American Coal Council Tomorrow’s Leadership Council )*+, Coal Communications Kit “It’s clearly possible to increase fossil fuel use while decreasing pollution. This is a lesson that China can learn – and as it adopts more sophisticated modern coal plants, is starting to learn.” –Alex Epstein
Welcome message from author
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
AmericanCoalCouncilTomorrow’sLeadershipCouncil)*+,CoalCommunicationsKit
“It’sclearlypossibletoincreasefossilfuelusewhiledecreasingpollution.ThisisalessonthatChinacanlearn–andasitadoptsmoresophisticatedmoderncoalplants,isstartingtolearn.”
–AlexEpstein
1
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
ContentsIntroduction.........................................................................................................................................................3
TechnologicalImprovementsintheCoalIndustry.............................................................................................4
AStrongFoundationforTechnologicalGrowth..............................................................................................4
TechnologicalImprovementsforCoal:FacebookPost...................................................................................4
TechnologicalImprovementsforCoal:ElevatorSpeech................................................................................5
TechnologicalImprovementsforCoal:ObjectionsandResponses................................................................5
AirborneEmissionsandEmissionReductionTechnology..................................................................................6
AGrowingTechnologyLegacy.........................................................................................................................7CarbonCaptureandStorage(CCS)...............................................................................................................7
ACautionaryTale:FutureGen.........................................................................................................................8AirborneEmissions&EmissionReductionTechnology:.................................................................................9
ElevatorSpeech............................................................................................................................................9
CleanPowerPlan..........................................................................................................................................9CoalScalability..................................................................................................................................................10
TransportationInfrastructure.......................................................................................................................10
AccesstotheLargestFuelSourceintheUS..............................................................................................10
FuelVersatility..............................................................................................................................................11
CoalScalability:FacebookPost....................................................................................................................12
RenewableEnergy............................................................................................................................................12
GridReliability...................................................................................................................................................12ReliabilityChallengesofRenewableandOtherSources.............................................................................13
SuperiorityofCoal.....................................................................................................................................13GridReliability:FacebookPost.....................................................................................................................14
GridReliability:ElevatorSpeech..................................................................................................................14
GridReliability:ObjectionsandResponses..................................................................................................14
ClimateChange&CO2......................................................................................................................................15
The“HockeyStickChart”andtheEraofMisinformation.........................................................................15TheMythicalRelationshipbetweenCO2andClimateRelatedDeaths......................................................18
ThePositiveImpactofCO2forPlantLife...................................................................................................19
ClimateChange&CO2:FacebookPost........................................................................................................20
ClimateChange&CO2:ElevatorSpeech......................................................................................................20
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
2
ClimateChange&CO2:ObjectionsandResponses.....................................................................................21
TheHumanCostWithoutCoal.........................................................................................................................22
TheHumanCostWithoutCoal:FacebookPost...........................................................................................25
InternationalTrade...........................................................................................................................................25MajorImportersandExportersofCoal.....................................................................................................26
InternationalTradeRateSlowing..............................................................................................................26
InternationalTrade:FacebookPost.............................................................................................................27
InternationalTrade:ElevatorSpeech...........................................................................................................27
InternationalTrade:ObjectionsandResponses..........................................................................................28
TheEnergyEffect..............................................................................................................................................28
TheEnergyEffect:FacebookPost.................................................................................................................30TheEnergyEffect:ElevatorSpeech..............................................................................................................31
TheEnergyEffect:ObjectionsandResponses.............................................................................................31
MiningImpacts,MountaintopandSurfaceMining.........................................................................................32
MiningImpacts,MountaintopandSurfaceMiningFacebookPost............................................................33
MiningImpacts,MountaintopandSurfaceMiningElevatorSpeech..........................................................33MiningImpacts,Mountaintop&SurfaceMining:Objections&Responses...............................................33
NaturalResources:ResourceDepletionvs.Creation......................................................................................34WhenwillwerunoutofFossilFuels?.......................................................................................................34
AdvancesinTechnology............................................................................................................................35
TheFutureisinOurHands........................................................................................................................36NaturalResources-Depletionvs.Creation:FacebookPost........................................................................36
NaturalResources-Depletionvs.Creation:ElevatorSpeech......................................................................37
EPARegulationsofAirborneEmissions...........................................................................................................37
EPARegulationsofAirborneEmissions:FacebookPost..............................................................................41
EPARegulationsofAirborneEmissions:ElevatorSpeech...........................................................................41
PollutioninChina..............................................................................................................................................42
PollutioninChina:FacebookPost................................................................................................................42
PollutioninChina:ElevatorSpeech..............................................................................................................42
WorksCited.......................................................................................................................................................44
3
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
Introduction2015ProjectObjective:Thisyear’sprojecthastakenourpastTLCworkbeyondtheconceptualstagetobeginprovidingactual,hands-ontoolsthatanyoneinourindustrycanusetobuildbridgesandcounterpublicmisinformationcampaigns.Whetheronanairplane,atacommunityevent,orseekingtoinformrelativesandfriends,coal-relatedindustryemployeesandrepresentativesnowhaveusefulfactsandinformationatthereadytoassisttheminsharingtheimportance,value,andbenefitsofcoal.
Ourindustrymustworktocontinuallygrowoutreach,providingbalancedinformationabouttheeffectsofunreasonableenergyandenvironmentalpolicydecisions/regulatoryactionsthatarefartoocostlyandproducefartoofewenvironmentalbenefits.Wemustalleducatethoseoutsideourindustryaboutthevalueofcoaltothisnation’seconomy(jobs,royaltypayments,taxes,etc.),infrastructure,andenergysupply.Wemusthighlightcoal’sincreasinglycleanenvironmentalprofileandtheimportanceofthecontinueddevelopmentofcleancoaltechnologies.
Todoso,however,coalindustryemployeesandrepresentativesneedinformationthattheycaneasilyaccess,understand,anddistribute/communicate.
Therefore,the2015annualprojecthaspreparedaCoalCommunicationsKit,which:
• Buildscoal-themededucationalresourcesforsharingatACCeventsandinACCpublicationsaswellasonlineandthroughsocialmedia
• MakesuseofthediverseinformationcollectedinpreviousTLCprojects
• Usespublications,research,andproductsavailablefromothercoal-focusedorganizations,academia,industry(PR/Marketing/GovernmentRelations),andgovernmentsources
ThisCoalCommunicationsKitprovidesideasandinformationthatcoalindustryemployeesandrepresentativescanusetoimprovecommunicationsandrelationswithothersinthepublicrealm.Itprovidesreadyresponsestocommonlyheldnegativenotionsaboutcoal.Itoffersconvenient“elevatorspeeches”,Facebookposts,andTweets,aswellasmoredetailedinformationandresources.
Wehopethatthemembersoftheindustryfindthisinformationusefulandeasytoshare.Pleasesendcommentstoinfo@americancoalcouncil.org.
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
4
TechnologicalImprovementsintheCoalIndustryCoalisthelargestenergysourceintheUnitedStates,aswellasoneofthelargestenergysourcesintheworld.Itisimperativethatthecoalindustryworkstoensurethecontinuedavailabilityandaccesstothislife-sustainingfuel.Althoughclaimsofthenegativeenvironmentalimpactsofcoalburningcanbeoverstated,coaldoesproducepotentiallyharmfulemissionswhenburned.Cleancoaltechnologies(CCT)seektoreduceenvironmentalharmbyusingmultipletechnologiestocleancoalandcontain,orreduce,itsemissionsofsulfurdioxideandnitrogenoxide(Dowdey,2007).Cleancoaltechnologieshavebeenbuiltoverseveralgenerationsandcontinuetoevolve.Today,therearemorethan20new,lowercost,moreefficient,andenvironmentallycompatibletechnologiesforvariousindustries(NationalMiningAssociation,2015).Technologydevelopmentwillcontinuetobetheprimarydriverforreducingemissionsanditsassociatedcostsforcoal’sfuture.
AStrongFoundationforTechnologicalGrowthTheDepartmentofEnergy(DOE)CoalRD&DprogramandNationalEnergyTechnologyLaboratory(NETL),havepartneredwiththeprivatesectorsincetheearly1970’stodevelopinnovativetechnologiesthatgreatlyenhanceenergyproductionandimproveairquality(NationalMiningAssociation,2015):
Fluidized-bedcombustion–Limestoneanddolomiteareaddedduringthecombustionprocesstomitigatesulfurdioxideformation.Thereare170oftheseunitsdeployedintheU.S.,and400throughouttheentireworld.
IntegratedGasificationCombinedCycle(IGCC)–Heatandpressureareusedtoconvertcoalintoagasorliquidthatcanbefurtherrefinedandusedcleanly.Theheatenergyfromthegasturbinealsopowersasteamturbine.IGCChasthepotentialtoimprovecoal’sfuelefficiencyrateto50percent.TwoIGCCelectricitygenerationplantsareinoperationintheU.S.
FlueGasDesulfurization–Alsocalled“scrubbers,”theyremovelargequantitiesofsulfur,otherimpurities,andparticulatematterfromemissionstopreventtheirreleaseintotheatmosphere.
LowNitrogenOxide(NOx)Burners–ReducethecreationofNOx,acauseofground-levelozone,byrestrictingoxygenandmanipulatingthecombustionprocess.LowNOxburnersarenowon75percentofexistingcoalpowerplants.
SelectiveCatalyticReduction(SCR)–AchievesNOxreductionsof80-90percentormore,andisdeployedonapproximately30percentofU.S.coalplants.
ElectrostaticPrecipitators–Removeparticulatesfromemissionsbyelectricallychargingparticlesandthencapturingthemoncollectionplates.
TechnologicalImprovementsforCoal:FacebookPostCoalisakeycomponentforaliterallybrighterfuture–cleancoaltechnologiesaretheanswertothequestionofcheap,reliableenergyintheU.S.andabroad.
5
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
TechnologicalImprovementsforCoal:ElevatorSpeechCoalhasgottencleanerandcleaneroverthepastgeneration,utilizingthepowerandingenuityoftechnologieslikescrubbers,IGCC(IntegratedGasificationCombinedCycle)andCCS(carboncaptureandstorage)toextractvitalenergyfromcoalwithminimalnegativeenvironmentalimpact.“Powerplantsbeingbuilttodayemit90percentlesspollutants(SO2,NOx,particulatesandmercury)thantheplantstheyreplacefromthe1970’s,accordingtheNationalEnergyTechnologyLaboratory(NETL).(NationalMiningAssociation,2015).
