American Life in the Roaring Twenties, 1920–1929

Chapter30AmericanLifeinthe"RoaringTwenties,"

1920–1929

I.SeeingRed• BolshevikRevolution(1919):comingofCommunismtoRussia– EffectsonUnitedStates:• SmallCommunistPartyemerged

– Blamedforsomelaborstrikes(Seattle,1919)• Bigredscareof1919-1920:

– Nationwidecrusadeagainstleft-wingerswhoseAmericanismwassuspect

– AttorneyGeneralA.MitchellPalmer“sawred”tooeasily– “FightingQuaker”roundedup6,000suspects– NumberdoubledinJune1919whenabombshatteredboththenervesandthehomeofPalmer

I.SeeingRed(cont.)

– Othereventshighlightedredscare:– December1919:shiploadof249allegedalienradicalsdeportedonBuford(the“SovietArk”)toRussia

– September1920,still-unexplainedbombblastonWallStreetkilled38peopleandwoundedahundredothers

• Statelegislatures1919-1920joinedoutcry;passedcriminalsyndicalismlaws:– Anti-redstatutesmadeunlawfulmereadvocacyofviolencetosecuresocialchange

– Criticsprotestedthatmerewordsnotcriminaldeeds– ViolencedonetofreedomofspeechasIWWmembersandotherradicalsvigorouslyprosecuted

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I.SeeingRed(cont.)– In1920fiveNewYorkstatelegislators,alllawfullyelected,deniedseatsbecausetheywereSocialists

• Conservativesusedredscaretobreakfledglingunions:– Unionscalledfor“closed”orall-unionshop;thiswasdenouncedas“Sovietismindisguise”

– Employershailedtheirantiunioncampaignfor“open”shopasAmericanplan

• Anti-redismandantiforeignismreflectedinnotoriouscase—regardedbyliberalsas“judiciallynching”– NicolaSaccoandBartholomeoVanzetticonvictedin1921ofmurderofaMass.Paymasterandhisguard

I.SeeingRed(cont.)– JuryandjudgeprejudicedagainstdefendersbecausetheywereItalians,atheists,anarchists,anddraftdodgers

– Liberalsandradicalstheworldoverralliedtotheirdefense– Casedraggedonforoversixyearsuntil1917whencondemnedmenelectrocuted

– Communistsandradicalshadtwomartyrsin“classstruggle”

II.HoodedHoodlumsoftheKKK

• NewKuKluxKlan:– Resembledantiforeign“nativist”movementof1850sratherthanantiblacknightridersof1860s:• Antiforeign,anti-Catholic,antiblack,anti-Jewish,antipacifists,anti-Communist,anti-internationalist,anti-evolutionist,antibootlegger,antigambling,anti-adultery,andanti-birthcontrol• Pro-Anglo-Saxon,pro-“native”American,pro-Protestant

II.HoodedHoodlumsoftheKKK(cont.)

– Klanbetokenedextremist,ultraconservativeuprisingagainst:• ForcesofdiversityandmodernitytransformingAmericanculture• SpreadrapidlyinMidwestandBibleBeltSouthwhereProtestantFundamentalismthrived• Mid-1920speakhadfivemilliondues-payingmembersandwieldedpotentpoliticalinfluence• “KnightsoftheInvisibleEmpire”includedamongofficialsImperialWizards,GrandGoblins,KingKleagles,andotherhorrendous“kreatures”


• ThingsofKKK:– Impressive“konclaves,”hugeflag-wavingparades– Chiefwarningwasblazingcross– Principleweaponbloodiedlash,supplementedbytarandfeathers

– Rallyingsongsandbrutalslogan

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• Collapsedinlate1920sinpartbecauseofcorruption– $10initiationfee,ofwhich$4akickbacktolocalorganizationasincentivetorecruit

