AN ASSESSMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL … Thomas Kee Ung.pdfThomas Wong Kee Ung Master of Environmental Science (Land Use and Water Resource Management) 2005 Dedication To my beloved

AN ASSESSMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF LARGE SCALE DEER FARMING IN SARAWAK

Thomas Wong Kee Ung

Master of Environmental Science (Land Use and Water Resource Management)

2005

Dedication

To my beloved Valerie, Alexander, Olivia and Jonathan who were deprived of a husband and

father during weekends for one and half years. Their sacrifice, understanding, and teaching an old

dog IT tricks and skills have immensely helped me keep up with the young, bold, and beautiful

people of Cohort Four.

Acknowledgement

The encouragement and example of many people, particularly SLUSE Coordinators and lecturers,

who motivate and challenge me, are gratefully acknowledged. My personal and deep appreciation

goes to my supervisor Associate Professor Dr Andrew Alek Tuen who provided ideas, discourse,

timely push and support throughout the course of the study. My grateful thanks to Associate

Professor Dr Mohd Tajuddin Abdullah for his patience, meticulous scrutiny and positive

guidance in the completion of the dissertation.

I wish to acknowledge Dr Francis Sia, Head of the Veterinary Division of the Department of

Agriculture, Sarawak, who provided unqualified support; friend and SLUSE-mate Mr Lai Kui

Fong, and the officers and staff in Sg Pinang, Sri Aman, the State Veterinary Diagnostic

Laboratory, and Agriculture Research Centre, Semongok, for their assistance, kindness and

understanding.

11

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dedication

Acknowledgement

Chapters

List of Tables

List of Figures

List of Abbreviations I Acronyms

Abstract

Abstrak

Chapters

Chapter 1. Introduction

1.1 Background

1.2 Hypothesis

l.3 Objectives of the Study

Chapter 2. Literature Review

2.1 The Deer Industry in Malaysia

2.2 Deer Farming in Sarawak

2.3 Sustainable Deer farming

2.4 Environmental Impacts

111

Page no.

II

iii

vii

viii

IX

X

xi

1

2

3

4

4

6

11

13

15 Chapter 3. Materials and Methods

3.1 Study Areas 15

3.2 Data Collection 16

3.2.1 Deer population and herd structure 16

3.2.2 Soil fertility 16

3.2.3 Pasture and fodder grass nutritive values 17

3.2.4 Soil Loss Prediction 18

3.2.5 Water quality 18

3.2.6 Other secondary data 19

3.3 Statistical Analysis 19

Chapter 4 Results 21

4.1 Deer Population 21

4.1.1 Herd structure 22

4.1.2 Fawning and Fawn mortality rates 22

4.2 Stocking Rates 25

4.3 Soil Fertility 25

4.4 Pasture and Fodder Grass Nutritive Values 27

4.5 Soil Loss Prediction 34

4.6 Water Quality Analysis 34

4.6.1 pH, Turbidity,BOD,COD,TSS 34

4.6.2 Water Nutrients 36

4.6.3 Microbiological analysis 37

4.6.4 Microbiological parameters monitoring 38

IV

Chapter 5 Discussion 39

5.1 Herd Performance 39

5.2 Stocking Rates 40

5.3 Soil Fertility 41

5.3.1 Soil pH 42

5.3.2 Organic carbon and total nitrogen 42

5.3.3 Macronutrients 44

5.3.4 Principal micronutrients 45

5.4 Pasture and Fodder Grass Analysis 46

5.5 Soil Loss Prediction 49

5.6 Water Quality 50

5.6.1 PH, Turbidity, BOD, COD, TSS 50

5.6.2 Ammoniacal Nitrogen, Nitrate Nitrogen, Phosphates 51

5.6.3 Total Coliforms, Faecal Coliforms and E.coli Counts. 52

Chapter 6. Summary and Conclusions 54

Bibliography

Appendices

Appendix A:

f

Appendix B:

56

63

Layout Of Sg.Pinang Station Deer Farm (31.8 ha) 64

Layout ofSu Heng Tung's Farm, Sri Aman (4.55 ha) 65

v

Appendix C: Soil Chemical Analysis Results- Sg Pinang 66

Appendix D: Soil Chemical Analysis Results-Sri Arnan (SHT's)

Farm 67

Appendix E: Pasture and Fodder Grass Analysis Results 68

Appendix F: Pelleted Feeds (Goat/Sheep feed) fed to deer at

Sg Pinang Station 69

Appendix G: Mean Monthly Rainfall and Fawning Rates for

Sg Pinang and Sri Aman Farms (2003-2004) 70

Appendix H. Microbiological Parameters for Water Samples­

Sg Pinang 71

Appendix I. Soil Loss Prediction 72

VI

List of Tables

Page no.