Thecoal industryhasdemonstrated itseagernesstopioneerthetechnologicaladvancesnecessarytokeepcoal safe, effective and environmentally responsible. With adequate public support, enhanced researchefforts,andcoal-friendlyregulatorypolicies,theindustrycansatisfyenvironmentalconcernsandstillbethecornerstoneofelectricitygeneration.
TechnologicalImprovementsforCoal:ObjectionsandResponses
Objection:Environmentalistssaythatcleancoalisamyth.Cancoaleverreallybeclean?
Response:Theterm“clean,”muchliketheterm“dirty,”isinherentlysubjective.Butregardlessofone’sdefinition,itisamyththat“coalisdirty.”Inreality,theenvironmentalbenefitsofusingfossilfuelslikecoalfaroutweightherisks(Epstein,2014).Withinnovativetechnology,azero-emissionsprocessiswithinreach,andexistingcleancoaltechnologyisalreadymakingenormousstridestowardsmuchcleanercoal.AccordingtotheEPAandothersources,coal-fueledpowerplantsarecapableofreducingupto98percentofsulfurdioxideemissions,90percentofnitrogenoxideemissionsand90percentofmercuryemissions.UsingCCStocapturetheCO2fromasinglethousand-megawattcoalplant,forexample,isequivalentto2.8millionpeopletradinginpickupsforPriuses(Nijhuis,2014).
Objection:CCSseemslikealimitedsolution.HowmuchCO2canweactuallystore?
Response:Inits2008CarbonSequestrationAtlas,theU.S.DepartmentofEnergyreportedthat,together,theU.S.andCanadahaveenoughcapacityatourcurrentrateofproductiontostorealmost1,100years’worthofcarbondioxide.Thisstoragecapacityislocateddeepundergroundacrossthecontinentinvaryingtypesofgeologicalformations–includingunminablecoalseamsaswellasoilandgasreservoirs.SowhiletheU.S.andCanadaarethesourceof3.2billiontonsofman-madeCO2eachyear,thetwonationshavestoragespacefor3.5trilliontonsofCO2.Dothemathandwehavea1,093-yearreservoirofCO2storage(AmericanCoalitionforCleanCoalElectricity,2015).
Objection:CleanCoalTechnologyiswaytooexpensive.Itmakesmoresensetoinvestinrenewableenergysources.
Response:Therearecertainlycostsassociatedwithreducingemissions,butcleancoalisnotsoexpensivethatitcan’talreadycompetewithrenewablesorotherresources.Cleancoalwillrequirelargeinfrastructureinvestments,butsowillamajorexpansionofrenewable-energyprojects.Also,sellingcapturedcarbonforenhancedoilrecoverycanhelpreducethecostofCCS,andnewtechnologieswillallowcarbontobecapturedwithfarlowerenergyexpenditures(Herzog,2014).
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
6
AirborneEmissionsandEmissionReductionTechnologyBy2017,thecoal-basedpowerindustrywillhaveinvestedmorethan$142BilliontodevelopandimplementantipollutiontechnologiesthathaveresultedinadramaticdownwardtrendintheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency’s(EPA)classifiedsixmajorpollutantssince1970;eventhoughweareusingmorefossilfuelthaneverbefore.Thesepollutioncontrolsminimizethenegativeeffectsofburningfossilfuels,whileallowingtheuseof this critical resource inacleaner,moreefficientway.Thanks toantipollution technology, coalhasbeengetting healthier and cleaner. The use of coal has facilitated an unprecedented technological revolutionallowinghumansto improvetheir livingconditionsand live longer,morefulfilling lives. Inthe last20yearsalone, scientists have developedways to capture the pollutants trapped in coal before the impurities canescapeintotheatmosphere.Today,wehavetechnologythatcanfilterout99percentofthetinyparticles,andremovemorethan95percentofacidrainpollutantsincoal.
Processeshavebeendevelopedto literallycleancoal.Mostmodernpowerplants,andallplantsbuiltafter1978,arerequiredtohavespecialdevicesinstalledthatcleanthesulfurfromcoal'scombustiongasesbeforethegasesgothroughthesmokestack.Inmostcases,beforecombustion,coaliscrushedandthenwashedtodecreaseashandpyrite levels.Additionally,“baghousesandelectrostaticprecipitatorsremoveresidual flyash,wetscrubbersdesulfurize,andactivatedcharcoalremovesmercuryandarsenicbeforethe(invisiblebutfor scrubber steamcondensation) fluegas isdischarged.” (Istvan,2014)Theuseof these technologieshasallowed coal-fueledpowerplants todecrease emissionsof SO2,NOx, andparticulatematter by almost 90percentsincethe1970s.Thesereductionsoccurreddespitethefactthat,duringthesameperiod,coaluseincreasedbymorethan170percent.
Coal-fueled generation emission rates have decreased dramatically due to the application of environmental technologies. Sources: EPA National Air Pollutant Emission Trends; EIA Annual Energy Review, EIA AEO 2011, Ventyx – Velocity Suite
The path forward to a long and prosperous future for coal depends largely on continued research anddevelopment for clean coal technologies. As environmental challenges and expectations grow increasinglystringent,cleancoaltechnologiesmustcontinuetoimproveenergyefficiency,andreduceoreliminateSO2,Hg, carbon dioxide (CO2), NOX emissions, and particulate matter. The keys to longevity and success are:adequate public support, enhanced levels of funding and commitment to clean coal technology, reducedgovernmentinterference,greaterprivatesupport/innovation,andaregulatoryandpublicpolicyframeworkthatissupportiveofcoaluse(NationalMiningAssociation,2015)(Yamagata,2014).
7
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
AGrowingTechnologyLegacyAsregulatorypressuremountswiththeadventofnewfederalregulationssuchastheCleanPowerPlan,theimportanceofstayingontheleadingedgeofnewtechnologycannotbeoverstated.Coalliquefactionandgasificationtechnologiesarebeingexploredtoproduceviablealternativestooilandnaturalgasforelectricitygenerationandtransportation.NewtechnologyR&Dfocuseson:
EfficiencyImprovements–TechnologiesinthisfieldraiseplantefficiencyandreduceCO2andotheremissions.Whilesomeefficiencytechnologiesarecommerciallyavailable,others,suchasUltraSupercriticalPulverizedCoal(USPC)andIGCCrequirecontinuedresearch,development,anddemonstration.ImprovedefficiencyatanexistingplantcanreduceCO2emissionsby10-16percent,andby2025,newunitscouldreduceCO2emissionsbyasmuchas30percent.
High-EfficiencyFuelCells–Theseoperateonarangeofdomesticfuelswithvirtuallyemissions-freeperformanceatunsurpassedefficiencies.
AdvancedHigh-EfficiencyCombustion-Generatingsystemsthathaveincreasedoperatingtemperatures,newcomputerizedcontrols,improvedburnerdesignsandhigherperformanceturbines.
HydrogenProduction–Acleanenergycarrier—viagasification.
CarbonCaptureandStorage(CCS)CurrentlyapromisingcleancoaltechnologyisCCS,aprocessbywhichCO2emissionsarecapturedandstoredingeologicformations,ordeepintheoceanwheretheydissolveunderpressure(NationalMiningAssociation,2015).TheprimaryCCStechnologiesbeingdevelopedinclude:
Post-CombustionCapture:CO2isseparatedfromcombustionexhaustgases.Itcanbecapturedusingaliquidsolventorotherseparationmethods.Onceabsorbedbythesolvent,CO2isreleasedbyheatingtoformahighpurityCO2stream.ThisisthepreferredtechnologyforcapturingCO2foruseinthefoodandbeverageindustry(GlobalCCSInstitute).Theprocessisshownbelow(NationalMiningAssociation,2015):
Tweetthis:Coalemissions
aredown40%
sincethe1970s,
whilecoaluse
hastripled
duringthesame
period!#CCT
#Coalisclean
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
8
Pre-CombustionCapture:Amorecomplexprocessthanpost-combustion,involvesconvertingfuelintoagaseousmixtureofhydrogenandCO2.Mostlyusedinindustrialprocesses(GlobalCCSInstitute),anexamplesystemcanbeseenbelow.(NationalMiningAssociation,2015):
OxyfuelCombustion:Usesoxygenratherthanairforcombustionoffuel,producingexhaustgasthatismainlywatervaporandCO2,whichcanbeeasilyseparatedtoproduceahighpurityCO2stream(GlobalCCSInstitute).Thediagrambelowshowsthisprocess:
ACautionaryTale:FutureGenIn2005,theDepartmentofEnergy(DOE)announced“FutureGen,”a$1.3billionprojecttodesign,build,andoperateanearlyemission-freecoal-basedelectricityandhydrogenproductionplant.ThefundingwastobeprovidedbytheDOEinpartnershipwithmultiplecoalcompanies(WorldNuclearAssociation,2015).Confrontedfromitsearliestdayswithextremelychallengingobjectives,budgetissues,andtransitionsintheregulatoryenvironment,fundingfortheprojectwascuttwice,undertwodifferentpresidentialadministrations;theDOEannouncedinFebruary2015thatfundingwouldcease(Romm,2015).
9
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
ConclusionThepathforwardtoalongandprosperousfutureforcoaldependslargelyoncontinuedresearchanddevelopmentforCCTs.Asenvironmentalchallengesandexpectationsgrowincreasinglystringent,CCTsmustcontinuetoimproveenergyefficiency,andreduceoreliminateSO2,CO2,andNOxemissions.Thekeystolongevityandsuccessare:adequatepublicsupport,enhancedresearchandcommitmenttoCCTs,andaregulatoryandpublicpolicyframeworkthatissupportiveofcoaluse(NationalMiningAssociation,2015)(Yamagata,2014).ThecautionarytaleofFutureGendemonstratestheimportanceofregulatorycohesionwiththeobjectiveofsuccessforcoal.