– KKKamanifestationofintoleranceandprejudiceagainstpaceofsocialchangein1920s

– Civilrightsactivistsfoughtinvainforlegislationmakinglynchingafederalcrime

III.StemmingtheForeignFlood

• IsolationistAmerica(1920s),ingrownandprovincial,hadlittleuseforimmigrants:

• 800,000camein1920-1921• 2/3fromsouthernandeasternEurope• Americansrecoiledatthese“NewImmigrants”• CongresspassedEmergencyQuotaAct1921

– NewcomersfromEuroperestrictedtoaquota• ImmigrationActof1924replacedEmergencyAct

– Quotacutfrom3%to2%– Nationaloriginsbaseshiftedfromcensusof1910to1890

III.StemmingtheForeignFlood (cont.)

– SouthernEuropeansbitterlydenounceddeviceasdiscriminatory– PurposewastofreezeAmerica'sexistingracialcomposition,whichwaslargelynorthernEuropeans

– SlammeddoorabsolutelyagainstJapaneseimmigrants» “HateAmerica”rallieseruptedinJapan

– ExemptfromquotasystemwereCanadianandLatinAmericans—» Easytoattractforjobswhentimesgood» Easytosendhomewhentimesbad

• EffectedpivotaldepartureinAmericanpolicy– Claimednationwasfillingup—“NoVacancy”sign– By1931moreforeignersleftthanarrived

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III.StemmingtheForeignFlood (cont.)

– QuotascausedAmericatosacrificesomeofitstraditionoffreedomandopportunity• Aswellasitsfutureethnicdiversity(seeFigure30.1)

– ImmigrationActof1924markedendofera—– Virtuallyunrestrictedimmigrationhadbroughtsome35millionnewcomers,mostlyfromEurope

– Immigranttidenowcutoff– LeftonAmericanshoresapatchworkofethniccommunitiesseparatedbylanguage,religion,andcustoms

– “Culturalpluralists”opposedimmigrationrestrictionbecausetheycelebratedethnicidentityandculturalcross-fertilization

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IV.TheProhibition“Experiment”

• Prohibition—– Lastcauseofprogressivereformmovement– EighteenthAmendment:(1919):authorizedprohibition(SeeAppendix)• ImplementedbyVolsteadActpassedbyCongressin1919• Madeworld“safeforhypocrisy”• LegalabolitionofalcoholespeciallypopularinSouthandWest

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IV.TheProhibition“Experiment” (cont.)

• InWest,prohibitionanattackonvicesassociatedwithwesternsaloons(publicdrunkenness,prostitution,etc.)• Strongoppositionto“dry”amendmentinlargereasterncities– Especiallyfor“wet”foreign-bornpeople– Sociabilitybuiltarounddrinking

• MostAmericansassumedprohibitionhadcometostay• Prohibitionistsnaïve:

– OverlookedtenaciousAmericantraditionofstrongdrink– Overlookedweakcontrolbycentralgovernment,especiallyoverprivatelives

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– Federalgovernmenthadneversatisfactorilyenforcedalawthatmajorityofpeopleorstrongminorityrejected

– Lawmakerscouldnotlegislateawaythirst• Peculiarconditionshamperedenforcement:

– Wisdomoffurtherself-denialafterwar– Slakingthirstbecamecherishedpersonalliberty– Wetsbelievedwaytorepealwastoviolatelawonlargescale– Solderscomplainedprohibition“putover”onthemwhiletheywere“overthere”

– Workersbemoanedlossofcheapbeer


– Flamingyouththoughtit“smart”toswillbootlegliquor– Millionsofoldercitizensfoundforbiddenfruitfascinatingastheyengagedin“barhunts”

• Mighthavebeenmoresuccessfuliftherehadbeenlargearmyofenforcementofficials– Federalagenciesunderstaffed– Underpaidsnooperssusceptibletobribery

• Prohibitionsimplydidnotprohibit:– “Menonly”cornersaloonsreplacedby“speakeasies”– Hardliquordrunkbymenandwomen– ZealofAmericanprohibitionagentsstrainedrelationswithCanada

IV.TheProhibition“Experience” (cont.)

