An Analysis of Economic and Environmental Issues Associated With Sea Salt Production in Bangladesh and Thailand Coast

International Journal of Ecology and Environmental Sciences 32: 159-172, 2006© INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS, NEW DELHI

An Analysis of Economic and Environmental Issues Associated withSea Salt Production in Bangladesh and Thailand Coast

M. SHAHADAT HOSSAIN1*, M. ZAKIR HOSSAIN2 AND SAYEDUR RAHMAN CHOWDHURY1

1Institute of Marine Sciences, University of Chittagong, Chittagong 4331, Bangladesh2Integrated Tropical Coastal Zone Management, Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Post Box No. 4,Klongluang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand*Author for Correspondence; E-mail: [email protected])

ABSTRACT

Salt has been produced traditionally along the Cox’s Bazar coast of Bangladesh and Samut Sakhon coast of Thailandfor generations. The experience of local people provides a valuable insight into issues associated with sea saltproduction. Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) enabled an evaluation of community opinion particularly in relation tothe economic and environmental aspects of sea salt production. The farmers in Samut Sakhon coast obtain a higheryield and economic return than those of the Cox’s Bazar coast due to a longer dry season and use of mechanizedequipment. Seasonality and price fluctuation were identified as important issues in both the coasts. Governmentland leasing policy has paid very little attention to farmers’ opinions resulting in extortion by landlords and anunsustainable situation for subsistence salt producers.

Key Words: Participatory appraisal, Evaporation, Land lease, Dry season, Price fluctuation, Time-sharing, shrimpfarming.

INTRODUCTION

The oceans are the most prolific source of sodiumchloride accounting for over 50% of the worldproduction. The reserves in the seas are estimated at 50million billion tones (Mannar 1982). The productionof common salt is one of the most ancient and widelydistributed industries in the world. Nearly 120countries have salt producing facilities ranging fromprimitive solar evaporation to advanced, multi-stageevaporation in salt refineries. The requirements ofEurope and North America are met mostly by miningwhile in Asia, Africa, Australia and South America,solar evaporation is the main source. The physical andchemical composition of salt produced from the varioussources varies widely depending upon manufacturingtechniques, climatic conditions and process adopted.

The sea salt production by evaporation is mainlydry season dependent. In longer dry season the saltfarmers can get higher production. The climate ofBangladesh is far from ideal for a seawater evaporation

industry, because average annual rainfall is high. Mostof the rainfall, however, is concentrated in one six-month wet season leaving about 3 months when rainseldom falls, and about 3 more months when rainfall islight. The dry season in Thailand is around 8 months,from November until June. In such a climate the saltfarmers get higher production, which decreases if therains start earlier. After raining, the salinity ofcondensers and crystallisers start to decrease. So,farmers need to wait some more days before harvesting.But continuous rain, even very low rainfall, makes theentire area unfavourable for salt production. Thesaltpans may also flood with rainwater, as they areshallow. The objectives of this study are to understandsea salt production technique through bottom-upapproach and to address the important issues relevantto salt production as well as to know the income of saltfarmers, considering environmental factors and landleasing policy.

Hossain et al.: Salt Production in Bangladesh and Thailand Coast Int. J. Ecol. Environ. Sci.160

METHODS

Participatory appraisal evolved a series of qualitativemultidisciplinary approaches to learning about local-level conditions and local peoples’ perspectives. Manyexamples have been recorded of successful communityparticipation in achieving good results in managingcoastal resources in different countries (Fezzardi 2001).The research team was composed of two coastal zonemanagers, one aquaculturist and two research assist-ants. A sociologist, an ecologist, an environmentalistand a coastal resource management expert wereregularly consulted on this research work. One photo-grapher joined the team to document the majoractivities.

Rapid Participatory Rural Appraisal (RRA/PRA)technique was used applying observation, questionnaireand community-level semi-structured interview with 5different stakeholder groups (salt farmers, landlords/owners, traders, local administrators and governmentofficials) to gather primary information, following Pido(1995), Pido et al. (1996), Townsley (1996) and IIRR(1998). Before meeting, letters to the leader of theparticular stakeholder groups were sent to give theresearch team the opportunity to explain the objectivesof the research to the community. Observation wasconducted through transects across the area defined byusing maps of 1:50,000 scale and interviewing keyinformants. Photography was used as an importantresearch tool for direct observation because photo-graphs can be used to document conditions before anintervention. To produce useable outputs, observationswere recorded as drawings and notes. Stakeholderanalysis was conducted to select appropriate groups forcollecting required information and reveal therelationship between their activities. A set of guidelines(checklist of topics) was developed for the interviews inorder to get the most complete information and to keepthe team members on the same course.

