and quality of

information flow, which made it ambiguous to know people’s need, because of the

difficulty of identifying effective and clear information (Altay and Labonte 2014) (See Fig.

7).

Figure 6: Complexity of Inter-agency Humanitarian Response (Altay and Labonte 2014)

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4.6 Capacity Building

Following the initial response and the challenges agencies faced while assisting

refugees, organizations resorted to building capacity approach based on the sustainable

development of both the refugees and their hosting community. PM1 have highlighted

that communication to refugees is a tool of empowerment, but this has been in slow

response because of the increasing number of refugees and their distribution all over

Lebanon.

The vulnerability assessment (VASyR) conducted by UNHCR, WFP, and UNICEF

indicated that at least 72% of Syrian refugees residing in Lebanon are still in need for a

continuous assistance by relief organizations for the coming years (WFP, UNHCR, and

UNICEF 2013). On the contrary, PM2 noted that because of the underfunding that faces

relief organizations, a shift toward an empowerment and building capacities model is

being implemented. PM2 stated:

As an organization we might not stay forever in Lebanon, that’s why we try to provide

training for focal points in collective shelter to be able to empower people. I believe in

empowerment because it makes refugees dependent and lets them have dignified lives.

These approaches by organizations encourage refugees and their hosting community to

participate in activities that strengthen both capacities. PM3 would have liked to

encourage improving the relationship between the hosting community and refugees,

which would decrease the tension resulting from competition on resources. Thus to

build more capacities, PM2 explained their concept of capacity-building as trying to

assess people’s needs and their capabilities, and support refugees with tools and skills

to increase their opportunities to engage in paid work.

Thus, such relief aid that links short-term to long-term development goals are critical,

and this can be done best by increasing capacities and adopting community-based

approaches. PM1 and PM2 noted that humanitarian activities need to enable refugees

to participate in decision making to benefit from their capabilities instead of only

64

supporting them with short term assistance. However, PM4 disagreed with the idea of

capacity building and stated:

These programs are weakly designed in preparing and empowering refugees and they

are exhausting and depleting community resources and services.

However, PM1 and PM3 argued that organizations are trying to strengthen the

infrastructure and services to cope with and adapt to the increasing number of refugees

that support the Lebanese vulnerable population as well. But examining the secondary

data it is seen that organizations supported the Lebanese community and refugees on

the basis of development that seeks empowerment from a bottom-up approach; still

organizations are hampered by the UN relief agency systems that follow a top-down

approach while delivering services.

Data seemed to suggest that development programs in Lebanon are not embedded in a

manner that assures building capacities of refugees and strengthens their relations

among the hosting community. In contrast, the Liberian refugee experience in building

capacities seems to be different than Lebanon, and successful. Liberian refugees were

engaging in their development initiatives after UNHCR withdrew the assistance, such as

initiatives for utilising specific skills, acquired through vocational skills training (Dick

2003).

The withdrawal of assistance by UNHCR showed Liberian resilience in adapting to and

coping with their new situation through engagement in the development programs that

were planned by agencies (Dick 2003). It will not be less expensive to apply and

improve development programs that empower and build capacities, but it will aim to use

adequate resources to make the suitable refugee investment that will generate local,

national returns, which aims to improve the socio-economic conditions among refugees

and the hosting community (Smillie 2001).

65

4.7 Conclusion

This chapter presents findings and discusses key themes related to the management of

refugees in Lebanon that has been identified from interviews of the agencies

responders working in Lebanon. The chapter that follows (conclusion) will synthesise

the issues that were generated and also presents some recommendations related to

management of Syrian refugees in Lebanon.

66

Chapter Five:

Conclusion

5.1 Introduction

This chapter aims to summarise the key issues of this dissertation. It will examine the

key findings from the research and will evaluate these in light of the literature review

which was undertaken as part of the research and identifies key points. The chapter

aims to make recommendations for disaster management practitioners and add some

theory to the current body of knowledge in humanitarian practice. In order to do justice

to this conclusion it is perhaps important to restate the aims and objectives of this piece

of work. The dissertation aim was to evaluate the Syrian refugee management

approaches in Lebanon. Thus, the research constituted the following objectives:

Explore the history of humanitarian response in the World.