– Worstofhomemade“rotgut”producedblindness,evendeath» Bootleggerworkedinpartnershipwithundertaker

• Yet“nobleexperiment”notentirelyafailure:– Banksavingsincreased– Absenteeisminindustrydecreased– Deathfromalcoholismandcirrhosisdeclined– Lessalcoholconsumedthanindaysbeforeprohibition

V.TheGoldenAgeofGangsterism• Prohibitionspawnedshockingcrimes:– Profitsofillegalalcoholledtobriberyofpolice– Violentwarsinbigcitiesbetweenrivalgangs• Rivaltriggerman“erased”bootleggingcompetitors• Chicago(1920s):500mobstersmurdered• Arrestsfewandconvictionsfewer• Chicagomostspectacularexampleoflawlessness:

– 1925“Scarface”AlCaponebegansixyearsofgangwarfare– Zoomedthroughstreetsinarmor-platedcarwithbulletproofwindows

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V.TheGoldenAgeofGangsterism(cont.)

– “PublicEnemyNumberOne,”couldnotbeconvictedofmassacreonSt.Valentine'sDay1929» Ofsevenunarmedmembersofrivalgang» Afterserving11yearsforincometaxevasion,Caponereleasedassyphiliticwreck

• Gangstersmovedintootherprofitableandillicitactivities:– Prostitution,gambling,narcotics– Honestmerchantsforcedtopay“protectionmoney”– Racketeersinvadedranksoflocallaborunionsasorganizersandpromoters

– Organizedcrimecametobeoneofnation'sbiggestbusinesses

V.TheGoldenAgeofGangsterism(cont.)

– By1930,annual“take”ofunderworld$12to$18billion• Criminalcallousnesssanktonewdepthsin1923:

– Kidnappingforransomandeventualmurderofinfantsonofaviator-heroCharlesALindbergh

– CongresspassedLindberghLaw:makinginterstateabductionincertaincircumstancesadeath-penaltyoffense

VI.MonkeyBusinessinTennessee• Educationalstridesin1920s:–Morestatesrequiredstudentstoremaininschooluntilage16or18,oruntilgraduation

– Highschoolgraduationratesdoubledin1920s• ChangeineducationaltheorybyJohnDewey

• Principlesof“learningbydoing”– So-calledprogressiveeducationwithitsgreater“permissiveness”

– Believedworkbenchasessentialasblackboard– “Educationforlife”shouldbeprimarygoalofteacher

VI.MonkeyBusinessinTennessee(cont.)

– Sciencemadeadvancements:• Healthprograms,launchedbyRockefellerFoundationinSouthin1909,wipedouthookwormby1920s• Betternutritionandhealthcareincreasedlifeexpectancyofnewborns(from50yearsin1901to59yearsin1929)• ScienceandprogressiveeducationfacedunfriendlyfireofnewlyorganizedFundamentalists– Numerousattemptsmadetosecurelawsprohibitingteachingofevolution

– Tennessee,heartofso-calledBibleBeltSouth,wherespiritofevangelicalreligionrobust


• “MonkeyTrial”:– In1925,Daytonhigh-schoolbiologyteacherJohnT.Scopesindictedforteachingevolution• Defendedbynationallyrenownedattorneys

–WilliamJenningsBryanmadetoappearfoolishbyfamedcriminallawyerClarenceDarrow• Fivedaysaftertrial,Bryandiedofstroke

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• Historicclashbetweentheologyandbiologyprovedinconclusive:– Scopesfoundguiltyandfined$100– Tennesseesupremecourtupheldlaw,butsetasidefineontechnicality

– Fundamentalistswononlyhollowvictory• Fundamentalism(emphasisonliteralreadingofBible)

– RemainedvibrantforceinAmericanspirituallife– StronginBaptistChurchandrapidlygrowingChurchesofChrist,organizedin1906

VII.TheMass-ConsumptionEconomy

• Prosperityput“roar”intotwenties:– RecentwarandTreasurySecretaryAndrewMellon'staxpolicies:• Favoredrapidexpansionofcapitalinvestment• Newmachineryincreasedproductivity• Assembly-lineproductionreachedperfectionbyHenryFord'sfactorieswhereafinishedautomobileemergedeverytenseconds• Newindustriessprouted

VII.TheMass-ConsumptionEconomy(cont.)