An important way of learning about localconditions and resources is to ask local communitieswhat they know (Pelto and Pelto 1978). In Cox’s Bazarand Samut Sakhon coast, individual knowledge variedgreatly, while the willingness and verbal capabilities ofthe people differed in expressing information. Directobservation prevents rapid appraisal from being misledby myth (Chambers 1980) and it often provides morevalid and less costly information than other researchmethods (KKU 1987).

STUDY AREA

Cox’s Bazar district is situated on the southeasterncoast of Bangladesh along the Bay of Bengal between21°15” and 22° N Latitudes and 91°45” and 92°15”E Longitudes (Figure 1A). The Matamuhuri and theBaghkhali are the two main rivers linked with manycanals. There are numerous tribu-taries and channelscriss-crossing the coast. The rivers and canals are tideinfluenced and suitable for navigation. The tidal watercan reach about 50 km inland and plays an importantrole in the water supply system for shrimp farming andsea salt production in the Cox’s Bazar coastal zone.Tides are semi-diurnal with two high and two lowwaters during a lunar day. Tidal behaviour varies alongthe coast in terms of magnitude but not pattern. Thetidal range at the Cox’s Bazar coast is large, rangingfrom 0.07 m to 4.42 m at Baghkhali River (Hossain etal. 2003a).

Figure 1. Geographical location of the study areas.

Samut Sakhon is one of the Upper Gulf Provincesof Thailand between 13°10”N and 13°40” N Latitudesand 100°20”E and 100° 30” E Longitudes (Figure 1B).

32: 159-172 Hossain et al.: Salt Production in Bangladesh and Thailand Coast 161

The Tha Chin River is the main river running from thenorth to south, flowing into the Gulf of Thailand atMaha Chai town. The southern part of the province isprimarily low-lying land parallel to the coastal area andused for sea salt production and shrimp farming. Thetidal patterns are mixed between a semi-diurnal and adiurnal tide experiencing two low tides and one hightide during each lunar day. Tidal range near the ThaChin river mouth varies from 0.9 m to 3.19 m abovethe lowest low water level. The average high tide nearTambon Maha Chai is 1.11 m and the low tide reaches-0.36 m from mean sea level (personal communication:The Royal Thai Navy).

LAND USE CHANGES

The natural mangrove forest in Cox’s Bazar coastoriginally occupied the low-lying saline swamp at themouth of the Matamuhuri delta. In 1903, the thengovernment formed the Chakaria Sunderban range withan area of 8275.8 ha, gazetting a 7283.5 ha reservemangrove forest and 992.3 ha protected mangroveforest. An area of 1539.4 ha was leased in 1929 to 262land-less families for settlement. The people weredependent on mangrove for firewood and housingmaterials as well as their daily common needs.

The topographic map of 1952 showed 7500 ha ofmangroves and an aerial photograph from 1975 indi-cated that overall mangrove cover remained unchangedup to 1975 (Alam et al. 1990). In the years after 1975,the mangrove forests were gradually cleared, mainly forshrimp farming and a few directly for salt production(Figure 2). After a disease outbreak affecting shrimpfarms in 1994, the salt production area expanded.

The study area in Samut Sakhon coast wasoriginally fully covered by mangroves and shrubs sincethe people started different activities such as fishing,aquaculture, salt production, and temporary living. Themajor conversion of land use happened around 1925,when the salt production started, and again around1975, when the shrimp farming started (Figure 3). Thelast part of the mangrove fringe was totally convertedinto intensive shrimp ponds around 1989. Shrimpfarming collapsed in this area around 1995, causing ahuge area to be abandoned. Transect analysis shows thepresent land use patterns with activities and problemsin Samut Sakhon coast (Figure 4). The transect hasaided in concentrating discussions on specific zonesand the activities carried out there and identified somekey problems (Hossain et al. 2001a). Among theadvantages of this type of analysis is the simpleportrayal of the resources present and the associatedeconomic, social and environmental issues in spatialterms (Pido et al. 1996).