AirborneEmissions&EmissionReductionTechnology:ElevatorSpeechCoal has gotten much cleaner over the past generation with the use of technologies that enable thegenerationofenergywithminimalnegativeenvironmental impact.Powerplantsbeingbuilt todayemit90percentlesspollutants(SO2,NOx,particulatesandmercury)thantheplantstheyreplacedfromthe1970’s.Thecoalindustryhasdemonstrateditseagernesstopioneerthetechnologicaladvancesthatarenecessarytokeepcoalsafe,effective,andenvironmentallyresponsible.Withadequatepublicsupport,enhancedresearchefforts,andcoal-friendlyregulatorypolicies, the industrycanensurethatcoal remainsastapleofU.S.andglobalpowergenerationfortheforeseeablefuture.
Today,energycompaniesareworkingtodevelop,demonstrate,anddeploythenextgenerationofadvancedcleancoaltechnologies.Thesetechnologieswouldmakeitpossibletoreduceemissionsoftraditionalpollutantstoverylowlevelsandtocaptureandsafelystorecarbondioxide–allwhileensuringareliablesupplyofaffordableelectricitytomeetAmerica’sgrowingenergyneeds,whilestillusingoneofAmerica’smostabundant,domesticallyproducedfuels,coal.Thankstotechnology,coalhasbeengettinghealthierandcleanersincethe1800’s.Moderncoaltechnologyhasmanydifferentmeansofreducingpollutants.Therearefiltrationsystemsthatpreventundesirablesubstancesfromgettingintotheair;thereareprocessesthatusechemicalagents,suchaslimestone,tobindpollutantsandpreventthemfrombeingreleased.Therearechemicaldeviceslikewetordryscrubberstoseparateoutunwantedemissions.Moderncleancoaltechnologyharnessesthisnation’sabundantcoal-basedenergyinarelativelyinexpensivemanner.Itisclearlypossibletoincreasecoalusewhiledecreasingpollution,resultinginreliable,affordableandcleanenergyforhumans.Newcleancoaltechnologiespromisetobalanceenvironmentalandeconomicconcerns,whilecontinuingtosatisfyourgrowingworldwithenergyoutput.
CleanPowerPlanTheCleanPowerPlan(CCP)hasonemainstatedobjective,toreducecarbondioxide.TheEPAbelieves“theCleanPowerPlanprovidesnationalconsistency,accountability,andalevelplayingfieldwhilereflectingeachstate’senergymix.”Thisisbeingdonethreedifferentways;bymakingcoal-fueledpowerplantsmoreefficient,shiftingexistingplantstonaturalgascombinedcycleplants,andincreasingtheuseofrenewablepowersources.(EPA,2015)PertheEPAruling,statesareallowedtocreatetheirownplanstomeetthenewrequirements,andhaveuntil2016tosubmittheseplanswithafinalversiondueby2018.Theexistingpowerplantswillberequiredtocutemissionsby32percentof2005levels.Eachstatehasastate-specificcarbondioxidereductiongoal.Thesegoalstakeintoaccounteachstate’senergymix.EPAAdministratorGinaMcCarthysaysthefinalCPPis“flexible,customizable,andputsstatesinthedriver’sseat.”OpponentsoftheCPPhavestatedthattheEPAhasnottakenintoaccountstepstakenbyutilitiesalready.InhisMay,2015lettertothePresident,WisconsinGovernorScottWalker,stated“Oneofthemosttroublingaspectsofthe
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
10
proposalisthattheEPAdoesnotrecognizethe$10.5billioninvestmentmadebyWisconsinutilities…thathasdramaticallyreducedcarbonemissionsandincreasedenergyefficiency.”(ScottWalker,2015)Thenewrulemeansupto90,000MWofcoal-fueledgenerationwillberetiredortakenofflineby2040.Mostoftheseretirementswillbebefore2020(PowerEngineering2015).Inareasthatrelyheavilyoncoalfortheirelectricity,thismeansareductioninjobsandanincreaseinelectricityrates.AccordingtotheNationalRuralElectricCooperativeAssociation,a10percentincreaseinelectricitypricesequals1.2millionlostjobsacrossthecountry.
CoalScalability
TransportationInfrastructureTheU.S.andworldtransportationinfrastructureallowscoaltoprovideareliableandeconomicfuelsource.Akeycomponentofthenation’senergysupplychain,anditsabilitytoexporttoconsumersabroad,isitsinlandwaterwaysystem.TheU.S.hasaveragedover300milliontonsofwaterbornecoalcommerceperyearsince1993(USArmyCorpsofEngineers,2012).Themarinetransportationsystemconsistsof25,320milesofnavigablewaterways,includingrivers,bays,andchannels,andmanythousandsofadditionalmilesontheGreatLakesSaintLawrenceSeawaySystemanddeep-searoutes(U.S.DepartmentofTransportationMaritime,2011).Therearealsoapproximately12,000milesofinlandwaterwaynavigablechannels,and240locksites(Foundation,2014).Astandarddrycargobargemovesasmuchcoalasover70trucks.Thesebargesaretransportedin15-bargetows,whichequatestoover1,050trucks.ThebenefitsandfutureuseofthesewaterwayshavebeenrecognizedbytheDepartmentofTransportation’s(DOT)identificationof18marinecorridors,eightprojects,andsixinitiativesforfurtherexpansionaspartof“America’sMarineHighwayProgram”(U.S.DepartmentofTransportationMaritime,2011).Anothermaincomponentofthecoaltransportationinfrastructureisthefreightrailroadsystem.Asof2014,U.S.freightrailroadsoperatedalmost160,000route-milesoftrackwithnearly26,000locomotivesinservice(AssociationofAmericanRailroads,2015).NosinglecommodityismoreimportanttoAmerica’srailroadsthancoal,whichaccountedforalmost40percentofrailtonnagein2014(AssociationofAmericanRailroads,2015).SincederegulationpursuanttotheStaggersActof1980,therailindustryisnowabletoupgradeequipmentandroutesthatbenefitthefuturedemandsforfuelssuchascoal.Railcarriersarenotdependentontaxpayerfundsforexpansion.From1980through2014,railroadsspent$575billiononrenewal,maintenance,andexpansion(AssociationofAmericanRailroads,2015)andareexpectedtospendanestimated$29billionin2015.Throughtechnologicaladvances,innovativeservice,competitiverates,andaggressivereinvestmentprograms,railroadshaveshowntheirwillingnessandabilitytoprovidehighvalue
transportationservicetocoalshippersthroughoutthecountry(AssociationofAmericanRailroads,2015).
AccesstotheLargestFuelSourceintheUSOnaBTUbasis,therearelargerremainingcoalresourcesthannaturalgasoroilreservesintheUnitedStates(U.S.EnergyInformationAdministration,2015).Asof2014,thedemonstrated
11
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
reservebasewasestimatedtocontain480billionshorttons(U.S.EnergyInformationAdministration,2015).Withconstantlyimprovingminingtechniquesandtechnologies,somesurfaceminesarenowabletorecovermorethan90percentfromtheundisturbeddeposit(U.S.EnergyInformationAdministration,2015).Asof2011,thetotalprovenrecoverablereservesofcoalintheworldwereestimatedat979.8billionshorttons(U.S.EnergyInformationAdministration,2015).Thecurrentcoalcontributiontoglobalprimaryenergyconsumption(30.1percent)isthehighestsince1970.InSoutheastAsiaalone,demandisexpectedtogrowby4.8percentayearthrough2035astheregionturnstocoaltofuelitsgrowingenergyneeds(WorldCoalAssociation,2015).U.S.coalminesprovidetheenergyresourcesandrawmaterialsthatareessentialtoagrowingeconomy.Asof2012,U.S.miningcontributedover$225billiontotheeconomy.FortheU.S.toremaincompetitiveinternationally,itisimperativetoutilizeourmostaccessibleandeconomicfuelsource.
FuelVersatilityCoalisgenerallyviewedasafuelsimplyburnedtocreatesteamforpowergeneration.Yes,conventionalsteamproductionisthemainuse,butevolvingtechnologieshaveallowedcoaltobemoreefficientandenvironmentallyfriendly.Byimprovingthecurrentaverageglobalefficiencyrateofcoal-fueledpowerplantsfrom33percentto40percentthroughthedevelopmentofmoreadvancedoff-the-shelftechnology,twogigatonsperyearofCO2emissionscanbecutimmediately,whilestillallowingaffordableenergyforeconomicdevelopmentandpovertyreduction(WorldCoalAssociation,2015).Coalisalsousedworldwidetoproducesyntheticnaturalgas(or“syngas”),whichisthenusedtocreateelectricityinIGCCunits.Whilemoreexpensivethanconventionalsteam,IGCCunitscanachievegreaterefficiencies.Byaddinga‘shift’reaction,additionalhydrogencanbeproduced,andthecarbonmonoxide(CO)producedduringthegasificationprocesscanbeconvertedtoCO2,whichiscapturedandstoredorusedinindustrialprocesses.IGCCefficienciestypicallyreachthemid-40percentrange,althoughplantdesignsofferingaround50percentefficienciesareachievable(WorldCoalAssociation,2015).Coalisnotonlyusedtogenerateelectricity,itisalsousedinmanymanufacturingandindustrialapplications.Steelisusedineverymajorindustry:energy,construction,automotiveandtransportation,infrastructure,aswellaspackagingandmachinery.Thesteelindustryisheavilydependentuponcoal,as70percentofthesteelproducedtodayrequirescoalforproduction(WorldCoalAssociation,2015).By2050,steeluseisprojectedtoincreaseto1.5timesitspresentlevelsinordertomeetthedemandsoftheworld’sgrowingpopulation(WorldSteelAssociation,2015).“Energyindependence”isatermthathasbecomeubiquitous,asU.S.dependenceonforeignoilhasincreased.Domesticcoaloffersaviablealternativetoforeignoilthroughcoal-to-liquids(CTL)technologies.Therearecurrentlytwoprovenmethods:DirectandIndirectLiquefaction.Anarrayofproductscanbemadeviatheseprocesses,includingultra-cleanpetroleumanddiesel,aswellassyntheticwaxes,lubricants,chemicalfeedstock,andalternativeliquidfuelssuchasmethanolanddimethylether(WorldCoalAssociation,2015).Anexampleofthistechnology’spotentialexistsinSouthAfrica,wherecoal-derivedfuelshavebeenproducedsince1955andthecoal-to-liquidsindustrycontinuestoflourishtoday(WorldCoalAssociation,2015).Here,CTLfuelsareusedincarsandothervehiclesand,inthecaseoftheSouthAfricancompanySasol,havebeenapprovedandplannedforuseincommercialjets(WorldCoalAssociation,2015).Coal-derivedfuelsaresulfur-free,lowinparticulates,andlowinnitrogenoxides(WorldCoalAssociation,2015).