• Automobile:– Nowbecamecarriageofcommoncitizen– By1930Americansownedalmost30millioncars– Createdshiftincharacterofeconomy:• Americanmanufacturers

– Masteredproblemsofproduction– Shiftedfocustoconsumption– Couldtheyfindmassmarketsforgoods?

• NewarmofAmericancommercecameintobeing:

VII.TheMass-Consumption Economy(cont.)

– Advertising• BruceBartonpublishedbestseller:TheManNobodyKnows:– Provocativethesis:JesusChristgreatestadmanofalltime– “EveryadvertisingmanoughttostudytheparablesofJesus”– “Marvelouslycondensed,asallgoodadvertisingshouldbe”– Christ'sexecutiveability:“Hepickeduptwelvemenfromthebottomranksofbusinessandforgedthemintoanorganizationthatconqueredtheworld”

VII.TheMass-ConsumptionEconomy(cont.)

– Sports:• Becamebigbusinessinconsumptioneconomy• HeroeslikeGeorgeH.(“Babe”)Ruthfarbetterknownthanmoststatesmen• YankeeStadiumbecame“housethatRuthbuilt”• In1921heavyweightchampion,JackDempsey,knockedoutlightheavyweightGeorgeCarpentier– JerseyCitycrowdpaidmorethanamilliondollars– Firstinseriesofmillion-dollar“gates”in1920s

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VII.TheMass-Consumption Economy(cont.)

– Buyingoncredit;anotherinnovationofpostwareconomy:• “Possesstodayandpaytomorrow”wasmessage• Peoplewentintodebttoownallkindsofnewmarvels—refrigerators,vacuumcleaners,carsandradios—now• Prosperityaccumulatedanoverhangingcloudofdebt• Economybecameincreasinglyvulnerabletodisruptionsofcreditstructure

VIII.PuttingAmericaonRubberTires• Machinerywasnewmessiah—andautomobileitsprincipalprophet– Automobile• Newindustrialsystem:

– Assembly-linemethods– Mass-productiontechniques

• Americansadaptedratherthaninventedgasolineengine:– Europeanscanclaimoriginalhonor– 1890s—daringAmericaninventorsandpromoters– HenryFordandRansomE.Oldsdevelopedinfantautomotiveindustry

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VIII.PuttingAmericaonRubberTires(cont.)

• By1910sixty-ninecarcompaniesrolledouttotalannualproductionof181,000units• DetroitbecamemotorcarcapitalofAmerica• ScientificManagement:

– StopwatchefficiencytechniquesofFrederickW.Taylor– Eliminatewastedmotion

• HenryFord:– Morethananyotherindividual,putAmericaonrubbertires– HisModelT(“TinLizzie”)

» Cheap,rugged,andreasonablyreliable,thoughroughandclattering

» Partshighlystandardized

VIII.PuttingAmericaonRubber(cont.)

– Devotedhimselftogospelofstandardization– Graspedandappliedtechniqueofmovingassemblyline—Fordism

– SoldFordroadsterfor$260(seeFigure30.2)– FordismcaughtfireoutsideUnitedStates– FloodofFordsphenomenal:

» In1914“AutomobileWizard”turnedouthis500,000thModelT» By1930totalhadrisento20million» By1929,26millionmotorvehiclesregistered—oneforevery4.9American(seeFigure30.3)

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Figure 30-3 p704

IX.TheAdventoftheGasolineAge

– Impactofself-propelledcarriagetremendous:• Giganticnewindustryemerged• Employeddirectlyorindirectly6millionpeople• 1,000sofnewjobscreatedbysupportingindustries

– Rubber,glass,andfabrics– Highwayconstruction,servicestationsandgarages– America'sstandardoflivingrosetoenviablelevel

• Petroleumbusinessexpanded:– OilderricksshotupinCalifornia,Texas,Oklahoma– Railroadshardhitbycompetitionwithpassengercars,buses,andtrucks

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IX.TheAdventoftheGasolineAge(cont.)

