American Foreign Policy Between the World Wars

American Foreign PolicyBetween the World WarsAdolf Hitler, who came to power in 1933, the same year as Franklin Delano Roosevelt,

was just one of the totalitarian leaders who posed problems in the 1930s.

I. Economic PressuresA. Many European nations urged the United States to forgive the huge

reparation debts they had accumulated during World War I1. Germany paid some of its reparations ($33 billion), but fell behind in

payments2. American banks & investors loaned millions to Germany to help keep it

solvent (Dawes Plan)3. finally, the Allies paid back only $2.6 billion out of over $14 billion owed to

the U.S. They defaulted on the restB. American economic influence expanded during World War I. By 1929, the U.S.:

1. produced one-half of the world's industrial goods2. led the world in exports ($5.4 billion)3. private investment in overseas ventures increased 500%

C. Many Europeans saw American economic expansion as a form of imperialism & resented the fact that America did not share in the devastation of Europe (60,000,000 casualties from war, epidemic & famine)

II. International Disarmament & Peace EffortsA. Washington Naval Conference (1921) set a ratio of naval tonnage among the 5 leading naval nations in an attempt to limit naval armaments. Participants also agreed not to build new bases in the Pacific (opposite of Mahan’s theory)B. Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928) signers among 62 nations: agreed to renounce war as a solution for international disputes (no war declarations)

III. Good Neighbor Policy: Latin AmericaA. Franklin D. Roosevelt adopted policies that reduced American domination of Latin American diplomatic affairs while still providing economic assistance & greatly increased American popularity in the region (…overriding dollar diplomacy)B. American investment in Latin America grew from $1.3 billion in 194 to $3.5 billion in 1929. American exports also increased substantiallyC. U.S.-trained national guards helped protect pro-American leaders, several of whom were dictatorsD. Pan-Americanism: under FDR's direction, Americans endorsed nonintervention in Latin American affairs in the 1930s. This was a rejection of the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine & increased support from Latin American nations

Dawes Plan & Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)

Important Terms to Know…authoritarian state: complete obedience to the authority of the

state as opposed to individual freedomsdictatorship: one person holds all the power in the statetotalitarian state: government controls political, social,

economic, intellectual & cultural lives of citizens

Fascism (Italy): political ideology where the state (& dictator) was glorified above the individual

Nazism (Germany): political ideology of extreme German nationalism…mixed with strong anti-Semitism, strong anti-communism & the Social Darwinian theories of social struggle

IV. Rise of TotalitarianismA. Adolf Hitler was invited to join the German government as Chancellor in

1933. He quickly consolidated power & ruled as a dictator, proclaiming the racial superiority of Aryans ("pure" Germans), the need for lebensraum & anti-Semitism

1. Germany's military was rebuilt in defiance of the Treaty of Versailles (rearmament)

2. Civil liberties were restricted for many, with Jews facing particularly drastic new rules that attempted to reduce Jewish influence (Nuremberg Laws 1935)3. German expansion into neighboring areas began with a retaking of the Rhineland (a French-controlled region) in 1936 & the annexation

(Anschluss) of Austria (Hitler’s homeland) in 19384. France & Great Britain appeased Hitler at Munich in 1938 by agreeing not to oppose Germany's seizure of German-speaking region of

Czechoslovakia (Sudetenland). British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain proclaimed that this ensured "peace in our time.“ (appeasement at the Munich Conference 1938)

Adolf Hitler (Germany)

Nuremberg Rally & ParadeHitler's Imperial March

Joseph Goebbels

Kristallnacht

Hitler’s Ambitions & Appeasement• Adolf Hitler believed the Aryan Race (Germany)

needed lebensraum “living space”–wanted the land to the East…will lead to an

eventual war with the Soviet Union• Great Britain & France saw Hitler prepare: –but did nothing…as to avoid another WWI

• policy of appeasement– giving into the demands of aggressive powers, in

order to maintain peace & stability…& avoid war!

Lebensraum

Appeasement

1938

1940

1939

1938 Hitler demanded land in the Sudetenlandof Czechoslovakia…Great Britain & France sent leaders to theMunich Conference (Neville Chamberlain: “peace in our time”)

1939 Germany took overall of Czechoslovakia

1939 Hitler demanded the Polish port of Danzig

1939 Nazi-SovietNon-Aggression Pact

September 1939invasion of Poland, ---start of World War II

1940 Japan demanded the rightto use Southeast Asian resources---US said it would apply economic sanctions (restrictions to enforce international law)1940-41: Japan decides to attack US & European colonies in Southeast Asia

Anschluss of Austria (1938)

Munich Conference (1938)

Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact (1939)