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
12
CoalScalability:FacebookPostTheenergyindependencediscussionstartsandendswithcoal.OnaBTUbasisintheU.S.,therearelargerremainingcoalresourcesthannaturalgasoroilcombined.Theexistingandfuturecoaltransportationinfrastructure,billionsoftonsindemonstratedrecoverablereserves,andtheversatilityofcoalhasprovenitwellequippedtomeetthedemandsofthefuture.Coalkeepshard-earnedmoneyinourcommunitiesandwillallowAmericatoprosperforourgrandchildren.
RenewableEnergyRenewableenergycertainlyhasaplaceintheenergydemandsofthefuture,butfacesmanychallengeswhilescalinguptomeetthesedemands.Assolarpowercontinuesitsgrowth,itwillforceitswayintobaseloadenergydemand,however,itwillbelessabletomeetpeakdemandsduetoalackofdispatchability(PowerMag,2015)andgridenergystorage.DaveRamm,ChairmanandCEOofBrightSourceEnergy,agreed.“Withoutstorage,thistechnologyisn’tworthmuch”(PowerMag,2015).Hydroelectricpowerhasexperiencedreducedgrowthasmanynationshavealreadydevelopedareasthatcouldbeusedasreservoirstosupporthydroelectricgeneration(Asia-PacificEconomicsBlog,2015).Duetothis,only1outofthelast30majorpowerplantprojectswithacapacityofatleast2,000MWhasstartedconstructionwithinthelastcoupleofyears(Asia-PacificEconomicsBlog,2015).Windpowerhasstruggledtomeettheworld’senergydemands,aswell.WiththeexceptionofDenmark,nocountriesorelectricalsystemshaveproducedmorethan10percentoftheirtotalenergydemandfromwindenergy,andmostarebelow2percent(WorldofWindEnergy,2015).DavidKeith,aHarvardappliedphysicistnotes,“IfweweretocovertheentireEarthwithwindfarms,thesystemcouldpotentiallygenerateenormousamountsofpower,wellinexcessof100terawatts,butatthatpointmyguess,basedonourclimatemodeling,isthattheeffectofthatonglobalwinds,andthereforeonclimate,wouldbesevere—perhapsbiggerthantheimpactofdoublingCO2”(Engineering,2013).Onthecontrary,theexistingandfuturecoaltransportationinfrastructure,billionsoftonsindemonstratedrecoverablereserves,andtheversatilityofcoal,hasprovenitwellequippedtomeetthedemandsofthefuture.
GridReliabilityCoalrepresented39percentofU.S.electricitygenerationin2014,makingitthelargestofallenergysources(U.S.EnergyInformationAdministration,2015).Ascoalgenerationcapacitycontinuestobechallengedbygrowingenvironmentalregulations,manyexpertsquestionthefuturereliabilityoftheU.Spowergrid.
Tweetthis:Coalwasthe
largestsource
ofenergyin
2014(39%).
Fueldiversity
includingcoal
ispivotaltoa
reliable
power
system.
#KeepTheLightsOn
13
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
Areliablebulkpowersystemisonethatisabletomeetgenerationneedsdespitevariousdisturbancesthatwouldinterruptsupplyoravailabilityofelectricitygeneration.NorthAmericanElectricReliabilityCorporation(NERC)broadlydividesreliabilityintotwocategories:adequacyandsecurity.Adequacyreflectswhetherthereisasufficientcapacityofresourcestosupplyelectricitydemand.Securityisdefinedastheabilitytowithstand“sudden,unexpecteddisruptions,”suchasequipmentfailuresorlossofsystemareas.Fueldiversityispivotaltobothadequacyandsecurity.Backupresourcesmustbeinplacetooffsetunforeseeneventsthatwouldinterruptpowergenerationfromvariousunits(NorthAmericanElectricReliabilityCorporation).
ReliabilityChallengesofRenewableandOtherSourcesGenerators,suchasgas,solar,andwind,areservedbyreal-timefueldeliveryorintermittentweather,andmustbalancefuelsourceswithon-sitestoragecapabilitiestomaintainreliability,survivesuddendisruptions,andcontrolcosts(U.S.EnergyInformationAdministration).Naturalgasasasourceofpowergenerationisparticularlyrestrictedbypipelinecapacitylimitationsinextremewinterweatherconditionsduetocompetitionwithentitiesfeedingresidentialandindustrialend-users.Additionally,equipmentconstraintsfromfrozeninstrumentationduringextremetemperatureslimitthedependabilityofnaturalgasasaprincipalfuelsource(NorthAmericanElectricReliabilityCorporation,2014).Powergenerationsourcedfromsolarandwindresourcesarealsolimitedbythereal-timeenvironmentalconditionsassociatedwitheach,aswellasinsufficienttransmissioninfrastructuretoareaswiththebestenvironmentalconditionsforgeneration(NorthAmericanElectricReliabilityCorporation,2014).
SuperiorityofCoalCoalasafuelsourcehasmanyadvantagestoaidinreliablegenerationofelectricity,contributingtobothadequacyandsecurityofthebulkpowersystem.Forexample,coal-fueled
Coal,39%
NaturalGas,27%
Nuclear,20%
Renewables,13%
Others,1%
U.SElectricityGenera[onbySource,2014
Coal
NaturalGas
Nuclear
Renewables
Others
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
14
Tweetthis:MoreCO2can
begood!It
correlateswith
increased
lengthoflife,
domestic
production,
food,and
medicine.
#MYTHBUSTED
generatingunitsarewellunderstoodduetoyearsofuseasaprimarysourceofenergyacrosstheworld,andinfrastructureiscurrentlyinplacetosupportgenerationfromtheseexistingunits.Asafetystockofcoalmaybeeasilystoredattheplantsite,eliminatingconcernssurroundingreal-timedelivery.The2014polarvortexandthesubsequentspikeingaspricesduetocoldtemperatures,andlackofsupply,servedasaprimaryexampleoftherisksassociatedwitharealtimefueldelivery.
ConclusionOverdependenceonanysingletypeoffuelcreatesagreaterriskofdisruptionstoelectricpowergeneration,especiallyduringextremeweatherevents.Coalasafuelsourcehasmanyadvantagestoaidinreliablegenerationofelectricity:on-sitestorage,yearsofdocumenteduse,andanabundanceofdomestically-sourcedsupply.Coalisavitalcomponentofournation’soverallgenerationmixtomaintainareliablepowersystem.
GridReliability:FacebookPostGridreliabilityisallaboutfueldiversityandavailabilityofbackupresources,astheyareinevitablyneeded.Coalisavitalcomponentofournation’soverallgenerationmixtomaintainareliablepowersystem.
GridReliability:ElevatorSpeechCoalisthelargestofalldomesticenergysources(U.S.EnergyInformationAdministration,2015).Whilethereareotherenergyresources,suchasgas,solar,andwind,theyareservedbyreal-timefueldeliveryorintermittentweatherandmustbebalancedbyfuelsourceswithon-sitestoragecapabilitiestomaintainreliability,survivesuddendisruptions,andcontrolcosts(U.S.EnergyInformationAdministration).
• Naturalgasisparticularlyrestrictedbypipelinecapacitylimitationsinextremeweatherconditionsasequipmentconstraintsfromfrozeninstrumentationduringextremetemperatureslimitthedependabilityofnaturalgasasaprincipalfuelsource(NorthAmericanElectricReliabilityCorporation,2014).
• Solarandwindarebothconstrainedbygeographicalandtransmissionlimitations,asdevelopersinstallsystemsinthemostwindyandsunnylocationsfirst(Helman,2014).
Bycontrast,asafetybufferofcoalmaybeeasilystoredattheplantsite,eliminatingconcernssurroundingreal-timedelivery.Inextremeweatherconditions,particularlylowtemperatures,coalpossessesthenecessarycharacteristicstoconsistentlymeetelectricitydemand.Overdependenceonanysinglefueltypecreatesagreaterriskofdisruptionstoelectricpowergeneration,especiallyduringextremeweatherevents.Coalisavitalcomponentofournation’soverallgenerationmixtomaintainareliablepowersystem.
GridReliability:ObjectionsandResponsesObjection:Renewablesandalternativeenergyresourceswillbeavailabletoreplaceretiredcoalgenerationgoingforward.
Response:Thecurrentbulkpowersystemmustbereconfiguredtosupportincreaseduseofrenewableenergy.Additionaltransmissioncapacitymustbebuiltandexpandedtoreachremoteareaswheremanyrenewableresourcesarelocated.ThistimelinemaynotcoincidewithdeadlinesascurrentlyproposedbytheEPA.Forexample,anewhigh-voltagelinehasaleadtimeof5-15years.Additionally,thecostofthistransmissionexpansionwillbepassedontoend-users.Also,renewablegenerationcapacitycannotbecounted-ontoreplaceon-demandcapacitytomeetsystemneeds.Unlessreplacementfossilcapacityornuclearcapacityisbuilt,gridreservemarginsandtherefore,reliabilitywillbesacrificed.
15
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
Objection:Improvementstoenergyefficiencyalongwithincreaseduseofrenewableswilllessendemandinthefutureenoughtooffsetreductionsinfossilfuelgeneration.
Response:ProjectionsbytheEPAestimatedthatgrowthinenergydemandwouldbemorethanoffsetbygrowthinenergyefficiency,causingtotalenergydemandtocontinuetoshrink.ThestudiescitedbytheEPAwerebasedononly12states’datawhichdon’tadequatelyrepresenttheenergymixanddemographicsofthenationasawhole.Overallenergydemandisseparatedfromavailablepeak-hourgeneratingcapacity,whichisamaindeterminantofgridreliability.
ClimateChange&CO.Constructionofrenewableenergysourceshasbecomeafavoredpolicyresponsetoaddressconcernsaboutclimatechangeandthereductionofcarbondioxide(CO2)emissions.Additionallyfederalregulationshavebeenproposedandpromulgatedthatwouldforcetheretirementofadditionalcoalunitsacrossthecountry.