Figure 2. Historical changes of Chakaria Sunderban mangrove forest in Cox’s Bazar Coast for 100 years time scale.

Hossain et al.: Salt Production in Bangladesh and Thailand Coast Int. J. Ecol. Environ. Sci.162

Figure 3. Timeline of land use changes in the Samut Sakhon Coast (1925-2000).

Figure 4. Transect analysis of Samut Sakhon Coast showing land use patterns with activities and problems.

32: 159-172 Hossain et al.: Salt Production in Bangladesh and Thailand Coast 163

MANAGEMENT OF SALT PRODUCTION

Preparation of Salt Pans

On the Cox’s Bazar coast of Bangladesh most of thesalt farms are small-scale. The farmers lease the landfrom landowners, or sometimes from the government,on a yearly basis. In Thailand a few landlords occupymost of the government land and they sub-lease to poorfarmers on condition that the farmers will carryout theentire production expenditure but the income will beshared equally between both parties. Very few farmerslease land directly from the government on yearly tax-paying basis. Except some simple mechanisation, therecovery or precipitation method of salt from theseawater in Cox’s Bazar and Samut Sakhon coast isalmost the same, as practiced for many centuries. Areasof mudflats slightly above the high tidal range areleveled and compacted by using a roller at the onset ofthe dry season in October-November so that the brinesolution will not seep into the soil. Each area is dividedinto many salt pans such as reservoir, condenser andcrystaliser (Figure 5).

Stocking of Seawater

Seawater stocking of the reservoir is conducted throughditches connected to the rivers or canals. If salt pansare lower than the high tide, sea water is allowed toflow through gates into the reservoir, otherwiseseawater is lifted from the ditches to the reservoir bymanually operated local equipment in Cox’s Bazarcoast and windmills, gasoline and diesel pumps on theSamut Sakhon coast. Water salinity varies from 30 to35‰ in both the coasts. The salt farmers on the SamutSakhon coast use the reservoir for extensive shrimp

culture to get an extra income. The clear seawater fromthe reservoir is allowed to enter into the condenser pan.Internal inlet canals are placed among the condensersand crystalisers for proper water distribution. The highsaline water is transferred from the condenser tocrystaliser, where the salt crystals start to form. Thesalinity starts to increase during the settlement periodin the reservoir due to evaporation.

Harvesting and Production Rate

According to Bangladesh Small and Cottage IndustriesCorporation (BSCIC), salt project, Cox’s Bazar, 19,671ha has been converted for salt production along theCox’s Bazar coast of Bangladesh. Annual saltproduction per unit area is 22 Mg ha-1

-1

(Table 1), lowerthan in Thailand because of the short evaporationseason and limited mechanization. Samut Sakhon isthe largest salt producing province in the upper Gulf ofThailand. The total area under salt production is 5,541ha with an average yield of 43 Mg ha (Table 1). Theyield increases during the longer dry season but thelonger rainy season reduces the production rate. Theproduction cycle on the Cox’s Bazar coast is completedwithin 7-10 days depending on environmental condi-tions, area of salt beds and amount of water. In Cox’sBazar the farmers stock 2 to 3 cm water in the salt bedfor evaporation, but in Samut Sakhon the averageharvesting time is 10 to 15 days and the farmers stock4 to 5 cm water. Soon after starting the precipitationprocess they supply saline water for a second or thirdtime to get a bulk harvest (Figure 6). This is a cyclicorder technique that starts in November and ends inApril or May in Bangladesh and from November to thefirst half of June on the Thai coast.

Figure 5. Schematic diagram of salt pans in Cox’s Bazar Coast (Hossain et al. 2003b).