Evaluate the legal and humanitarian instruments and their impact on the

management of refugees.

Examine the socio-political context in Lebanon and how this impacts the type and

quality of humanitarian approaches in Lebanon.

Make recommendations to practitioners and policy makers on the effective refugee

camp management approaches.

This piece of work, from introduction to Findings and Discussion, has identified major

issues regarding the management of refugees by humanitarian organizations in general

and Lebanon in particular to meet the objectives.

67

5.2 Explore the history of humanitarian response in the world

The research has identified the key approaches of the humanitarian response in the

world. Thus, response measures are directed toward live saving and dealing with the

direct damage caused by disasters (Carter 1992). In light of the huge displacement all

over the world, it seems that hosting governments have feared the integration of

refugees within their communities and have preferred the idea of refugee camps.

Competition for jobs, fear of demographic changes, and tension among refugee and

hosting communities has always been a challenge for organizations. In light of those

challenges, humanitarian organizations have been encouraged to seek durable

solutions that aim at improving the experiences of refugees as they are vulnerable, and

to make them more resilient.

These approaches seem to have been ineffective as the situation of refugees has

become more protracted. The nature of conflicts in the world seems to be protracted

and thus a return to home countries, for many refugees, has become increasingly

delayed (Dryden-Peterson and Hovil 2004). In most cases governments have failed in

responding and have assigned the management of refugees to UNHCR and NGOS

(Milner 2011) .This created a commitment by organizations to support people in need in

hosting countries through basic assistance to improve their livelihoods. The number of

organizations in the humanitarian support is many, and these diverse organizations

have different mandates, goals, values, and strategic planning, but they have always

tried to follow the general humanitarian standards and principles aiming to protect

vulnerable people, to improve human wellbeing and dignity. However, the humanitarian

response has been accused of lacking the right coordination mechanisms and thus this

has meant that the organisations are sometimes very ineffective.

68

5.3 Evaluate the legal and humanitarian instruments and their impact

on the management of refugees

The research showed an organizational response mechanism to the humanitarian

needs based on the minimum standards of the humanitarian charter (The sphere) and

other humanitarian standards. These guidelines and standards have tried to protect the

freedom and lives of refugees in Lebanon by ensuring that people’s basic rights are

maintained and safeguarded.

Thus, refugees are managed according to the basic legal and agreed principles for

refugee protection (Goodwin-Gill 2007). Legal instruments such as Universal

Declaration of Human Rights, 1951 convention, and its 1967 protocol present the

importance of governments to help and facilitate humanitarian agencies’ response.

Respecting the human rights is a key condition for both preventing and solving refugee

problems (Sivolobova 2012) .Indeed the lack of being a signatory to international legal

frameworks by a government such as Lebanon clearly has an impact on humanitarian

issues, not least the issue of ‘non-refoulement’. Thus, protection rights are heavily

impacted in a situation where policies have to be negotiated without the appropriate

legal frameworks.

5.4 Examine the socio-political context in Lebanon and how this impacts the type

and quality of humanitarian approaches in Lebanon.

As discussed above, Lebanon is not a signatory of the 1951 conventions and as such

has refused building refugee camps for Syrians due to political, security, and

demographic concerns. The Lebanese conservative approach is also due to their

previous experience of Palestinian refugee camps that, although were admitted

temporarily in Lebanon have become protracted in Lebanon since 1948. It is clear from

the data that organizations respected the Lebanese government policies although not

necessarily agreeing with some of them. However it needs to be noted that approaches

do differ according to the situation and local context of the hosting area (Betts 2009).

69

First, the management of refugees by UNHCR and other INGOS were mainly along a

rights-based approach, based on development and protection of refugees and

assistance with the basic services, such as food, shelter, health, and education. The

provision of services for a community is based on the organizations’ identifications of

needs and establishment for services in all sectors (Bakewell 2003).