• Speedymarketingofperishablefoodstuffsaccelerated• Newprosperityenrichedoutlyingfarms• Countlessnewhard-surfacedroadsconstructed• Thankstoinstallment-plans,countlessAmericansacquiredhabitofriding

– Zoomingmotorcarsagentsofsocialchange:• Atfirstaluxury,rapidlybecameanecessity• Becamebadgeoffreedomandequality• Ostentationseemedmoreimportantthantransportation• Leisurehourscouldnowbespentmorepleasurably


• Womenfurtherfreedfromdependenceonmen• Suburbsspreadfurtherfromurbancore• Isolationamongsectionsdeclined• Autobusesmadepossibleconsolidationofschools,andtosomeextentchurches• By1951,amillionAmericanshaddiedinmotorvehicleaccidents• Virtuoushomelifepartiallybrokedownaspeopleabandonedparlorforhighway• Moralsofyouthsaggedcorrespondingly• Crimewaveof1920sand1930saidedbymotorcar

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• Airandenvironmentalqualityimprovedwithlesshorseuse• Automobilebroughtmoreconvenience,pleasure,andexcitementintomorepeople'slivesthanalmostanyothersingleinvention

X.HumansDevelopWings

• Gasolineenginesprovidedpowerthatenabledhumanstoachieveflight–Wrightbrothers,OrvilleandWilbur,performed“miracleatKittyHawk,”N.C.onDec.17,1903• Orvillestayedairbornefor12secondsand120feet• Airagelaunchedby2obscureOhiobicyclerepairmen

– Airplanes—“flyingcoffins”usedfor:• VariouspurposesduringGreatWar,1914-1918• Privatecompaniesoperatedpassengerlinesandtransportedmail

X.HumanDevelopWings (cont.)

– 1927CharlesA.Lindbergh—“Flyin'Fool;”firstsoloflightacrossAtlantic• Pilotedsingle-engineplane,SpiritofSt.LouisfromNewYorktoParisingrueling33hoursand39minutes• Achievementdidmuchtodramatizeandpopularizeflying,whilegivingboosttoinfantaviationindustry

– Impactofairshiptremendous:• ProvidedAmericanspiritwithanotherdimension• Gavebirthtogiantnewindustry

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X.HumanDevelopWings (cont.)

• Unfortunately,initialaccidentratehigh• By1920sand1930s,travelbyaironregularlyscheduledairlinessignificantlysafer• Humanity'snewwingsincreasedtempoofalreadybreathlesscivilization– Railroadsfurtherhurtbylossofpassengersandmail– Lethalnewweapongiventowarwithuseofbombs– Isolationbehindoceansbecomingbygonedreamasworldslowlyshrinks

XI.TheRadioRevolution

• Speedofairplanefareclipsedbyspeedofradiowaves:– GuglielmoMarconi,anItalian,inventedwirelesstelegraphin1890s• Usedforlong-rangecommunicationduringWorldWarI

– Nextcamevoice-carryingradio:• Red-letterdayinNovember1920whenPittsburghradiostationbroadcastnewsofHarding'slandslidevictory

XI.TheRadioRevolution (cont.)

– Latermiraclesachievedintransatlanticwirelessphonographs,radio,telephones,andtelevision

– Earliestradioprogramsreachedonlylocalaudiences• Bylate1920stechnologicalimprovementsmadelong-distancebroadcastingpossible– Nationalcommercialnetworksdrownedoutlocalprogramming

• Advertising“commercials”maderadioanothervehicleforAmericanfreeenterprise,ascontrastedtogovernment-ownedsystemsofEurope

XI.TheRadioRevolution (cont.)