Table 1. Deer Fanns in Sarawak-Location, Breeds, Herd and

Fann Sizes 8

Table 2. Soil Samples for Sg Pinang and Sri Aman Deer Farms 17

Table 3. Stocking Rates of rusa Deer at Sg Pinang 25

Table 4. Mean Values from Soil Analysis Results of Sg Pinang

and Sri Aman (SHT's) Farms 26

Table 5. Comparative Chemical Values of selected Soil Series 27

Table 6. Means ofNutritive Values offorages from Sg Pinang and

Sri Aman Deer farms (ry matter basis) 28

Table 7. t-tests of Means of Copper and Calcium Level 31

Table 8. Nutritive Values ofPasturelFodder Grass and available plant Browse 33

Table 9. Water Quality Analysis Results and selected Parameters

from the DOE's INWQS for Malaysia 35

Table 10. Mean Concentration of selected Microbiological Parameters

-SgPinang 38

Vll

....

List of Figures

Page no.

Figure 1. Location of Deer Farms in Sarawak (2004) 9

Figure 2. Deer Population-Sg Pinang (1996-2004) 21

Figure 3. Deer Population-Sri Aman (2000-2004 21

Figure 4. Fawning & Fawn Mortality Rates-Sg Pinang 23

Figure 5. Fawning and Fawn Mortality Rates-Sri Aman 23

Figure 6. Mean Monthly Rainfall and Fawning Rates Sg Pinang (2003-2004) 24

Figure 7 Mean Monthly Rainfall and Fawning Rates- Sri Aman (2003-2004) 24

Figure 8. Relationship between Soil N and forage crude protein content

(September, 2004) 29

Figure 9. Relationship between Soil N and forage crude protein content

(December, 2004) 29

Figure 10. Relationship between forage crude protein and crude fiber content

(September, 2004) 30

Figure 11. Relationship between forage crude protein and crude fiber content

(December, 2004) 31

Vlll

List of Abbreviations & Acronyms

ARC- Agriculture Research Centre, Semongok

BOD- Biological Oxygen Demand

COD- Chemical Oxygen Demand

CUSO-Canadian Universities Services Overseas

010- Drainage and Irrigation Department, Sarawak

DOA- Department of Agriculture, Sarawak.

DOE- Department of Environment, Malaysia

ECC- Escherichia coli Count

FCC- Faecal Coliform Count

INWQS-Interim National Water Quality Standards

MAFI- Ministry of Agriculture and Food Industry, Sarawak

MOA- Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia

NCR- Native Customary Rights

SEDC- Sarawak Economic Development Corporation

TCC- Total Coliforms Count

TSS- Total Suspended Solids

IX

Abstract of thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master in

Environmental Science (Land Use and Water Resource Management)

AN ASSESSMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF LARGE SCALE DEER FARMING IN SARA WAK

THOMAS WONG KEE UNG

2005

Supervisor: Associate Professor Dr Andrew Alex Tuen

Faculty: Faculty of Resource Science and Technology

Deer farming is one way of conservation and sustainable use of our natural resources. There are a

number of large-scale deer farms with Sam bar and rusa deer belonging to both the government

and private sectors in Sarawak. There is, however, a dearth of information on current practices in

deer farming and their impacts on the environment. The study examined the interaction and

impact of deer production on soil fertility, forage nutritive values, water quality and soil loss in

two large scale farms rearing a total of 728 heads of rusa. Fawning performance and stocking

rates were also assessed. The findings indicated that soil nutrient levels, forage nutritive values

and deer performance appear acceptable under current practices. Water quality is of some concern

with increased coliforms and Escherichia coli counts from the land use. Critical pasture

management and soil conservation practices need to be adopted to mitigate the effect and impact

of deer farming on environmental quality.

x

KAJIAN IMP AK PENTERNAKAN RUSA SECARA BESARAN TERHADAP ALAM

SEKITAR

Oleh

THOMAS WONG KEE UNG

Penyelia: Assoc. Prof. Dr Andrew Alex Tuen FakuIti: FakuIti Sains & Teknologi Sumber