Hossain et al.: Salt Production in Bangladesh and Thailand Coast Int. J. Ecol. Environ. Sci.164

Table 1. Salt cultivation area and production rate in Cox’s Bazar and Samut Sakhon coast (personal communication:*Bangladesh Small and Cottage Industries Corporation, salt project, Cox’s Bazar. #Ministry of Agricultureand Cooperatives, Thailand). (Mg = metric tonne or MT)

Coastal Zone Name of Upazila/ Area Production Production RateSub-district (ha) (Mg) (Mg ha -1 )

Cox’s Bazar Coast, Cox’s Bazar Sadar 2,588 58,445 23 Bangladesh* 12585,611565,5airakahC

Moheshkhali 6,748 130,618 2082521,95580,2aidbutuK24722,31713fankeT02999,44823,2ilahksnaB

BSCIC Experimental Plot 40 961 25

2206932417691latoT

24432,54770,1kohkaN,tsaoC nohkaS tumaS Thailand# 84063,96544,1gnolaK

Bang Tholat 1,010 40,400 4093099,51014oB gnaB

Bang Krachao 335 14,740 44Bang Ya Phrack 463 20,835 45

24075,358karK korK04023,41853mahK kohK

Pan Tile Norasingh 358 13,604 38

34350,832145,5latoT

Figure 6. Salt gathered in the crystaliser and transporting tostorage house.

Transportation of Salt

The salt evaporation areas along the Cox’s Bazar andSamut Sakhon coast are not served by railways and

thus depend upon trucks and boats for transportation.The Chittagong-Cox’s Bazar highway is important inproviding access to the salt evaporating areas along thecoast. In Thailand, road transportation is well deve-loped and several highways are connected to the SamutSakhon coast.

Time Sharing

Informal management for land use zoning is animportant practice in Cox’s Bazar and Samut Sakhoncoast in respect of time-sharing, i.e., salt productionduring summer months and extensive shrimp farmingduring monsoon months. Traditional shrimp culturefarms are generally developed extensively in these areasdue to the suitability of water, soil and other para-meters of shrimp production. The zoning approach canprovide important information for potential developers/investors to identify the suitable zones that meetcertain objectives to ensure maximum benefit for a longperiod (Hossain et al. 2001b). Zoning of land andwater for saltpan or shrimp farm development can help

32: 159-172 Hossain et al.: Salt Production in Bangladesh and Thailand Coast 165

in controlling environmental deterioration at the farmlevel and in avoiding adverse social and environmentalinteractions. Establishment of zones can ensure, mostimportantly, optimal allocation of resources for saltpanand shrimp farm development and, secondly, minimi-zation of conflicts between different users. This willminimize the unplanned horizontal expansion of salt orshrimp production area and maximize productivityfrom smaller area through vertical integration with theuse of modem scientific techniques and improve thesocio-economic condition of the people, as well asmaintain the ecological balance in the coastal region.

INCOME - CASE STUDY OF TWO FARMS

In Bangladesh, the government has a policy ofproviding loans to salt farmers. But the formalities ofgovernment banks are complicated and the amountoffered is insufficient for land preparation andequipment purchase. So, some farmers take loans fromthe salt-trading middlemen on condition of giving. saltat a lower price after harvesting. Most of the salt farmsare small-scale using manually operated localequipment. All the family members actively participatein farm operation. School-going children also help inthe morning and evening. During 2000 the farmersenjoyed the opportunity of a 5 months productionseason (December to April) and obtained highproduction. An analysis of costs and returns of a farmeron the Cox’s Bazar coast, who leased 5 ha land fromthe landowner, exhibited a profit of about 28,000Taka/ha/season (Table 2). The farm had 2 reservoirs of1 ha, 4 condensers and 4 crystalisers of 0.5 ha each.The average yield of the farm was 21 Mg ha-1 -1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

season .During the first 3 months the farmer sold 50 Mg of saltat the rate of 2600 Taka Mg . Another 30 Mg wassold at 2200 Taka Mg and 25 Mg of gray salt has soldat 1600 Taka Mg . The farmer constructed storagesheds using low-cost local materials, for example,bamboo poles, tree branches. paddy straw, etc. Suchsheds need to be reconstructed every alter-native yearand thus the longevity was calculated as 2 years. Otherequipment works well for around 2 years. So, thedepreciation was calculated as 50%.