The Invasion of PolandSeptember 1st, 1939

B. Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy as the leader of the Fascist Party in the 1920s & began expanding militarily in the 1930s with attacks on Ethiopia in 1935. When the League of Nations protested, Italy resigned & joined Germany in the Axis alliance. Axis Powers = Germany, Italy & JapanC. A Civil War in Spain in 1936-7 pitted Fascist forces led by Francisco Franco & supported by Italy & Germany versus Republicans favoring the existing government, which was a moderate constitutional monarchy. Some Americans (Abraham Lincoln Brigade) supported the Republican cause, but America officially remained neutral.D. Japan, led by increasingly influential military factions, seized Manchuria in 1931 & northern China in 1937. (…direct opposition to American influence in Asia)

1. Franklin Delano Roosevelt responded by calling for a "quarantine" of aggressors like Japan but was criticized extensively by Americans fearful of possible entanglements

2. Japanese planes sank the American gunboat Panay on the Yangtze River in 1937, a deliberate attack. Once again, American isolationist sentiment pressured the U.S. to accept the Japanese explanation that this was an accident.

Benito Mussolini: “Il Duce”

Francisco Franco (Spain)

Pablo Picasso’s Guernica

Hideki Tojo of Japan

1930 1935

1940

1931 seized Manchuria:Mukden Incident

Japan withdrew from the League of Nations,renamed Manchuria“Manchukuo”

clashes with Guomingdang---gained control of northern China

1935 Luftwaffe created

JAPAN

GERMANY

1935 military draft: army up to 550,0001935 Mussolini invades Ethiopia,with supportfrom Germany

1936 troops into the Rhineland

1936 Spanish Civil War: troops sent to assist Franco

1936 Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis withsigned pacts with Italy & Japan

1937 battles with unitedCommunist &Guomingdang forces

December 1937 seizedChinese capital @ Nanjing:“rape of Nanjing”

1938 Anschluss(union) with Austria

Rape of Nanjing

IV. Growth of American NeutralityA. Many Americans in Congress & the nation opposed any American involvement in

international crises1. Nye Committee investigated profiteering by American bankers & industrialists in World War I that helped pressure Wilson to protect loans overseas2. U.S. refused to join the World Court in 19353. Neutrality Acts from 1935-1937 attempted to prevent U.S. involvement in

international disputes by restricting arms sales & establishing a "cash-and-carry" policy in which belligerents could only purchase nonmilitary goods, pay cash & use their own shipsB. After Adolf Hitler invaded Poland in 1939 & Great Britain & France declared war on Germany, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt declared that the U.S. would remain neutral in action, but made it clear that he favored the Allied cause (September 1st, 1939: Germany invades Poland = start of World War II)

1. He asked for a relaxation of Neutrality Act restrictions to allow war materiel to be purchased by Allied forces on a cash-and-carry basis2. Old American ships were traded to the British in exchange for the right to build military bases on British territory

C. America-First Committee urged strict American neutrality as Europe sank into war D. Neutrality was abandoned by the U.S. in 1940 with lend-lease policies that gave FDR permission to give arms to the Allies (lend-lease program: U.S. builds weapons for Allied Powers)

Joseph Stalin

World War II

The European Theater (1939-1941)• German blitzkrieg (lightning war) conquered Poland in 4

weeks by using armored tanks with air support• to defend vs. blitzkrieg, the French built concrete & steel

fortifications called the Maginot Line

• May 1940: Germany attacked through Belgium & Luxembourg (Ardennes Forest) & took the French & British by surprise

• Germany trapped the Allied forces around Dunkirk (on coast of France)…saved by the British navy!

• June 22, 1940: France signed armistice (6 weeks) – Germany directly controlled most of France…& setup

puppet government called Vichy to govern the rest

Maginot Line

Battle of Dunkirk (1940)

Battle of Britain (Fall 1940)• Great Britain appealed to the United States, but the U.S. was

very isolationist• August 1940: Germany began the Battle of Britain by bombing

British airfields & factories– the British retaliated by bombing Berlin, making Hitler so

angry that the Luftwaffe switched from bombing military targets to bombing London

• the British rebuilt the Royal Air Force (RAF) & regained control of airspace…while people in the “Tube”!

• Germany attacked USSR (June 22, 1941)– originally planned for Spring 1941, but delayed– successful, but Soviets regrouped as Germans unable to cope

with the Russian winters

Battle of Britain (Fall 1940)

Battle of Britain (Fall 1940)

The Pacific Theater (1941-1942)• December 7, 1941: Japan attacks the United States’ naval base at

Pearl Harbor (territory of Hawaii) – also attacked European colonies in Southeast Asia

• Japanese thought that if the American fleet in Pacific was destroyed, the United States would not effectively respond because of their weaknesses– the attack unified U.S. with the Allied Powers!

• as part of alliance, Germany declared war on the U.S.!