Abstrak

Penternakan rosa meropakan salah satu cara pemuliharaan serta penggunaan sumber semulajadi

kita secara mapan. Terdapat beberapa ladang ternakan rosa jenis Sambar dan rosa Java yang

dilaksanakan secara besar-besaran oleh pihak kerajaan dan juga sektor swasta di Sarawak. Akan

tetapi, hanya sedikit sahaja maklumat yang ada tentang praktis semasa dalam penternakan rosa

dan impak penternakan terhadap alam sekitar. Kajian ini dijalankan untuk memperolehi

makluman mangenai interaksi dan impak penternakan rosa ke atas kesuburan tanah, nilai

makanan romput pastura dan foder, kualiti air dan hakisan tanah di dua ladang penternakan rosa

yang menpunyai jumlah ternakan sebanyak 728 ekor rosa. Prestasi membiak dan kadar stok juga

dinilai. HasH kajian menunjukkan bahawa kadar nutrien tanah, nilai makanan romput pastura dan

foder dan prestasi rosa adalah memuaskan di bawah praktis semasa. Kualiti air perlu diberi

perhatian dengan peningkatan dalam perhitungan jumlah Coliform dan Escherichia coli akibat

kegunaan tanah ini. Pengurosan pastura kritikal dan praktis pemuliharaan tanah adalah penting

dan perlu diamalkan untuk mengurangkan kesan dan impak daripada penternakan rosa ke atas

kualiti alam sekitar.

Xl

AN ASSESSMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF LARGE-SCALE DEER

FARMING

l.INTRODUCTION

1.1 Backgrouud

The State Government of Sarawak aims to transform agriculture from subsistence to an

industrial and commercial basis. Its policies for livestock development have been directed

to instilling quality standards at all levels of production in the livestock industry with the

view to producing food for self-sufficiency, export, import substitution and for

downstream processing. The concept of Agropolis and the Halal food hub has been

proposed as the vehicle to move the industry forward (Sia, 2004).

The thrust on ruminant development (including deer) is on integration with tree crops like

oil palm in order to optimize land use Strategies proposed for deer development include

the development of sambar (Cervus unieolor) and rusa (Cervus timorensis) deer for

sports, recreation, venison and other deer products; promoting active private sector

participation; promotion of halal and wholesome venison; integration with agroforestry

enterprises; and establishment of slaughter, processing and support facilities for halal

venison, among others (Sia, 1999).

At the same time within the government administration and the general public, there has

been a paradigm shift in terms of greater environmental awareness, understanding and

emphasis on the conservation and sustainable LIse of natural resources. There is a need to

examine some of these strategies from the poi nt of view of sLlstainabi lity.

Sustainability of any livestock enterprise means that it must (a) be economically viable

for an indefinite period and (b) creates minimal impact and effects on the environment.

These two criteria are interconnected. To be economically viable, farms have to be of a

minimum size in terms of area and livestock population. However, the larger the size, the

greater the impacts and effects on the environment. These can be in terms of land and

primary forests cleared; loss of soil fertility, aquatic habitats, biodiversity; and pollution

of water sources and the atmosphere.

In this context, therefore, the study is focused on large farms rather than small ones, and

will assess the environmental impacts of large-scale deer farming with a view to

obtaining some pointers for the direction ahead towards profitable and sustainable deer

farming in the state.

1.2 Hypothesis

The hypothesis is that current practices in large-scale deer farming contribute to changes

in soil quality, water quality as well as quality of forages. This will be assessed by the use

of soil nutrients as soil chemical indicators, proximate composition of the nutrient

contents of the forages as forage quality indicators, and physicochemical and

microbiological indicators for water quality.

It is hypothesized that based on the siting of yards, layout of pasture paddocks and

behaviour of deer congregating and defecating at watering points, the water quality will

deteriorate after the stream passes through the farm. Also, based on herd size, stocking

rate, slope and vegetation cover available on the farm, erosion is predicted to be high and

2

this will be estimated through the Universal Soil Loss equation (USLE) (Wischmeier &

Smith, 1978).

1.3 Objectives of tbe study

The objectives of the study are:

1.2.1 To evaluate deer performance in terms of fawning and fawn mortality rates as

well as animal output.

1.2.2 To assess the impact on soil fertility, forage nutritive values and water quality

from current practices in rusa farming.

1.2.3 To estimate the soil loss from present land use.

.,..