Despitehyperbolicreportinganddrasticregulatorymeasures,itisimportanttorememberthattherearebenefitsassociatedwithclimatechange.CO2isplantfood.Therefore,increasedatmosphericCO2resultsinmorefood(Kimball,1983)andmedicinethroughincreasedplantgrowth(PlantsNeedCO2).Overall,increasedCO2levelsactuallyarecorrelatedwithdecreaseddeathsfromnaturaldisasters(CATOInstitute,2014).Inaddition,astimepassesCO2willdecreaseinitsabilitytoaffecttemperature(Hoskins,2014).
The“HockeyStickChart”andtheEraofMisinformationOneargumentcontributingtoanegativeviewofclimatechangeisthe“HockeyStickChart,”createdbyresearcherMichaelMann.Thischartismeanttoillustratethattemperaturesacrosstheglobehaveincreasedexponentiallyinthelast100years(IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange,2001):
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
16
Mann’sstudywasinitiallyverypopular,butapeer-reviewedstudyofMann’swork,conductedbyresearchersStephenMcIntyreandRossMcKitrick,exposedthatdatawithinthe“HockeyStickChart”contained“…collationerrors,unjustifiedtruncationorextrapolationofsourcedata,obsoletedata,incorrectprincipalcomponentcalculations,geographicalmislocations,andotherseriousdefects.Theseerrorsanddefectssubstantiallyaffectthetemperatureindex(McIntyre,2003).”McIntyreandMcKitrickcorrectedtheseerrors,andreconstructedthe“HockeyStickChart”withactualdata.AcomparisonbetweenMann’sversionofthechartandtherevisedversionbyMcIntyreandMcKitrickisdisplayedbelow(McIntyre,2003):
TheresultsoftherevisedversionofMann’schartareastounding.TherevisedchartconfirmsthattemperaturesoftheMedievalWarmingPeriodduringthe1400’swereactuallywarmerthanthoseexperiencedtoday(McIntyre,2003).Itwouldstandtoreasonthatifwarmingtemperaturesactuallydocauseharsherconditionsforsurvival,thetechnologyutilizedinthe1400’swasadequatetocombatit.Therefore,inpresenttime,thereshouldbenofearofwarming,ashistoryhasprovenwehavethecapacitytodealwithanyadverseconditionscausedbyit.Datasuggests,however,thatcatastrophicwarmingisnotlikelytooccur.
ModelsbasedonMann’sworkhavevastlyoverestimatedglobaltemperaturechangeswhencomparedtoreality.Acomparisonbetweenthetwoispresentedbelow.(Spencer,2013)
17
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
Theboldgreenandbluelinesrepresentreality,whiletheboldblacklineistheaveragetemperaturechangepredictedbyacceptedclimatemodels.Aslighttemperatureincreaseofapproximately0.3oChasbeenseen.The0.6oCrisethatwaspredictedby2013didnotcometofruition,butthemodelstillpredictedwarmingwouldoccur.ResearchersprojectedthatiftheaveragetemperaturewithintheUnitedStatesincreasedby2.5oC,therewouldbeapproximately40,000lessmortalitiesperyear,duetodecreasedrespiratorydisease–suchasthefluorpneumonia–contractedinthefrigidweather,(Moore,1996).Awarmerclimatewouldactuallysavelives,notshortenthem.Althoughwarmerweatherwouldsavelives,a2.5oCwarmingwouldbesignificantlyhardtoachieve.
TemperatureriseislinearwithrespecttoexponentialrisesofCO2,meaningthatfurtherchangesinatmosphericCO2,willresultindecreasingincrementalchangesintemperature,asexplainedinthechartbelow(Hoskins,2014):
Asseenabove,only13percentofthetotalpotentialtemperaturechangefromCO2emissionscanbemitigatedwithfuturede-carbonizationpolicies.24billiondollarsoftaxpayers’moneywasspenton
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
18
renewableenergyinitiativesin2011(Dinan,2012).Thequestionmustbeasked;doestheforecastedinsignificanttemperaturechangewarrantsuchalevelofspending?
TheMythicalRelationshipbetweenCO2andClimateRelatedDeathsTheclaimthatincreasedatmosphericCO2willresultinadangerousclimatemustalsobeexplored.WhenCO2emissionsandclimaterelateddeathsareputsidebyside,itiseasytoseethattheworldhasactuallybecomeasaferplaceasCO2emissionshaveincreased(CATOInstitute,2014):
Despiteglobalpopulationgrowthovertime,andCO2emissionsincreasing,totalclimaterelateddeathshavefallen.Thiscanbeattributedtotheincreaseintheabilitytoproduceindustrialgoodsusedforshelter,technology,heating,andcooling.TheestimatedgrowthintheUnitedStatesindustrialproductionindexcanbeseenbelow(FederalReserve,2015):
Theindustrialproductiontotalindexmeasurestheproductionoutputofmanufacturing,mining,andutilitieswithintheUnitedStates.Increasedindustrialproductionmeansthematerialsforinfrastructurewithinthe
020406080100120140160
198619881990199219941996199820002002200420062008201020122014
IndustrialProduc[on:TotalIndex
19
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
UnitedStatesaregrowing,andthemanufacturingoftechnologyallowingsocietytoavoiddangerousconditionsisincreasing.IncreasedlevelsofindustrialproductionwillgenerateincreasedCO2emissions,duetotheincreaseinenergynecessaryforproductionpurposes.Fossilfuelshave,andwillcontinueto,providethemajorityoftheenergytopowertheseadvancements.Asdemonstratedbytheclimatedeathgraphshownearlier,thetradeoffofincreasedCO2emissionstoprovideenhancedinfrastructure,growingindustrialcapacity,andrapidtechnologicalimprovementisthesavingofmanyhumanlives.
ThePositiveImpactofCO2forPlantLifeInadditiontoCO2emissionsbeingaby-productofprotection,CO2emissionsincreaseplantgrowth,cropyields,andplantantioxidantsbyacceleratingphotosynthesislevels.PhotosynthesisfunctionsviaaplantconsumingCO2,solarenergy,andwater,convertingthosecompoundstocarbohydrates,andthenreleasingwasteasoxygen.
AsCO2levelsincrease,therateofphotosynthesisinplantstendstoaccelerate.A100percentincreaseinatmosphericCO2levelsisestimatedtoincreasephotosynthesisratesby41percentforC3plantsand22percentforC4plants(Note:Highertemperaturesalsocatalyzephotosynthesis,doublingthereactionrateforevery10oFriseintemperature)(Watkins).Anincreaseinphotosynthesisratesdirectlycorrelatestoincreasedplantgrowth.WhenatmosphericCO2levelsaredoubled,plantyieldshavebeenobservedtoincreasebyapproximately33percent.Inadditiontranspiration,whichisevaporationofwaterfromplantpores,isshowntodecreaseby34percentinenvironmentswithdoubletheatmosphericCO2concentration(Kimball,1983).Thisindicateshigherwaterefficiencyusageforplants.FruitgrowthisalsoamplifiedinenvironmentswithhigherlevelsofCO2.Orangesdisplayed80percentgreaterfruityieldwitha75percentpercentincreaseinatmosphericCO2concentration,anda5percentincreaseintheirvitaminCcontent.Strawberriesdemonstratedsimilareffects,increasingfruitweightby17percentwithanadditional170ppmofCO2withintheatmosphere(PlantsNeedCO2).PlantswithmedicinalbenefitshavealsoshownincreasedconcentrationsoftheiractivemedicinalconstituentswithhigherconcentrationsofCO2.Thespiderlily,whichcontainsconstituentsthatcombatleukemia,ovarysarcoma,melanoma,braincancer,coloncancer,lungcancer,andrenalcancer,haverevealedanincreaseof75percentintheiractivemedicinalconstituentswitha75percentincreaseinatmosphericCO2concentration.SaintJohn’sWort,whichassistswithdepression,inflammation,andwoundhealing,sawa100percentincreaseinitshealthpromotingconstituentswhengrownunder1,000ppmatmosphericCO2levels(PlantsNeedCO2).Theincreasesobservedintheseplantsmedicinalpropertiesaresignificant,bothforindustrializedandundevelopedcountries.75percentoftheworldpopulationisstilldependentuponbiologicalremediesastheirprimarysourceofmedication(PlantsNeedCO2).
Additionally,population(asdisplayedbelow)throughtheyear2050,isforecastedtocontinuegrowing(Haub,2012):
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
20
Withanincreasingworldpopulation,morefoodandmedicinewillbeessential.HigherCO2levelsyieldinglargerharvestsoffood,increasedlevelsofmedicinalingredients,andincreasedvitaminswillallbenecessarytosupportahealthyhumanpopulation.
HigherlevelsofCO2alonedonotadverselyaffecthealth.Foranyimpacttohumanhealthtooccur,atmosphericCO2emissionswouldhavetobecloseto15,000ppm,whichis40timesgreaterthanthelevelscurrentlyintheatmosphere(PlantsNeedCO2).However,priortoreachingthatconcentration,increasedCO2levelscorrelatewithabetterqualityoflifethroughmorefoodandmedicine,asaferlifewithenhancedinfrastructuralcapabilities,andareshowntohaveinsignificanteffectsontemperatureinthefuture.
Asafinalnote,increasedenergyproductionusingrenewableswillnotstopCO2emissions.Evensocalled“carbon-free”sourcesgiveoffcarbonwhenanalyzedthroughalifecycleanalysis.Duringtheconstructionphaseofawindturbine,approximately364.8gCO2/kWhiscapableofbeingproduced;forsolar,thisfigurebecomes218gCO2/kWh(Nugent,2014).
ConclusionCO2isnottheevil,lifesuckingpoisonthatclimatechangeactivistssometimesportray.Itisaby-productofalife-preserving,food-producing,industriallysoundculture.Whetherthiscultureissupportedbycoalorrenewablesshouldnotbeaneither/orquestion,theanswershouldbe“yes”toboth.
ClimateChange&CO2:FacebookPostBottomlineonclimatechange:Coalequatestofewerdeaths(Moore,1996),lowermedicalcosts(Moore,1996),andmorefood(Kimball,1983).