Khun Samut Maneerat, a salt farm at SamutSakhon coast, has 8 crystalisers and 12 condensers,each with an area of 0.8 ha. The farm has tworeservoirs of 8 ha at the seaside to allow sediment tosettle out of the seawater before salt production (Figure7). The reservoirs are also used for extensive shrimp

culture during salt production season. There was a 7months operation season in 2000 and the average yieldof the farm was 48 Mg ha . So. the total production ofthe farm was 1152 Mg season . The average farm gateprice was 1500 Baht Mg . Inland shrimp farmers buythe highly saline water (150 to 200‰) from the saltproducers at the rate of 1200 Baht per truck (15,000 to18,000 litres) as inland shrimp farming has beenexpanding in Thailand in recent years due to pollutionand disease problems in the coastal region. In 2000 thesalt farmer sold 25 trucks of saline water to the inlandshrimp farmers. Total shrimp production in thereservoirs was 720 Kg sold at 300 Baht kg-1

-1

-1

-1

-1 -1. Thus the

farmer has earned about 30,000 Baht ha season(Table 3). Salt production needs a large labour force for

Table 2. Economic analysis of sea salt production inCox’s Bazar Coast.

akaT hsedalgnaBsmetI fo emaN(US$)*

Capital ExpenditureConstruction of storage house 20,000 (339)

)933( 000,02relloRLocal equipment (Dongin, Euchiun) 5,000 (85)

)367( 000,54latoTDepreciation (50%) 22,500 (381)

Recurring ExpenditureLabour for salt bed preparation 1,500 (25) (10 man-day @150 Taka)Labour for gathering and transporting 40,000 (678) salt (2) @20,000 season yearLocal transport (boat, van, etc.) 5,000 (85)Land lease fee @5,000 Taka ha season 25,000 (424)Total recurring expenditure 71,500 (1212)Total operating cost 94,000 (1593) (Depreciation+Recurring expenditure)

Total IncomeSale 50 Mg @2,600 Taka Mg 130,000 (2203) (beginning of the season)Sale 30 Mg @2,200 Taka Mg 66,000 (1119)Sale 25 Mg @1,600 Taka Mg 40,000 (678) (Slightly mud mixed gray salt)Gross income of the farmer 236,000 (4000)

)7042( 000,241emocni teN (gross income-operating cost)

Net Profit per hectare 28,400 (481)

*Bangladesh Taka and US Dollar in parentheses.

Hossain et al.: Salt Production in Bangladesh and Thailand Coast Int. J. Ecol. Environ. Sci.166

gathering salt and transporting to the storage shed. Fivelabourers were hired for gathering salt on contract, at20,000 Baht season-1

-1 and 10 labourers for transporting

at 10,000 Baht season .The salt farmers in Cox’s Bazar coast use labour-

intensive local equipment but on the Samut Sakhoncoast they use capital-intensive mechanized equipment.The farmers in both the coasts have been exploited bythe landlords/owners and also by the middlemen. Thegovernment land leasing system needs to re-arrange forproper distribution of the coastal land among themarginal salt farmers. Furthermore, government shouldmaintain the actual salt price to prevent pricefluctuation.

Figure 7. The typical layout of a salt farm in Samut SakhonCoast, Thailand.

Table 3. Economic analysis of sea salt production inSamut Sakhon Coast.

thaB dnaliahTsmetI fo emaN(US$)*

Capital ExpenditureConstruction of storage house 100,000 (2500)Motor pump (1) 175 HP 150,000 (3750)Motor pump (1) 50 HP 40,000 (1000) @40,000 BahtRoller (1) 100 HP 100,000 (2500)Accessories for motor pumps 15,000 (375) and roller

)52101( 000,504latoTDepreciation (10%) 40,500 (1013)

Recurring ExpenditureFuel for pump and roller 60,000 (1500) (4000 L) @15 Baht)Labour for salt bed preparation 4,000 (100) (20 man-days) @200 Baht day -1

-1 -1

-1 -1

-1

-1

Labour for gathering salt 100,000 (2500) (5) @20,000 Baht season yLabour for transporting salt **100,000 (2500) (10) @10,000 Baht season yTotal recurring expenditure 264,000 (6600)Total operating cost 304,500 (7613) (Depreciation+Recurring expenditure)

Total IncomeTotal salt production 1728,000 (43200) (1152 Mg) @1500 Baht MgSelling of high saline water 30,000 (750) (25 trucks) @1200 truckShrimp production 720 kg 216,000 (5400) (90 kg ha) @300 Baht kgGross income of the farm 1974,000 (49350)

)57642( 000,789erahs droldnaL (50% of gross income)

)57642( 000,789erahs remraF (50% of gross income)

Gross Income of the Farmer)57642( 000,789erahs %05

Half of the salt transportation expense 50,000 (1250) (from Landlord)Total gross income of the farmer 1037,000 (25925)Net income of the farmer 732,500 (18312) (gross income-operating cost)

Net Profit Per Hectare 30,520 (763)

*Thailand Baht and US Dollar in parentheses.**Landlord pays half of the expense.