• Radiodrewpeoplebackhomeandknittednationtogether– Programssponsoredbymanufacturersanddistributorsofbrand-nameproductshelpedmakeradio-toutedlabelshouseholdwordsandpurchases

• Sportsfurtherstimulated• Politiciansadjustedspeakingtechniquestonewmedium• Hostoflistenersheardtheirfavoritenewscaster• Musicoffamousartistsandorchestrasbeamedintocountlesshomes

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XII.Hollywood'sFilmlandFantasies

• Flickeringmoviefruitofnumerousgeniuses:• 1903:birthoffirststorysequenceonscreen:

– TheGreatTrainRobbery–infive-centtheaters,popularlycalled“nickelodeons”

– Firstfull-lengthclassicwasD.W.Griffith'sBirthofaNation(1915):» GlorifiedKuKluxKlanofReconstructiondaysanddefamedblacksandNortherncarpetbaggers

• Hollywoodbecamemoviecapitalofworld

XII.Hollywood'sFilmlandFantasies(cont.)

– UsedinWorldWarIasengineofanti-Germanpropaganda:• “Hangthekaiser”filmshelpedsellwarbondsandboostmorale

– 1927—successoffirst“talkie”—TheJazzSinger:• “Silents”usheredoutastheaters“wiredforsound”• Earlycolorfilmsproduced


• Phenomenalgrowthinpopularityoffilms–Movie“stars”commandedmuchhighersalariesthanpresidentofUnitedStates• $100,000forsinglefilm• Manyactorsandactressesmorepopularthannation'spoliticalleaders

– Criticsbemoanedvulgarizationofpopulartasteswithfilmsandradio


• Effectsofnewmassmedianotallnegative:– Insularityofethniccommunitieserodedasimmigrants'childrentooktopublicmedia

– Somediversityofimmigrants'OldCountryculturelost,but:• StandardizationoftastesandlanguagehastenedentranceintoAmericanmainstream• Setstageforworking-classpoliticalcoalitionthatwouldovercomedivisiveethnicdifferencesofpast

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XIII.TheDynamicDecade– Changesinlifestylesandvalues:• Morelivedinurbanareasthanincountrysideby1920• Womencontinuedtofindemploymentincities• Organizedbirthcontrolmovement:

– LedbyfieryfeministMargaretSanger,whoopenlychampionedcontraceptives

• CampaignforEqualRightsAmendment– ByAlicePaul'sNationalWoman'sparty

• Churchesaffected:– FundamentalistslostgroundtoModernists– Somechurchestriedtofightdevilwithworldlyweapons

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XIII.TheDynamicDecade(cont.)

– Turnedtonewentertainment– Someevenincludedmovingpicturesforyouth

– Chimes“strucksexo'clockinAmerica”:• Advertisersexploitedsexualalluretoselleverything• Youngwomen'sclothingandstyleschanged• “Flapper”symbolizedmoreindependentlifestyle• Adventuresomefemalesshockedelderswhentheysportednewone-piecebathingsuits• JustificationfornewsexualfranknessfoundinwritingsofDr.SigmundFreud

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• Manytaboosflewoutwindow• Sexualfreedombecamemoreprevalent• Flapperasgoddessof“eraofwonderfulnonsense,”andjazzitssacredmusic:– MovedupfromNewOrleanswithmigratingblacks– Wailingsaxophonebecametrumpetofnewera– W.C.Handy,“JellyRoll”Morton,LouisArmstrong,andJoe“King”Olivergavebirthtojazz

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• Newracialprideblossomedinnorthernblackcommunities:– HarleminNYC—130,000AfricanAmericanresidentsin1920s