ClimateChange&CO2:ElevatorSpeechIftherewasawaytohaveacheap,reliablesourceofelectricgenerationthatalsoboostscropyields(Kimball,1983),increasebasemedicinalingredientprevalence(PlantsNeedCO2),decreasemortalities(Moore,1996),andstrengthenthenation’sinfrastructure(FederalReserve,2015),woulditbeworthdiscovering?
Luckily,wedon’thavetodiscoverit,italreadyexists.Coal-fueledgenerationandtheCO2emittedfromcoalcorrelateswithalloftheabove-mentionedbenefits.ThepopulationonEarthisestimatedtogrowbytwobillionpeoplefrom2015to2050(Haub,2012).Agreateramountofreliablepower,food,medicine,andindustrialproductionwillbeneededtosupportthisgrowth.Let’sstoptheattemptstooutlawcoal,andstartusingittopowerourfuture.
21
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
ClimateChange&CO2:ObjectionsandResponses
Objection:Temperatureincreasesduetoclimatechangewillleadtoirreversibleanddangerouschangesinweatherconditions.
Response:Temperatureswerehigherinthemedievalperiodthanpresent,andhumancivilizationsurvivedthatperiodwithlesstechnology,poorerinfrastructure,lessenergy,andworsewaterquality(McIntyre,2003).IncreasingCO2emissionsoverthepasttwocenturiescorrelatewithfewerclimaterelateddeaths,indicatingthatpowerfromcoalandotherfossilfuelshasbeenusedtoimproveinfrastructureandtechnologyovertime.Inreality,improvedaccesstoaffordable,reliableenergyhashelpedsocietytodealwithextremeweather(CATOInstitute,2014).
Objection:Temperatureincreasesduetoclimatechangehaveledtoicecapmelting.
Response:Articseaicevolumeshaveactuallybeengrowingoverthepastfouryears.In2011,theaverageseaicevolumewasmeasuredat4,275km3,howeverseaicevolumeshaveregeneratedsincethatpoint,reaching10,200km3in2014.Atthesametime,recentstudiesindicatethattheAntarcticicesheethasalsogrown,adding112billiontonsoficeannuallyfrom1992to2001,and82billiontonsannuallyfrom2003to2008.(Zwallyetal,2015)
Objection:Temperatureincreasesduetoclimatechangearemeltingice,leadingtotheextinctionofpolarbears.
Response:Thisstatementisuntrue.AsofJune2014,themajorityofpolarbearpopulationsareeitherestimatedtobeincreasing,orstable(PolarBearScience,2014).
Objection:Temperatureincreasesduetoclimatechangeareleadingtothebleachinganddeathofcoralreefs.
Response:Researchhasshownthatcoralreefsutilizevarioussymbioticrelationshipswithalgaetoadapttocertaintypesofenvironmentalstresses.Oneofthesetypesofalgaeisheattolerantandassistscoraltoavoidbleachingduetotemperatureincreases(Silverstein,2012).However,itisimportanttorememberthat87percentofcarbondioxideseffectontemperaturehasalreadybeenrealized,thereforefuturerisesintemperatureduetocarbondioxidewilllikelybemarginal(Hoskins,2014).
Objection:WarmingtemperaturescausedbyCO2emissionswillresultingreaterdiseaseamongstcrops.
Response:Researchonplantpathogensandclimatechangeisinconclusive(Garrett,2006).However,CO2hasbeendefinitivelyshowntoacceleratephotosynthesis,indicatingthatplantswillgrowfaster;increasingcropyieldsby33percent(Kimball,1983).Inaddition,withtheuptickinplantgrowth,theagriculturalindustryisestimatedtoincreaseagriculturalrevenueby1.3billiondollars(Deschenes,2002).
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
22
Objection:WarmingtemperaturescausedbyCO2emissionswillresultinmoreseverestormsandhurricanes.
Response:TheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC)hasstatedthatthereisnoconvincingevidencetosupportthisclaim(IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange,2013).Inaddition,extraordinarytrendsinlandfallingcyclones,hurricanes,andtyphoonshavenotbeenseen.
Objection:WarmingtemperaturescausedbyCO2emissionswillresultinmoredroughts.
Response:AccordingtotheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC),thereisinsufficientevidencetosaywithhighconfidencethatdroughtisactuallyincreasing.Trendsindroughtsfromthe1970’shavebeenoverstated,andthefrequencyandintensityofdroughtsinbothNorthAmericaandnorthwestAustraliahaveactuallydecreased(IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange,2013).
Objection:Coalisnotarenewableresource,whathappenswhenwerunout?
Response:Whiletotalcoalreservesareonthedecline,itisimportanttonotethattherearepointswherethereservesincreaseduetonewreservesofcoalbeingfound.Coalreservesareoftenunderestimated,ascoalcompaniestendtoplanintheshortterm.Initialestimatesofreservesareoften4-5timesunderstatedwhencomparedtotheactualamountofcoalintheground(WorldEnergyCouncil,2013).Thus,thereisagreatdealmorecoaltobemined.Withthatinmind,weshouldcontinuetotakeadvantageofcoalandcontinuetoresearchnewandreliableenergysolutions,insteadofmandatingmovestoexpensive,intermittent,andunreliablesourcessuchaswindandsolar.Furthermore,thesamequestionofreservescanbeposedtosolarandwindaswell,astheyrequirerareearthmetalstobeminedfortheirconstruction(Catlett,2014).
Objection:Renewablescreatecarbon-freegenerationandareenvironmentallyfriendly.
Response:Thisisnotnecessarilytrue.Whilegeneratingelectricity,bothsolarandwinddonotproduceCO2.However,performingalifecycleanalysisandtakingintoaccountemissionsduringtheirconstruction,windandsolarcangiveoffasmuchas364.8gCO2/kWhand218gCO2/kWh(Nugent,2014).Inaddition,bothsolarandwindprojectsrequireminingrareearthmetalsinChina,sothepracticeofminingwillstillcontinuewithrenewablesbeingused(Catlett,2014).TherareearthmetalcapitaloftheworldisBatou,China,whichissopollutedduetominingtomakewindturbinesthatthepopulationhasdroppedfrom2,000to300people(TheGuardian,2012).Inaddition,amongotherenvironmentalandsocialchallenges,windturbinesintheU.S.havebeenknowntokill1.4millionbirdsandbatseachyear,andsolarpanelshavedisplacedthreateneddeserttortoiseswheretheyareplaced(Catlett,2014).
TheHumanCostWithoutCoalThepushtoeliminatecoalandotherfossilfuelsfromtheU.S.energymixwillhaveasignificantfinancialimpactonallAmericans,butthelowestincomeAmericanswillbeimpactedthemost.Coalhasbeenasourceofcheapandreliableenergyforyears;however,manypoliticianshaveplanstoeliminatecoal.HillaryClintonstates(Clinton,2015)that,ifelected,onDay1ofherpresidencyshewillestablishtwonationalgoals:
23
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
1) Install500millionsolarpanelsacrosstheUSbytheendof20202) InstallenoughrenewablestopowereveryhomeintheUSby2027
But,Ms.Clinton’splandoesnotmentionanyadditionalcoststotheAmericanpeople,orwhatspecificenvironmentalbenefitswillbeassociatedwiththosegoals.AsThomasJeffersonsaid,“Anenlightenedcitizenryisindispensablefortheproperfunctioningofarepublic”(Jefferson,1820).Voterscannotmakeawell-informeddecisionunlessacost-benefitanalysisisclearlycommunicated.
Fromacostperspective,doyoufeelthecurrentconditionofyourenvironmentissobadthatyouwouldmakesignificantfinancialsacrificestoimproveit?Wouldyouranswerchangeifitmeantsacrificingfoodandheatinthewinter?Whatiftheprojectedimprovementwasonlyoneone-hundredthofadegreeCelsiusasstatedbytheformerAssistantSecretaryofEnergyCharlesMcConnellandaffirmedbyEPAAdministratorGinaMcCarthywhentestifyingbeforeCongress(McCarthy)?
AccordingtotheU.S.CensusBureau,over45.3millionAmericans(includingover16millionchildren)livedinpovertyin2013(U.S.CensusBureau,2013).OneofthoseAmericansisBessieMeade.Bessiewasbornin1945andraisedhertwogirlsinEasternKentucky.Shewaswidowedin1997whenherhusbanddiedofasuddenheartattack.Bessiehasworkedhardandbeenthriftyherentirelife.Asaresult,sheisdebtfree.Butattheageof70,theonlyincomeshehasisherSocialSecuritycheckof$753/month.Bessie’selectricbillisherlargestexpense(averaged$203/monthin2014)inpartbecausethemodularhomethatsheandherhusbandpurchasednewinthemid1970’sisnotenergyefficientandshedoesnothavethemoneytomakeitefficient.Afterallhermonthlyexpenses,Bessiehas$157/monthforfood.Sheisabletogetbyeachmonthwiththehelpof$30/monthinFoodStamps.Whenaskedwhatshewoulddoifherelectricbillrose40percentto50percent–theexpectedincreaseneededtoconvertconventionalcoaltosolarPV(U.S.EnergyInformationAdministration,2015)–Bessiestatedbluntly,“Peoplearoundherewouldhavetochoosetoeitherfreezeorstarvetodeath,oneortheother.”
ThesmallenvironmentalbenefitassociatedwiththeeliminationofcoalandotherfossilfuelsfromtheU.S.energymixisinsignificantwhencomparedtothefinancialandsocialimpactsonallAmericans,especiallythelowestincomeAmericanswhowillbehardesthitbyrapidpriceincreases.
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
24
BessieMeade ConventionalMonthlyBudget Coal SolarPVIncome-SocialSecurity 753$ 753$
ExpensesElectric 203$ 304$
HomeownersInsurance 117$ 117$AutoInsurance 33$ 33$Water/Sewer 30$ 30$Medications 20$ 20$
Phone 68$ 68$Gas 50$ 50$
Clothing/TV/Entertainment 75$ 75$TotalExpenses 596$ 697$
RemainingAvailableforFood 157$ 56$
Tweetthis:Coalisthe
answerto
developing
countries
combating
energypoverty.#Energy4everyone#Coal
25
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
TheHumanCostWithoutCoal:FacebookPostThecostofreliableelectricityintheU.S.withoutcoal-fueledgenerationissignificantforover45millionpoverty-strickenAmericans.ThecostwithoutcoalmeansthatalargegroupofpeopleintheU.S.willbefacedwithchoosingbetweenheatingtheirhomes,andputtingfoodontheirtables.