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 The Deer Industry in Malaysia

Deer has been domesticated and kept as ornamentals in royal households in Malaysia since early

records of Chinese origin in the 14 th Century were available (Mustaffa-Babjee, 1992). In 1980,

the Department of Veterinary Services (DVS) in West Malaysia initiated the importation of Red

deer (Cervus elaphus) from New Zealand. Much was learnt from the pilot project and immense

interest was created among private investors to farm deer for recreation and meat purposes

(Mustaffa-Babjee, 1992).

Between 1980 and 1990, the number of farmed deer increased significantly from less than 200

heads to over 5,000 heads. The number of species increased from two to eight with Timorensis

(Cervus timorensis -lavan deer or rusa ) and fallow deer predominating. Timorensis stock was

imported from Mauritius and New Caledonia while Fallow and Red Deer were from Australia

and New Zealand (Mustaffa-Babjee, 1992).

Fallow deer (Damma damma) were introduced in a farm of 500 acres near Desaru in lohore was

opened up by the Johore SEDC in a joint-venture with a New Zealand company.

Initial problem was related to transport stress, physical trauma, paddock injury and secondary

bacterial pneumonia (Rashidah, 1993). Since most introduction were to newly opened or

disturbed land, fatal outbreak of the soi I and water-borne disease melioidosis (caused by the

bacteria Pseudomonas pseudomallei were experienced, especially following heavy rain or

disturbance of top soi I. This can be prevented by testing waterholes and soil for the organism, and

4

allowing newly developed land to lay idle for some time before introducing new susceptible

animals (Rashidah, 1993),

A number of production systems are in existence in the country. They comprise (1) the free

range system in which the deer are allowed to graze on pasture and rotated in the paddocks at 10-

14 heads per hectare; (2) semi- wild system as part of forest conservation adopted by the

Department of Wildlife and National Parks; (3) integrated farming in established coconut and oil

palm plantations and (4) intensive farming in which concentrates and cut fodder are supplied to a

large number of deer (e.g. sika deer) on limited land and forage resources (Vidyadaran et al.,

1993).

Rearing deer under oil palm by rotational grazing using permanent cyclone fencing and by

intensive feeding of palm fronds, cut fodder and deer concentrate is one approach being

evaluated (Rosli, 1999). Specialized zones for livestock farming including deer have been

advocated in the states that have the land and resources. Perak has established the so-called Rusa

belt in the Kuala Kangsar and Hulu Perak districts, comprising 455 acres with 1074 heads (DVS

Perak, 2003).

Deer farming is categorized by the DVS, Malaysia, as a non-traditional source of food protein, to

be promoted through niche marketing in association with recreational and ecotourism

considerations (DVS, 2004). Current production of venison is 194 metric tons, and under the 9 th

Malaysia Plan, the target is to produce 580 metric tons by 2010. Cooperative deer farming

utilizing grazing reserves will be encouraged, and specialized production zones for deer, ostrich,

quails, with recreational and tourism facilities and services have been proposed.

5

Issues identified that may pose constraints are the status of state grazing reserves vis-a-vis

federally funded development projects, high investment costs, difficulty in obtaining good

breeding stock, lack of processing facilities, as well as competition from imports (DVS, 2004)

2.2 Deer Farming in Sarawak

Sarawak has a large pool of wildlife that can be exploited for commercial purposes, e.g. the

production of exotic meats for domestic consumption and export, recreation, agro-tourism and

for export as live animals. Among the species with the most potential is the deer. Deer form an

important component of our renewable natural resources in addition to being an integral part of

our biodiversity. They represent indispensable keystones species in the complex ecological

relationship that exists in our forests.

Sarawak has four species of deer belonging to the Cervid family namely sam bar (Cervus

unicolor), red barking deer (Muntiacus rnuntjae), yellow barking deer (Muntiaeus atherodes),

and Javan rusa (Cervus tirnorensis), an introduced species. Pelandok, or mousedeer (Tragulus

napu and T javanieus) are not true deer and belong to the family Tragulidae.

Interest in deer farming has been documented in Bario, the Kelabit Highland, and a farm was

established with the assistance of CUSO (Jaffer, 1985). Various species oflocal plants that could

be used for feeding were described. However, due to fencing problems, the sambar deer reared

escaped and the project was abandoned.