Second, an urban response approach has the majority of refugees living within the host

community and not in camps, and this was considered a challenging approach. The last

type of approach is to support the local communities by strengthening their organization

and infrastructure capacities to enhance the services and decrease tension between the

refugee and hosting community. Examining the way research was undertaken, it was

important to highlight some of the limitations that impacted research results

5.5 Research Limitations

It is essential to present limitations in the research. Stating limitations for research such

as this is useful for appreciating the rigour of this piece. Indeed, limitations here are an

acknowledgment for difficulties the researcher faced while interpreting the results

(Simon 2011).

5.5.1 Sample Size:

The sample sizes of the participants are small. It would have been more rigorous if the

research involved a relatively bigger sample than was the case. Ideally, it would have

been more beneficial to have had as part of the interviewees some refugees rather than

only staff from humanitarian organisations in Lebanon.

5.5.2 Time Constraint:

This research was undertaken by a solitary researcher whilst meeting tight time frames

and deadlines. This partly explains why the sample size had to be small. More time

would have provided opportunities to examine many additional issues than what has

been explored in this document.

70

The dynamic situation relating to Syrian refugees can be seen as a limitation to the

findings of this dissertation. Indeed, for example twenty four hours before this

dissertation was submitted, the Lebanese government have introduced a system that

requires visas for all Syrian crossing into Lebanon.

5.6 Recommendation to disaster management and humanitarian

practitioners

In spite of these limitations, this research was robust by pursuing a methodology that

was appropriate to the type the research. For that reason the following

recommendations can be made:

Development agencies are advised to improve capacities of both Syrian refugees

and host communities by providing a technical and vocational capacity building

that enhances their skills.

Government and agencies should cooperate with the private sector and investors

in the creation of job programmes and facilitate access to job opportunities for

the Lebanese hosting community and Syrian refugees.

Humanitarian organizations need to develop programmes that protect refugee

children from child labour and abuse by ensuring they are engaged fully in

education.

The government needs to participate in facilitating the humanitarian response

with the support of UN agencies and NGOS.

Organizations should coordinate, communicate, and manage plans to avoid

duplication of services and loss of resources.

Donors of the international committee need to increase their funding toward

sustainable development projects.

Further research needs to be undertaken to explore potential capacity building

solutions, which can be effective among both Syrian refugees and host

communities.

71

Perhaps from the issues identified and discussed above, James (2008) may have been

right in emphasizing that appropriate relief if well managed can save lives and build

livelihoods. The research has considered and identified issues and discussed the aim

and objectives. The research has also covered the key themes, humanitarian

approaches, and practices in Lebanon and suggested recommendations that will help

humanitarian practitioners and disaster managers in responding in a more effective

way.

72

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Appendix 1

Interview schedule

1- Would you explain to me what constitutes your organization focus for humanitarian

response work within the context of Syrian Refugee crisis?

2- Would you explain to me the challenges you are facing as an organization in

providing services to refugees?

3- To what extent have the refugee camps been effective in solving problems that

refugees are facing in Lebanon?

4- According to you how refugee camps would be organized to be effective in

providing services?

5- In which ways if any do you think your organization is effective in providing

protection to refugees?

6- To what extent and in what ways is the range of humanitarian actor’s coordination

in ensuring that effective services are provided to refugees?

7- How do you think your management of refugees are consistent with humanitarian

standards?

8- To what extend is culture and religion is considered in providing services to

refugee camps in Lebanon?

9- Explain to me whether or not the relationship between host and refugee

communities has been a consideration for the approach you have adopted in

assisting refugees In Lebanon?

10- What other comments do you have which you believe can help management of

refugee camps to be effective?

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Appendix 2

Ethical Approval

The following ethics request has been approved by Michelle Newman. All the relevant

documentation will be available for you to download within the next 24 hours. Please log

back into Ethics and select the request from your listing. Select the Downloads tab to

retrieve the documentation.

Please proceed with good ethics.

Ref: P24245

Project Title: An investigation for Camp Management system for syrian refugees in lebanon

Applicant: Mohammad Saleh

Supervisor: Martin Nthakomwa

Module Code: M65GED

Module Leader: Wayne Harrop

Go to ethics.coventry.ac.uk to view this request in more detail.

87

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Appendix C

Funding Requirements