InternationalTradeCoalrepresented30percentofworldenergyconsumptionin2014,makingitthesecondlargestofallenergysources. Population growth and increases in income per capita are the key drivers behind growingworlddemandforenergy.By2035,theworld’spopulationisprojectedtoreach8.7billion,meaninganadditional1.6billionpeoplewillneedenergy (BP,2015).Most countriesarenotenergy self-sufficient,and thereforeinternationaltradewillplayanincreasinglyimportantroleinworldenergyeconomics.
By2040,theglobalcoaltradewillgrowby40percent,duemainlytorisingcoalimportsinChinaandIndia.Thiswillincreasetheshareofglobalcoaltraderelativetoworldcoaldemandfrom18percentin2012,to23percentby2040(Umbach,2010).Amapdepictingglobalcoal importsandexports,aswellascoalprice, ispicturedbelow:
Inthelong-term,notonlyisglobalcoaltradeexpectedtobehigher,butalsototalworldenergydemandisprojectedtobe37percenthigherthanpresentdayin2035.Notsurprisingly,IndiaandChinawillaccountforhalfofthatgrowth. CoaldemandgrowthinChinaandIndiacombinedislargerthanglobalgrowth,morethanmakingupfordeclinesintherestoftheworld.Jointly,theywillaccountfor66percentoftotalcoaldemandin2035.
TheUnitedStatesontheotherhand,isprojectedtobecomeenergyself-sufficientby2021,andby2035,itcouldbeexporting9percentofitstotalenergysupply.Meanwhile,ChinaisprojectedtoovertaketheEUasthe world’s largest importing country/region by 2025 (BP, 2015). Although China is facing some internalenergystruggleswithnewqualityrequirementsandimportdutiesoncoal,theirimmensecoalconsumption
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
26
cannotbe replacedentirelybygasor renewables.Therefore, it isexpected thatChinawill continue toseecoalasthemajorenergysourcefortheforeseeablefuture.Indiawillfollowsuitasimportlevelsareexpectedtomorethantripleto30percentofglobalcoaltrade.India’scoalimportdependencewillrisesharplyfrom25percentin2012,to40percentby2040(Umbach,2010).
MajorImportersandExportersofCoal
Globalcoalproductionin2014waslittlechangedat7.2billiontons.Ofthat7.2billiontons,about1.3billionistradedallovertheworld,shippedgreatdistancesbyseatoreachglobalmarkets(Euracoal,2015).Overthelasttwentyyears,Seabornetradeinsteamcoalhasincreasedonaveragebyabout7percenteachyear,andSeabornecokingcoaltradehasincreasedby1.6percentayear,ascanbeseeninthechartbelow:
Almost 20 percent of total coal production is internationally traded. The top five coal importers (China,Japan, Korea, India, andTaiwan) are inAsia,while the top five exporters (Indonesia,Australia, Russia, theUnited States and Colombia) are more scattered around the globe. The new coal trade trend has led tomassive investments in coal infrastructure to secure imports and exports (International Energy Agency,2015).Thetablebelowdepictsmajorimportersandexportersofcoalbycountry,inmilliontonnes:
InternationalTradeRateSlowing
Internationaltradeisslowingandsteamcoalpricesaredeclining,thisisduetothreemajorcauses(Euracoal,2015):
Country Exports Share Country Imports Share
Indonesia 421.8 29.8% China 318.5 23.7%
Australia 332.4 23.5% Japan 203.5 15.2%
Russia 150.7 10.7% South Korea 135.7 10.1%
United States 126.7 9.0% India 97.2 7.2%
Colombia 92.2 6.5% Taiwan 71.5 5.3%
South Africa 82.0 5.8% Germany 53.4 4.0%
World 1413.9 World 1342.5
27
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
1. Decreaseinprice–Aresultofovercapacityduetolowerdemand.ThisisaconsequenceofslowingGDPgrowthratesinAsia,especiallyinChina,butalsoduetotheweakglobaleconomicsituations.
2. Changeinexchangerates-MiningcompaniesinRussia,Colombia,AustraliaandSouthAfricahaveacurrencyadvantage,whichenablesthemtomitigatethelowerrevenuesduetolowercoalprices.Thedollar(USD)hasstrengthenedsignificantlyagainsttheeuro(EUR)aswellinthelast13months(+21.8percent),andalsoagainsttheRussianruble(RUB),creatingfurtherpriceadvantagesforRussiancoalexporterstoEurope.
3. Freightrateshavedecreased–Freightrateshavedecreasedbyasmuchas50percent,slumpingto$5-7USDonthebenchmarkRichardsBay-Rotterdamroute,addingtolowercoalpricesatportssuchasARA.
Thesedevelopmentswillcontinueinthemid-term.Longerterm,itisimportantthatthefocusonimprovedcoaltechnologiescontinuesinordertorecognizeincreasedconsumptionintheAsianmarket,whilemitigatingairqualityconcerns.
ConclusionIn order for everyone to benefit from coal as a sustainable, reliable, and affordable energy source,internationaltradeisnecessarytoreachallmarkets.Traditionallycoalwas(andstillcanbe)asomewhatlocalresource.However,thisisn’ttrueforallcountries.Chinainparticularhasagrowingneedforcoalinordertosustainitseconomicdevelopment.Thishasledtoaccelerationingrowth(bothvolumeandshareterms)ofinternationallytradedcoal.Infact,alldevelopmentsinChinaimpactcoalmarkets.However,thefightagainstpollutionisnowadrivingforceofenergypolicy,andAsiancountriesarefollowingsuit.Chinawillcontinuetobethebiggestconsumerandimporterofcoalinthemid-tolong-termfuture,asithasbecometheirsourceofreliableenergysupportingtheir industrialandsocialprosperity.However, toensurecoalcanstillbethedependable energy source of the future in China, the coal industry needs to continue developing andimprovingcleancoaltechnology,asthiswillallowthemtocontinuelightingthewayfordevelopingcountrieswhilecomplyingwithenvironmentalregulations.
InternationalTrade:FacebookPostInternationalcoaltradeallowshumanstosharetechnologiesandmasternewenvironmentswherelittletonoenergysourcesarepresent.Coalalsoimproveslivingstandardsforbothdevelopedanddevelopingcountriesbyprovidingabundant,affordable,reliable,andincreasinglycleanelectricitytopowerhumanlives.
InternationalTrade:ElevatorSpeechMostcountriesarenotenergyself-sufficient,meaningtheinternationalcoaltradeisplayinganincreasinglysignificantroleinprovidingenergytodevelopingcountries. Theshareofcoalintheworldenergysupplyincreasedfrom25percentin1973,toalmost30percentin2014.By2040,globalcoaltradeisexpectedtogrowby40percent,duemainlytorisingcoalimportsinChinaandIndia.Traditionallycoalhasbeenalocalresource,butChina'sgrowingneedforcoaltosustainitsrapideconomicdevelopmenthasledtoaccelerationingrowthofinternationallytradedcoal.Thetopfivecoalimporters(China,Japan,Korea,India,andTaiwan)areinAsia,whilethetopfiveexporters(Indonesia,Australia,Russia,theUnitedStatesandColombia)arescatteredaroundtheglobe.Globalexportstotaled1,300megatons(MT)in2013,morethanseventimesthe185MTamount40yearsearlier.Thegrowingcoaltradetrendhasledtomassiveinvestmentsincoalinfrastructuretosecureimportsandexports.ChinaandotherdevelopingcountriesinAsiawillbethebiggestconsumersandimportersofcoalinthemid-tolong-termfuture.Thecoalindustryhasshownawillingnessto
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
28
adapttoregulationswithtechnologiessuchasscrubbersandlowNOxburners,andwillcontinuetoadapttocarryonprovidingreliableenergytonationsthatneedit.
InternationalTrade:ObjectionsandResponses
Objection:Renewablesandalternativeenergyresourceswillbeavailabletoreplacecoalgenerationgoingforwardonaglobalscale.
Response:Coalisusedinmanyapplicationswhererenewablesandalternativeenergiesdonot(orcannot)playasignificantrole:powergeneration,steelproduction;cementmanufacturing,aluminarefineries,paperproduction,chemicalandpharmaceuticalindustries,etc.Inaddition,manycountriesdonothaverenewableenergyresourcessufficienttocovertheirenergyneeds,andthereforeneedtoimportenergytohelpmeettheirrequirements.InChina,forexample,economicgrowthneedsmoreenergythantheirdomesticenergyoptionscansupply.Diversificationeffortsandtheso-calledeverythingbutcoalpolicy,willleadtobigdevelopmentsofhydropower,wind,photovoltaic(PV),nuclear,andgasuse(Citi:WorldMovingto"EverythingbutCoal",2014).However,investmentsinnewcoalgenerationcapacityandcoalgasificationplantswillalsobeneededtosupportthisgrowth.Thisiswhybothcoalandinternationaltradeareimportanttokeepworldeconomiesrunning(InternationalEnergyAgency,2015).
Objection:Althoughcoalcontinuestobeanimportantpartoftheenergymix,itisnotacleanenergythatshouldbeshippedaroundtheworldforunregulateduse.Shippingcoalrequiresfurtherenergyconsumptionandcreatesadditionalpollution.
Response:Maritimeshippingistheworld'smostcarbon-efficientformoftransportinggoods-farmoreefficientthanroadorairtransport.Yet,theindustryseekstofurtherimprovethefuelefficiencyandcarbonfootprintofitsvessels.Today'scontainershipsandvehiclecarriersenablethemovementoftremendousvolumesofgoodsacrosstheworld.Thismovementofenergyandgoodshasfueledglobaleconomicgrowthinamannerconsideredimplausibleonly50or60yearsago(WorldShippingCouncil,2015).