The Department of Agriculture (DOA). Sarawak, encourages the farming of sam bar (c.

unfe%r) but this species is difficult to obtain in numbers due to restriction imposed by

conservation laws. Under the Wildlife Protection Ordinance (1998), it is an offence to hunt,

6

collect, possess, purchase, rear or sell wild mammals or the meat and parts thereof without a

license.

The next species in terms of adaptability for farming under our environment is the Javan deer or

rusa (C timorensis), which is the main focus of this study. Although their numbers are declining

in the wild due to illegal hunting, deforestation and expanding human settlements, it is possible

to obtain breeding stock from current breeders locally or from Australia, New Zealand, Mauritius

and New Caledonia.

The common production systems observable in Sarawak are (l) free range with grazing on

introduced pasture with supplementation, as practiced by government and some private farms; (2)

integration with agroforestry or fruit trees with browsing and some cut and carry, and (3)

hobbyists or smallholders' holdings with 5-50 heads kept out of interest and for recreation.

The Sarawak Forest Department implemented an agroforestry project in Sabal at KM 112

Kuching-Sri Aman Road, in 1987 and an initial seven heads of sambar deer, comprising 2 stags ,! '1 ,.

and 5 hinds were placed in a fenced 5.2 ha of natural forest Subsequent trials were also carried

out under 10 years old Acasia mangium. The results were encouraging; it appears for agroforestry

integration, the deer have a better edge over ruminant livestock (Dawend, 2000).

In Sarawak, the first import of Javan rusa was undertaken by the Sarawak Economic

Development Corporation (SEDC) in 1993 with an initial introduction of 396 hinds and 31 stags

into the farm at Karabungan. In 1996, 20 stags were imported and between 1993-1998, the total

number of calves born was 1,239. The farm has done well in terms of breeding and production.

Sales comprise yearling breeder hinds and stags, as well as slaughtered deer. The DOA acquired

100 breeders from this farm in 1997 to stock up the Sg Pinang station, and established a herd of

7

r

Sambar deer at the Long Sebangan Station in Lawas for breeding and research purposes (MAFI,

1999). The present location, breeds kept, herd size, farm acreage and purpose of rearing of the

deer farms in Sarawak are tabulated in Table I and shown in Figure 1.

Table I: Deer Farm in Sarawak- Location, Breeds, Herd and Farm sizes

No. Owner Location Breeds No. Size-heads acres Purr~oselUse

DOA, Sarawak Sg. Pinang Javan 546 70 Station, rusa Research & Sedan multiplication

2 DOA, Sarawak Layar Sambar 20 5 Research & Station, multiplication Betong

3 DOA, Sarawak Long Sam bar 75 237 Research & Sebangan, multiplication Lawas

4 Sarawak Forestry Sabal Kruin Javan 62 10 Corporation Sdn rusa Agroforestry research Bhd. Sambar 70

5 PPES Karabungan Miri Javan 1,157 100 Commercial rusa

6 Sebangkoi deer Sarikei Javan 170 20 Commercial Farm rusa production

7 SuH.T. Undop, Sri Javan 226 10 Commercial Aman rusa production

Sambar 15 8 A. Aziz Kpg.Pueh, Javan 43 6 Lifestyle/commercial

Sematan rusa 9 T. Laing Sg.Asap, Javan 100 20 Lifestyle/commercial

Bintulu rusa 10 Taman Tumbina Tg Kidurong, Sambar 68 10 Recreation &

Bintulu Javan conservation rusa 7

1 I Junarco Park Sibu Sambar 12 40 Recreation 12 Chai Sg.Moyan, Sam bar 12 8 Hobby farm

Kuching 13 Wong Pasir Panan, Sam bar 4 2 Hobby farm

Sri Aman 14 Tiong Oya Road, Sambar 18 Hobby farm

Sibu 15 SiewT.S Kanowit Sambar 7 2 Hobby farm

2,612 551

Source: Veterinary Division Annual reports, DOA, Sarawak (2004)

8

l

\0

" \.,., , \

\

I. I

EAST ZONE

I ~-­

CENTRAL ZONE

WEST~ON . I

1

Key: • Location of deer farms 0 Location of deer farms under study

Figure 1: Location of Deer Farms in Sarawak in Year 2004.

"\ I• ~

) ' , !

The Third National Agricultural Policy or NAP 3 for Sarawak among its main approaches and

concerns emphasizes the conservation and sustainable use of natural resources (MOA, 1999). It

seeks to increase productivity through maximizing land resources and identifies agroforestry and

integration of livestock, and development of new products and future industries as two of its

main thrusts for the state (MOA, 1999). Various research related to deer farming has been

conducted by government agencies and the universities in Sarawak.