32: 159-172 Hossain et al.: Salt Production in Bangladesh and Thailand Coast 167

Table 4. Month-wise meteorological parameters of Cox’s Bazar district (Bangladesh Meteorological Department,Cox’s Bazar, personal communication).

Month Total Rainy Average Temperature (°C) Rate of R.H. at BrightenihsnusCTU 0021noitaropavEsyadllafniar)0002(

d mmmuminiMmumixaM)mm( -1 (%) (hr)

January 001 02 27.7 15.7 3.09 67 No DataFebruary 002 02 29.1 17.6 3.72 61 No DataMarch 96 04 27.8 21.2 3.59 67 No DataApril 81 08 33.1 24.1 5.32 75 No DataMay 573 22 31.8 23.8 2.82 81 182.6June 841 27 31.8 25.0 2.82 87 127.2July 1,326 24 31.2 24.6 1.98 87 136.5August 914 24 31.3 25.1 3.35 86 180.7September 337 20 30.6 25.0 3.52 86 167.0October 394 14 32.4 24.6 3.62 81 228.6November 16 02 31.8 20.4 2.73 75 296.6December Nil Nil 28.2 15.6 2.49 77 314.1

Figure 8. Uses of sodium chloride (Source: Mannar 1982).

Hossain et al.: Salt Production in Bangladesh and Thailand Coast Int. J. Ecol. Environ. Sci.168

Uses of Salt

Salt is an essential element in the diet of not onlyhumans but of animals, and even of many plants. Incenturies past, salt, the universal necessity, was muchappreciated as an effective medicine (Langre 2000).With the advent of industrial civilization, the uses andimportance of salt have multiplied. Salt has been usedfor flavouring, pickling, preserving, curing of meat andfish, and in tanning. It is one of the big five among thechemicals which form the base or the chemicalindustry, the other four being sulphur, coal, limestoneand petroleum (Mannar 1982). As the frontiers of thechemical industry grow, new applications for salt andits derivatives are constantly being discovered. Figure 8indicates the various uses of salt.

FACTORS AFFECTING SEA SALT RETURNS

Seasonality

Climate is an important factor for sea salt production.The impacts of an extended rainy season are diverseand can be broadly classified as economic, environ-mental and social. Impacts may also be referred to asdirect or indirect, or are assigned a rank (i.e., first orsecond order). In a coastal community where sea saltproduction is the primary economic activity, the director first-order impact of a longer rainy season is obser-ved in the form of poor economic returns via floodingof the salt beds and decrease in production (Figure 9).

Figure 9. Impact of longer rainy season on the socio-economiccondition of the sea salt farmers.

Examples of second-order impacts are decreasedemployment and income. The early cessation of saltproduction activities reduces employment and non-availability of jobs reduces the food entitlement ofcoastal communities, especially small farmers andlandless labourers.

The evaporation rate in Cox’s Bazar coast variesslightly according to the time of year. Minimumevaporation is in May-July when cloud cover is highand average wind velocity is near the annual minimum.Evaporation generally reaches its maximum in Januaryto April when temperature is high, skies are clear andthe windy season is in full progress. The coastalcommunities have taken full advantage of this seasonalvariation to establish a salt evaporation industry. Themeteorological parameters are usually favourable forsalt production from November to April in the Cox’sBazar coast (Table 4). Thailand has high temperaturesyear-round, generally high relative humidity and tworainy seasons. From December to June rainfall is lightto absent, while the remaining months of the year havegenerally high rainfall (Table 5). Sea salt production isusually conducted in the dry season, from November toJune with the peak season from January to April inSamut Sakhon coast.