• 1942: Japan controlled all of Southeast & East Asia– U.S. surrenders the Philippines– Bataan Death March (Philippines): 70,000 prisoners (including

many U.S. soldiers) captured, beaten & marched to prison camps

Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941)

Bataan Death March

The European Theater (1942-1945)• United States, Great Britain & Soviet Union put aside their political

differences to concentrate on war efforts– required unconditional surrender from the Axis Powers– Stalin demanded that United States & Great Britain open up a

“second front” vs. the Axis Powers

• 1942: Gen. Edwin Rommel “the Desert Fox”: Afrika Korps (Germany) controlled Egypt, hoping to cut off oil to Allies

• British forces were able to stop Rommel at the Battle of El-Alamein

• Nov. 1942-Feb. 1943: Battle of Stalingrad (Soviet Union)– Germany invaded city because major industrial center– the Soviets counterattacked…handing a major loss to

Germany’s best regiment

Battle of El Alamein & Edwin Rommel

Battle of Stalingrad

The Turning Point in the European Theater• June 6, 1944 D-Day: Allied Powers (under the command of

General Dwight D. Eisenhower) land on the beaches of Normandy, France

• August 1944: Allies liberate Paris!• Winter 1944: Battle of the Bulge (General George S. Patton)• March 1945: Allies invade Germany, with assistance from

resistance fighters

• April 1945: Soviet troops reach Berlin first• April 12, 1945: FDR dies! Harry Truman…VP = 82 days!• April 30, 1945: Adolf Hitler commits suicide at Eagle’s Nest• May 7, 1945 V-E Day (Victory in Europe): Germany surrenders

to Allied forces!

D-Day (June 6, 1944)

D-Day (June 6, 1944)

V-E Day (May 7, 1945)

The Pacific Theater (1942-1945)• June 6, 1942 Battle of Midway: turning point of Pacific, as United States

issues decisive defeat to Japan

• Allied strategy of “island-hopping”: push Japanese back to Japan! – major (& costly) victories at Iwo Jima & Okinawa

• April 12, 1945: Franklin D. Roosevelt dies• after 82 days as Vice President, Harry S. Trumanbecomes president…must decide how to proceed withManhattan Project (creation of atomic weapons)

• Pres. Truman decides to use the bombs to receiveunconditional surrender from Japanese

– August 6, 1945: Hiroshima– August 9, 1945: Nagasaki

• August 15, 1945: V-J Day (Victory over Japan)

Battle of Midway (June 1942)

Usage of the atomic weapon was not just to achieve Japanese surrender, but also to send a strong & clear message to the Soviet Union of the future capabilities of the United States.

Nagasaki (August 1945)

V-J Day (August 15, 1945)

The Home FrontDuring World War II

I. Industrial & Farm ProductionA. War Production Board halted non-essential building to conserve

materials for war purposesB. rationing goods to consumers reached major levels as goods became

scarce: gasoline, butter, rubber, shoes, sugar & meat were rationedC. labor groups made no-strike pledges, but some wildcat strikes broke

out, particularly among miners1) Smith-Connally Anti-Strike Act (1943) made it a criminal offense to tie up industry2) except for brief work stoppages, American workers chose not to strike (less than 1% of working time during the war was lost, a record better than England's)

D. farm income doubled, as in World War I. Victory gardens were replantedE. industries switched to war production very quickly. One ship was completed by Henry Kaiser's workers in 5 days (Detroit, Michigan “arsenal of democracy”)

II. Women in the Work ForceA. women joined the armed forces in record numbers, though

not in combat roles. Most took clerical jobs in the various branches (WAVES & WAACS).

B. women (characterized as "Rosie the Riveter") took many jobs in heavy industry, such as shipbuilding & aircraft production

C. popular opinion opposed women working & some private contractors refused to hire women

1. Office of War Information supported a domestic propaganda campaign to make women's work seem patriotic

2. between 1941 & 1945, 6.5 million women entered the work force, a 57% increase

III. PropagandaA. as in World War I, the government actually promoted pro-war

messages1. “Why We Fight” series by Frank Capra2. commercial movies were blatantly patriotic & emphasized the “melting pot” nature of American forces

B. while Nazis & Japanese were portrayed as ruthless barbarians, Italians were treated more generously in films & written propaganda

1. FDR wanted to de-emphasize anti-German hysteria & distinguished between Nazis & other Germans

2. Nazi stupidity became a common stereotype, as viewers were encouraged to laugh at Hitler & his followers3. Japanese were portrayed as subhuman, partly in response to atrocities committed by the Japanese & partly because of race hatred (hatred of “Japs” in WWII = hatred of “Huns” in WWI)