In terms of plant species for deer farming, the DOA recommended the use of Setaria kazungula

(Chana & Chung, 1998). Brachiaria decumbens, a popular grass species, is not favoured due to

the risk of liver damage, jaundice, photosensitization and death. Work by MARDI indicated that

the dry matter yield for Setaria kazungula could be as high as 18 tonne/halyear, while Napier can

be as high as 23 tonne/halyear (DVS, 1987). Although the grasses grow well, they have low

nutritive values, particularly in terms of digestibility and crude protein content. Unlike in

temperate environments, a grass diet alone does not provide adequate nutrition for deer and other

sources of high value low-cost feeds need to be used (Dewar, 1993).

From the experience of the DOA, dry matter yields of most pasture species under local condition

are usually only 50-60% of the published figures. Native grasses like Paspalum and Axonopus

can yield 6-12 tonnes and 3-6 tonnes per hectare per year, respectively (Chana & Chung, 1998).

According to work done by Chin (1994) local grass and weeds can have yields and proximate

composition comparable to some of the grass cultivated for livestock. These species include

broadleaves such as Mikania scandens, Asyslasia inlrusa. and grass species such as Ouochlea

nodosa and Axonopus compressus.

10

The Javan deer in the SEDC farm in Karabungan, Sg Pinang station, and a few private farms such

as Sebangkui deer farm, Sarikei, and Su Heng Tung's farm, Sri Aman has adapted very well.

Feeding entirely on Setaria kazungula grass and other local grasses without supplementation, the

average weight of the buck (male) in Karabungan was 120 kg at 3 years old while the hind

(female) reached 90 kg easily. The average annual growth rate from birth was 33kgl head (Ngu,

1995, pers. comm.).

The DOA, Sarawak, has identified constraints in deer farming. High initial capital cost, scarcity

of breeding stock, lack of skills in deer husbandry and preventive herd health, lack of proper

slaughter facilities and meat inspection, high cost of imports, land tenure factors, and inadequate

information on deer integration with agroforestry are some of the issues cited (Sia, 1999; Sia,

2004). The DOA encourages private sector involvement in deer farming in integration with

recreational, leisure and ecotourism activities (Sia, 2005, pers. comm.).

2.3 Sustainable Deer Farming

To be sustainable, deer farming has to be able to depend on reliable and economic sources of

breeding stock not only to establish their farms, but also to upgrade and improve the quality of

their breeding herd. However, sourcing breeding stock from local resources, including our

wildlife in the forests, is a problem. Under the Wild Life Protection Ordinance (1998), traditional

exploitation of deer, e.g. hunting and rearing for own consumption and use, may only be allowed

for natives residing within a Native Area or Native Customary Land, outside protected wildlife

sanctuaries or National Parks. This legislation restricts local deer from being reared and farmed

(Sia, J999). Intending farmers have to buy expensive stock from local breeders, or wait their

turn to buy subsidized deer breeders from the DOA.

I I

Habitat suitability is an important consideration for successful management of indigenous

species. Management techniques include removal of non-edible plant while maintaining the

growth and vigour of valuable edible plant species, and matching animal population to the

carrying capacity of the habitat through culling. The concept of in situ farming in disturbed forest

areas and minimizing damage to the environment by matching animal population to the carrying

capacity, while at the same time meeting the demand for meat and passion for hunting by the

local communities has been described by Tuen et al. (1996).

Although sustainable deer farming under Acacia mangium has been recommended for sam bar

deer, for the integration to be sustainable and economically viable, factors such as feed

management, plant species, animal stocking rate and availability of forage resources need to be

further evaluated (Make et al., 2002).

The question of sustainable deer farming, therefore, has many facets including deer biology,

ecological considerations, economic determinants, market, health, product quality and technology

(Wilson, 1991). Sustainable farming of deer occur in different forms in different countries of the

world, depending on the indigenous or native types of deer available. To be sustainable, the deer

production under the various systems mentioned earlier has to be economically viable.

In a study of three production systems, i.e improved pasture system (Setaria kazungula or Mardi

Digit-Digitaria setivalva- pastures); simulated natural habitat (hutan /ipur) system and cut Napier

grass with concentrated pellets and sweet potato, no significant variation in growth performance

was observed ( Mohd. Nasir et aI., 1993)

12