The critical factor that affects the production ofsalt is the evaporation rate. Parameters includingtemperature, incident radiation, relative humidity, andwind velocity all influence the net evaporation of waterat different concentrations. Mostly a high sunshine rateand air temperature influences the evaporation rate,which are usually interrelated. The hot inland air isbeneficial as it improves evaporation. The lower therelative humidity the greater the capacity of theevaporating body to take up more water vapour. Windhelps in the removal of air saturated with water vapourfrom the surface of the evaporating body and bringingin contact with it fresh unsaturated layers of theatmosphere thus increasing evaporation. However, highwind velocity may blow sand and dust into the saltpans affecting the quality of salt.

Marketing and Price Fluctuation

Presence of middlemen between salt farmers andtraders is dominant both in Cox’s Bazar and SamutSakhon coast. The farm gate price in Cox’s Bazar coastvaries from 2000 to 3000 Taka Mg -1 depending on salt

32: 159-172 Hossain et al.: Salt Production in Bangladesh and Thailand Coast 169

Table 5. Month-wise meteorological parameters of Samut Sakhon Province (personal communication: Samut SakhonMeteorological Station).

Month Total Rainy Average Temperature (°C) R.H. at 1200(2000) rainfall (mm) days Maximum Minimum UTC (%)

January 11 2 35.5 15.0 68February 0 0 34.0 15.5 72

070.320.632921hcraM860.320.734051lirpA270.425.739312yaM570.426.7321311enuJ180.522.73864yluJ

August 320 20 37.0 24.0 85September 147 21 35.5 24.0 80October 309 22 34.5 23.0 74November 2 1 35.5 19.0 71December 36 2 35.0 14.0 69

quality i.e., white salt is considered as good quality andthe gray salt is considered as lower quality. In SamutSakhon coast the farm-gate price varies from 1000 to2000 Baht Mg -1 depending upon quality, season andmarket demand. But this price may drop to 300 BahtMg -1, which is one of the. main issues of sea saltproduction that may cause this venture to collapse. Theproduction cost varies from 300 to 500 Baht Mg -1

depending on land suitability and seasonality. Thefarmers measure their salt in different ways and thestandard measurement unit is “Kwian” and “litre” inThailand. They calculate a pile 2 m wide, 2 m long and1 m high of salt (4 m3) as 2 Kwian. One Kwian equalsapproximately 1600 kg (1.6 Mg).

The causes of market fluctuation are over-production, dominance of middlemen, lack of farmer’sempowerment, lack of proper government policy, etc.(Figure 10). In Cox’s Bazar coast, another cause is theimport of salt from the neighbouring Myanmar coast.Myanmar has a huge coastal area along the Bay ofBengal in Arakan that is mainly used for sea saltproduction. However, the range of hills close to theArakan coast make difficult and expensive to supplysalt to the .domestic market. So, the producers pushthe crude salt illegally to the bordering district (Cox’sBazar) of Bangladesh, sometimes at low prices. Thus,some salt mills have come to depend on the smuggledMyanmar crude salt for survival or business expansion.In case of salt shortage in the market and noimportation of salt for replacement, the shortage fromlocal production is said to have been accounted for by

such smuggling activities (Lim 1996). The middlemenmay create artificial cash crisis and stop buying salt atany time. But the farmers need to sell the salts even atlower price to maintain their daily common demandsand labour payment. Over production sometimes posesanother problem for the farmers. If the environmentalparameters are favourable for long periods and themaximum area is taken into cultivation, the farmers gethigh production, which may reduce the market price, asmarket becomes flooded.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITION

As a salt bed is part of the environment, farmers shouldconsider environmental factors when choosing a site foroperation. Site selection, however, is rarely based on athorough assessment of features of the natural orhuman influenced environment and often limitedconsideration is given to technical, ecological,economic, logistic and socio-political factors. Theavailability of water supply is one of the mostimportant environmental factors determining siteviability for salt production. To minimize the costs ofpumping water, most salt beds in Cox’s Bazar andSamut Sakhon coast are located as close as possible tothe source of water supply. Consequently, many aresituated adjacent to the coast, in places elevated slightlyhigher than the normal high water line. The presence ofmangroves adjacent to salt beds helps to protect themfrom cyclonic storms.

Hossain et al.: Salt Production in Bangladesh and Thailand Coast Int. J. Ecol. Environ. Sci.170

Figure 10. Problem tree analysis for salt price decrease.