IV. Civil Rights IssuesA. Japanese-Americans were arrested, housed in internment camps & forced to endure

the length of the war in remote locations (i.e. Manzanar)1. Executive Order 9066 (1942) required the internment & relocation of all Japanese in the Western U.S.2. In the 1944 Korematsu v. United States decision, the Supreme Court upheld the relocation on the grounds of military necessity3. Despite this treatment, 18,000 Nisei volunteered for military service

B. African-Americans challenged race prejudice during the war in several ways:1. Civil rights organizations expanded their membership during the war2. Repudiation of Nazi racism by the U.S. strengthened civil rights efforts3. African-Americans were not allowed to serve in integrated units (Tuskegee Airmen)

C. Mexican-Americans, particularly in California, faced segregated housing, high unemployment & low wages

1. Pachuco gangs of young Mexican-Americans, wearing zoot suits, challenged conformity to white standards2. Zoot Suit Riots broke out in Los Angeles in 1943 as servicemen beat Mexican-Americans for 4 days

The Origins of the Cold WarWest Berlin residents await supplies from the 1948 Berlin Airlift

I. Opposing PerspectivesA. alliance of Great Britain & United States with Soviet Union

was pragmatic: need to defeat Nazi Germany!1. lack of trust of Joseph Stalin. Neither Winston

Churchill nor Franklin D. Roosevelt told Stalin about the atomic bomb

2. many Allied leaders hoped U.S.S.R. could be persuaded to join a new, stronger League of Nations organizationB. communist leaders feared capitalist nations

1. expected for European & then world domination by communism

2. hoped for collapse of capitalist economies & societies

II. United Nations FormedA. U.S., Great Britain, China & Soviet Union met in 1944 to discuss

plans for a new organization to replace League of NationsB. in April 1945, San Francisco Conference formed U.N.

1. Security Council (11 members) with veto power & permanent seats for 5 major powers (U.S., France, Great Britain, China & U.S.S.R.)

2. Secretariat, headed by Secretary-General, to handle day-to-day affairs

3. General Assembly with delegates from each nation. 3 votes to the Soviet Union as result of Yalta Conference promise

4. International Court of Justice to deal with legal disputes between members

III. Problems with the U.S.S.R.A. free elections promised in Poland by Stalin following the war

1. communist government formed with no elections2. border nations pressured into establishing communist governments

B. Winston Churchill responded with "Iron Curtain" speech in March 1946, declaring that USSR's intentions were to control Eastern Europe & expand power throughout the worldC. American diplomat George Kennan proposed a "containment" policy to prevent spread of communist ideology (Domino Theory)D. Truman Doctrine: President Truman asked for major economic aid to Greece & Turkey to oppose communismE. Marshall Plan: Western Europeans nations provided $12 billion to rebuild economies & resist Soviet pressures

IV. European CrisesA. Berlin Blockade & Airlift

1. Partition of Germany among Allies had resulted in Berlin being a divided city within the Soviet sector (West Germany =

U.S., Great Britain & France; East Germany = Soviet Union; Berlin IN East Germany!)

2. in June 1948, Soviets blockaded West Berlin & halted all traffic into the city (West Berlin = U.S., Great Britain & France; East Berlin = Soviet Union)

3. Allies (U.S., France & Great Britain) responded by airlifting massive amounts of food, coal & other supplies to keep West Berlin open (11 months…)

4. Soviets backed down & allowed traffic to resumeB. formation of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization): 12 nations (10 European nations plus Canada & the U.S.) joined in April 1949 in an attempt to establish collective security & resist Warsaw Pact nations’ expansion (NATO = military alliance vs. communism; Warsaw Pact = military alliance for communism)

V. Second Red Scare: 1950-1953A. loyalty checks of government workers begun in 1947

because of fear of communist infiltrationB. House Un-American Activities Committee held numerous public hearings & ruined reputations of blacklisted individuals, including many from TV, radio & the movies (“Hollywood Ten” = list of blacklisted stars)C. Alger Hiss, former State Dept. diplomat, accused of disloyalty by Whittaker Chambers, a confessed Soviet spy

1. Hiss sued Chambers for libel, but was convicted of perjury in 1950 (distributed atomic secrets to the

Soviets in hollowed-out pumpkins)2. Democrats, many of whom supported Hiss, were seen as soft on communism

D. Senator Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin began to speak out against communist influence in the government with a speech in February 1950 in which he contended that the State Dept. was riddled with communists (“McCarthyism”)E. McCarran Internal Security Act (1950) required communist & "communist-front" organizations to register with the Justice Dept.

1. membership lists & financial statements were required

2. President was given broad powers to detain potential enemies

3. President Truman vetoed the bill as "a long step toward totalitarianism" but it was passed over his vetoF. Ethel & Julius Rosenberg arrested, tried & executed in 1951 for providing atomic secrets to the Soviet Union