» Oneoflargestblackcommunitiesinworld– CulturenurturedbypoetslikeLangstonHughes

» TheWearyBlues(1926)– Harlemspawnedcharismaticpoliticalleader,MarcusGarvey

» FoundedUnitedNegroImprovementAssociation(UNIA)topromoteresettlementofblacksin“Africanhomeland”

» Sponsoredblackbusinessestokeepmoneyinblackpockets» Helpednewcomerstonortherncitiesgainself-confidenceandself-reliance

» ExampleprovedimportanttofoundingofNationofIslam(BlackMuslim)movement

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XIV.CulturalLiberation

• Literatureandthearts:–Mostofearliergenteelwritershaddiedby1920s• NewYorkerEdithWhartonandVirginia-bornWillaCathercontinuedtobepopular

– Nownewmodernistsbecomingpopular(seeThinkingGloballysection)

–Modernismquestionedsocialconventionsandtraditionalauthorities,consideredoutmodedbyacceleratingchangesof20thcenturylife

XIV.CulturalLiberation (cont.)

– H.L.Menckenbestpersonifiedthisiconoclasm:• Knownas“BadBoyofBaltimore”• Promotedmodernistcausesinpoliticsandliterature• Assailedmarriage,patriotism,democracy,prohibition,Rotarians,andothersacrediconsofmiddle-classAmerican“booboisie”• HedismissedSouthas“SaharaoftheBozart”• Attackedhypocriticaldo-goodersas“Puritans”

– Puritanism,hejibed,was“hauntingfearthatsomeone,somewhere,mightbehappy”


– YoungwritersjoltedbyWWIoutofcomplacencyabouttraditionalvaluesandliterarystandards• Probedfornewcodesofmoralsandunderstanding,aswellasfreshformsofexpression• F.ScottFitzgerald—ThisSideofParadise(1920)

– “Hefoundallgodsdead,allwarsfought,allfaithsinmanshaken”

– TheGreatGatsby(1925)brilliantcommentaryonillusoryAmericanidealofself-mademan» JamesGatzreinventedhimselfastycoonJayGatsbyonlytobedestroyedbythosewithwealthandsocialstanding

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• TheodoreDreiser'smasterpieceAnAmericanTragedy(1925)exploredpitfallsofsocialstriving• ErnestHemingway:

– AmongwritersmostaffectedbyWWI– Hishard-boiledrealismtypifiedpostwarwriting– TheSunAlsoRises(1926)toldofdisillusioned,spirituallynumbAmericanexpatriatesinEurope

– InAFarewelltoArms(1929)heturnedhisownwarstoryintooneoffinestnovelsaboutthewar

– Hisliterarysuccessesandflamboyantpersonallifemadehimoneofmostfamouswritersinworld

– WonNobelPrizeinliteraturein1954


• “LostGeneration”:– Hemingway,FitzgeraldandotherAmericanwritersandpaintersformedartisticcadre:• AsexpatriatesinpostwarEurope• FoundshelterandinspirationinParissalonofGertrudeStein:– StudiedunderWilliamJamesatHarvardandherearlyworksappliedhistheoryof“streamofconsciousness”

– FriendswithPabloPicassoandHenriMatisse,shewroteradicallyexperimentalpoetryandprose

– JoinedfellowAmericanpoetsEzraPoundandT.S.Eliotinvanguardofmodernistliteraryinnovation


– “Highmodernists”:• Experimentedwithbreakdownoftraditionalliteraryforms• Exposedlossesassociatedwithmodernity• Wroteinself-consciouslyinternationalistmode• Haughtilyrejectedparochialismtheyfoundathome• Poundrejectedoldcivilizationandproclaimeddoctrine:“MakeItNew;”hestronglyinfluencedEliot• EliotinTheWasteLand(1922)producedoneofmostimpenetrablebutinfluentialpoemsofcentury• E.E.Cummingsusedunorthodoxdictionandpeculiartypesettingtoproducestartlingpoeticeffects