Extended muddy shores with flat and gentlesloping are present along the Moheshkhali channel ofthe Cox’s Bazar coast, especially on the delta and floodplains of Matamuhuri and Baghkhali rivers, where mostof the salt pans have been built. The southern part ofSamut Sakhon Province is primarily low lying landparallel to the coastal area that has been used for saltproduction and shrimp farming. The soil affects theinitial cost of salt bed preparation, since soil permea-bility affects the capacity of the salt pan to hold water.The seepage rate is greatly determined by the soil typeand its particle size. The coastal soil is mainly sandy-clay in Cox’s Bazar and silty-clay in Samut Sakhoncoast and both type positively influence salt production(Table 6). The water and soil parameters of differentsaltpans that have been reported by Kamal (1996) for

the Cox’s Bazar coast (Table 7) are mostly similar tothe Samut Sakhon coast.

Table 6. Soil texture of different salt pans in Cox’sBazar and Samut Sakhon Coast.

Area Salt Pans TextureSand, % Clay, % Silt, %

Cox’s Bazar Reservoir 62.0 21.0 17.0Condenser 70.0 19.0 11.0Crystaliser 59.0 25.0 16.0

Samut Sakhon Reservoir 10.9 45.66 44.25Condenser 15.77 29.74 51.49Crystaliser 25.0 22.0 53.0

32: 159-172 Hossain et al.: Salt Production in Bangladesh and Thailand Coast 171

Table 7. Hydrological parameters of different saltpans in Cox’s Bazar Coast (Kamal 1996).

Area Salt Pans pH Salinity Temp EC Total Ca Mg HCO3 Alkalinity‰ °C mS hardness mg L -1 mg L -1 mg L -1 mg L -1

cm -1 mg L -1

Cox’s Reservoir 7.1 30.03 31.5 93.60 8,000 2,987 5,013 36.6 120Bazar Condenser 7.4 78.36 31.8 228.00 16,000 7,908 8,092 36.6 140

Crystaliser 6.9 330.52 38.0 336.00 135,200 65,600 69,600 146.0 570

CONCLUSION

Marx’s social theory fits very well with the presentfinding as this theory identifies economic factors as thefundamental determinant of social structure andchange. The landowners (or landlords) and the saltproducers inevitably have incompatible interest,because under systems of property ownership, iflandowners (or landlords) make economic gains, itmust be at the expense of salt producers. According toMarx, each of the major economic systems that existedin the past strengthened one particular class, whichcould then exploit others. All systems of propertytherefore involve a basic conflict of interest because onegroup expropriates the product of another’s labour(Marx and Engles 1975). Since salt producers ofBangladesh lease-in lands from landowners and ofThailand from landlords, who are politically influentialand have access to institutional resources (for example,credit, government subsidies, permits, etc.), we haveuse this theoretical perspective for analysing the extentof exploitation of salt producers by the landlords.

Proper land lease policy can be of vital importancefor the development of sea salt farmers ability toincrease their productivity and thus their standard ofliving. In addition to its potential for enhancingproductivity, can play a powerful role in the promotionof greater equity by giving preferential assistance tosmaller farmers, often the most vulnerable to thevagaries of the environment - climate, market, etc.However, the government land lease policy has paidvery little attention to farmer consultations andgenerally confined its activities to purveying un-differentiated packages of services and advice designedby distant planners and administrators. Coastaldevelopment can be defined as coastal “peopledevelopment”, thus it is essential to “go to the people,learn from the people, and plan with the people”. The

sea salt production is currently facing price fluctuationproblem. Even though the salt farming is locally an easyoption and century old family venture for many people,it also has other impacts like soil and water bodysalinisation, ground water salinisation, extinction oflocally growing fruit trees such as banana, papaya.guava and coconut. Salt production during dry seasonand shrimp production in wet season can be an optionfor better economic return for the salt farmers.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We gratefully acknowledge Danish International Deve-lopment Assistance (DANIDA) for a grant to conductthis study. We would like to thank Mr. MuhammadSirajul Haque (Department of Economics) and Mr.Abul Hasnat Golam Quddus (Department ofSociology) of University of Chittagong. Bangladesh forproviding useful comments on the paper.

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