– NotallAmericanwritersradical:• Manycontinuedfamiliarregionaliststyle• RobertFrostwrotehauntinglyaboutnatureandfolkwaysofhisadoptedNewEngland• CarlSandburgextolledworkingclassesofChicagoinstrong,simplecadence• SherwoodAndersoninWinesburg,Ohiodissectedvariousfictionalpersonalities,findingthemwarpedbytheircrampedpsychologicalsurroundings


• SinclairLewis:– MainStreet(1920)best-sellingstoryofonewoman'sunsuccessfulrevoltagainstprovincialism

– InBabbitt(1922)heaffectionatelypilloriedGeorgeF.Babbitt,whoslavishlyconformstorespectablematerialismofhisgroup

• WilliamFaulkner:– FocusedondisplacementofagrarianOldSouthbyrisingindustrialorder

– Hisworkofferedfictionalchronicleofanimaginary,history-richDeepSouthcounty

– Inpowerfulbooks:TheSoundandtheFury(1929)andAsILayDying(1930)hepeeledbacklayersoftimeandconsciousnessfromconstrictedsoulsofhisingrownsoutherncharacters


– Faulknerexperimentedwithmultiplenarrators,complexstructure,and“streamofconsciousness”techniques

– Hisextendedmeditationculminatedinwhatsomeconsiderhisgreatestwork:Absalom,Absalom!(1936)

– Americancomposersandplaywrightsmadevaluablecontributions:• JeromeKernandOscarHammerstein'sShowBoat(1927)wasAmerica'sfirst“musicalplay”• EugeneO'Neill'sStrangeInterlude(1928)laidbareFreudiannotionsofsexandsubconsciousinsuccessionofdramaticsoliloquies– GarneredNobelPrizeinliterature(1936)


• HarlemRenaissance:– BlackculturalrenaissanceinuptownHarlem:• LedbywritersClaudeMcKay,LangstonHughes,andZoraNealeHurston• AndjazzartistsLouisArmstrongandEubieBlake

– Arguedfor“NewNegro”whowasafullcitizenandsocialequaltowhites• Adoptedmodernisttechniques,HughesandHurstoncapturedoralandimprovisationaltraditionsofcontemporaryblacksindialect-filledpoetryandprose

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XV.WallStreet'sBigBullMarket

• Economicconditionsof1920s:– Severalhundredbanksfailedannually– Floridaboom:numerousunderwaterplotssoldtoeagerpurchasersforpreposteroussums

– Stocksprovidedevengreatersensations:• Speculationranwild• Boom-or-busttradingpushedmarkettodizzypeaks• Stockmarketbecameveritablegamblingden

XV.WallStreet'sBigBullMarket(cont.)

– In1920smanyboughtstocks“onmargin”• Intoxicatedbylureofquickprofits,fewheededwarningsthatthiskindofprosperitycouldnotlast• LittledonebyWashingtontocurbspeculators• 1921CongressmovedtowardbudgetsanitybycreatingBureauoftheBudget:– AssistedpresidentinpreparingestimatesofreceiptsandexpenditurestobesubmittedtoCongressasannualbudget

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– BurdensometaxesfromwardistastefultoSecretaryofTreasuryMellon• Arguedhightaxesforcedrichtoinvestintax-exemptsecuritiesratherthaninfactoriesthatprovidedpayrolls• Arguedhightaxesnotonly:

– Discouragedbusiness,but– BroughtinsmallerreturntoTreasurythanmoderatetaxes

• Mellonhelpedengineerseriesoftaxreductionsfrom1921to1926


• Congress:– Repealedexcess-profittax– Abolishedgifttax– Reducedexcisetaxes,thesurtax,theincometax,andestatetaxes

• Mellon'sspare-the-richpoliciesshiftedtaxburdenfromwealthytomiddle-incomegroups• Mellon,lionizedbyconservativesas“greatestsecretaryofTreasurysinceHamilton”remainscontroversialfigure:– Reducednationaldebtby$10billion– Accusedofindirectlyencouragingbullmarket

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American Life in the Roaring Twenties, 1920–1929

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