TheEnergyEffectCoalhasbeenacornerstoneofhumanadaptationandadvancementsincecavemenwalkedtheEarth(DepartmentofEnergy).Greeks,Romans,andChineseusedcoalasearlyas100B.C(HistoryofCoal).DuringtheRevolutionaryWar,coalwasusedtomanufacturetheweaponsthatgaveAmericaitsfreedom.Thoseuseswerebolsteredincreaseduseintransportation,suchasforsteamshipsandrailroadsintheearly1800’s(NETL).In1875,coalbegantobeusedwidelyforheatingandcookingneeds,whichfedhumaningenuityduringtheIndustrialRevolution(DepartmentofEnergy).Steelmadefromcoalbegantobeusedinconstructiontobuildstructurallysoundhomesthatprotectedpeoplefromtheelements(DepartmentofEnergy).Then,in1882,ThomasEdisoncreatedthefirstcommercialpowerplantutilizingcoalasthefuel,whichkeptpeoplesafeandproductivebylightingtheirhomeswhendarknessfell(NETL).Itisduetothisinventionthatpresently,servicessuchashospitalsandwatertreatmentfacilitiescanoperatearoundtheclock.In2014,coalprovided39percentofthetotalelectricitygeneratedacrosstheUnitedStates(U.S.EnergyInformationAdministration,2015).Thisenergyisusedtofulfillmanyofthesameneedsitdidinthe1800’s,suchasheatinghomes,providing
Tweetthis:Mostofthe
electricityin
theUnited
Statesis
generated
fromcoal
(U.S.Energy
Information
Administratio
n,2015).#FossilFuelsRule
#Coal#NaturalGas
#Oil
29
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
electricityforlight,beingusedtocreatesteel,andtosupporteconomicgrowthatalltimesoftheday.Otherfossilfuels,suchasnaturalgasandoil,alongwithnuclearenergysharesimilarstoriesofimprovingthequalityofeverydaylifeforpeople,fromasurvivalandcomfort/productivitystandpoint.
Evenwithatrackrecordshowingcoalandotherfossilfuelshavebenefittedcivilization,environmentalistsclaimfossilfuelsareaharmtosociety,withcommonstatementssuchas:
• Theimpactsoffossilfuelcombustionasanenergysourcenegateanybenefitstotheimprovementofhumanwell-beingandtheenvironment.
• Fossilfuelsareaninefficientandexpensivealternativetorenewableformsofenergy.
• Governmentsmustfindawaytoprovideaccesstosuchrenewablesourcesofenergyastheonlymeanstoimproveaccesstoenergy
However,asmentionedearlier,throughouthistorycoalandotherfossilfuelshaveperformedquitewellatimprovingourlives.LifeexpectancyandrisingGDPhaveoccurredoverthelast200yearsasadirectbenefitoftheuseoffossilfuels,asshownbelow(Goklany,2015).
Isitworthittodenyaccesstotheseresourceswithmandatesandincreasinglystrictregulation?Arerenewableenergyresourcesuptothetaskofprovidingreliableandinexpensivegeneration?
Reliabilityisakeyaspectofprovidingadequateelectricsupply.“Powerallowsbusinessownersandemployeestoincreaseworkinghours.Thisnotonlymeansthattheycanopentheirshopearlierandstayopenlater,butthatbusinessownerscancompleteotherworkrelatedtoowningandoperatingabusinessbeforeandafterdaylighthours(Knoth,2013).” Intheabsenceofcosteffective,industriallyscaledenergystorage,energysourcesmustbeavailablelocally,andinsufficientquantitiestosupplypeople’sneedsthroughouttheyear,day,ornight.Unfortunately,thewinddoesnotalwaysblow,andthesundoesnotalwaysshine,butcoal,oil,andnuclearfuelscanbestockpiledforuseatanytime.Mostrenewablesourcesareunabletosupportsuchaclaim,andinsteadrequireback-upbyothersources,oftenfossilandnuclear.Thesecostsarerarelyfactoredintothetotalcostofproduction,butdirectlyimpactthetotalcosttotheconsumer.Intermsofcostona$/MWhlevel,coaland
Tweetthis:International
coaltrade
brings
affordable
energyto
countriesthat
needit!#worlddevelopment
#improvelives
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
30
naturalgasarestillthecheapestformsofenergygenerationavailable,asdisplayedbelow(WorldEnergyCouncil,2013):
Itshouldbeofcommoninteresttosupporttheexpansionofinexpensive,reliable,andsustainableenergytobenefitthehumanconditioninallareasoftheworld.Researchhasshownaccesstoreliableandinexpensiveenergyresourcesdramaticallyincreasesaccesstocleanwater,healthservices,foodproduction,transportation,employmentandtechnology.Allofthesefactorsimprovelivingconditions,lifeexpectancy,andhumanity’sabilitytoadapttoachangingplanet.Lowenergycosts,highenergyreliability,andtechnologicaladvancementhaveallbeenmadepossibleduetofossilfueluse.
TheEnergyEffect:FacebookPostEnergyfromcoalandotherfossilfuelshaveexistedasatestamenttohumaningenuitysince100B.C(HistoryofCoal).Whenpeoplewantedtotravelfurther,acarrunningonoilwasinventedthatallowedthemtodoso.Thefirstpowerplantbuilt,whichranoncoal,sparkedanideathatlightcouldexistineveryhome,evenatnight.Presentday,naturalgasfurnacesareburninginpeople’sbasementshelpingthemlivecomfortablyin–sub-zerotemperatures.Fossilfuelsareheretohelpsociety,andhavebeendoingsoformorethantwothousandyears.
31
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
TheEnergyEffect:ElevatorSpeechFossilfuelshavebeenusedtobenefitmankindsince100B.C(HistoryofCoal).Coalspecificallyhaspoweredvariousformsoftransportation,aswellasprovidedheat,steel,andelectricity.However,fossilfuelssuchasnaturalgas,andoil,aswellasnuclearenergy,shareasimilarhistoryofassistingmankindthroughdailylife.Thestoragecapabilityofsomefossilfuelsallowsthemtobeutilizedevenifrealtimeshipmentsofthefuelarenotoccurring.Thisabilitytostockpileenergyresourcesensuresthelightsstayonatalltimesandessentialserviceslikehospitalsandwatertreatmentfacilitiesprovideserviceswhenthey’reneeded.Thestoragecapabilityoffossilfuelsalsomeanstheyareportable,allowingustotransferthemtolocationswheretheyareneeded.Therelativelyinexpensivenatureoffossilfuelsalsoisaclearbenefitforpeople,allowingustoaffordablypowerourcarsandheatourhomes.
Unfortunately,windpoweronlyworkswhenthewindblows,andsolarpoweronlyworkswhenthesunshines,andwhenmandates,subsidies,fulllifecycles,andrequirementsforfirmingpowerandnewtransmissionareincludedincosts,bothareclearlyfarmoreexpensivethanfossilfuel-basedgeneration(WorldEnergyCouncil,2013).Insteadoflookingtoreplacefossilfuelswithlessreliableandmoreexpensivesourcesofgeneration,weshouldbelookingaheadtowhatfossilfuelscouldpossiblydoformankindinthefuture.
TheEnergyEffect:ObjectionsandResponses
Objection:Fossilfuelshavebeenusefulinthepast,butnowneedtobereplacedbyrenewablesources.
Response:Onekeyadvantageoffossilfuelsistheirabilitytobestored.Acommerciallyviablebatterytostoresolarandwindenergyhasnotbeencreatedyet.Therefore,coal,oil,andnuclearmustbestockpiledforwhenthesunisnotshiningandthewindisnotblowingtoallowforreliablegeneration24/7/365.
Objection:Renewableshavecomedowninpricetorivalthatoffossilfuels.
Response:Thoughrenewableshavedroppedinpriceovertheyears,nuclear,coalandnaturalgasarestillamongstthecheapestenergysourceswehaveintheworld.Renewablesarecurrentlyonlyableto“compete”becausefederalandstatemandatesforcethemintotheenergymix.Thenmassivefederalandstatesubsidiescoverasubstantialportionoftheircosts,meaninginmanycases,renewableproducerscanlosemoneyontheenergygeneration,butstillmakemoneyoverallbecauseofgovernmentsupport.Theonlyrenewablesourcethatrivalsfossilfuelswithoutsubsidiesishydroelectric(WorldEnergyCouncil,2013).
Objection:Fossilfuelsarereducingourqualityoflifewiththeirpollution.Response:Fossilfuelshaveactuallyincreasedandimprovedourqualityoflife.Theymakepersonaltransportationbycarpossibleforlongdistances,theyprovidereliablepowerduetotheirstorageproperties,andtheyareinexpensiveincomparisontorenewables.Fossilfuelshavebeenafoundationalaspectofmanyofthetechnological,medical,andinfrastructureimprovementsthatmakehumanlivesmorecomfortableandsafe.Priortothewidespreaduseoffossilfuels,humanslivedmuchshorterlives,thatwerefraughtwithmanymorediseases,muchlessreliablefoodandmedicineresources,andwereseriouslythreatenedbychangingweathereveryyear.
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
32
MiningImpacts,MountaintopandSurfaceMiningSurface/Mountaintopminingremovestheoverburden(surfacevegetation,soil,androcks)tominethecoalseamunderneath.Therecoveryrateisupto90percentduringtheminingprocess,whichisamuchhigherrecoveryratethanmostformsofminingcanpromise(APECSEC,2015).Thesetypesofminingmethodsmakeupabout70percentofU.S.coal.TheNationalMiningAssociationestimatesthedirectvalueofsurfaceminingactivityatmorethan$5billion.Billionsmorecomefromthepurchaseofminingequipment,costsforcoaltransportation,useofengineersandconsultants,andtaxpaymentstogovernment(NationalMiningAssociation,2009).Foreverycoalminingjob,anadditional3.5jobsarecreatedelsewhereintheeconomy(NMA,2015).Coalminingsupportsmorethan800,000jobs,includingover80,000coalminersonthejobandearningapaycheck,sotheycansupportthemselvesandtheirfamilies(NMA,NMAWarnsNewPowerPlantRulesMeansHigherUtilityBills,2013)(NMA,U.S.CoalMineEmploymentbyState,Region,andMethodofMining-2013,2015)
Surfaceminingoperationsaloneprovideenoughenergytopowermorethan25millionAmericanhomes(NationalMiningAssociation,2009).Otherprosforsurfaceminingincludehavingplentifulstrategicreserves,highrecoveryrate,andstoragecapacity.Itisalsooneofthesafestindustriesinthecountry,operatingunderlocal,state,andfederallawsincludingthe1977SurfaceMiningControlandReclamationAct(SMCRA).Inaddition,afterminingisfinished,coalcompaniesarerequiredtoplaceabondthatwillcoverallreclamationcostsandensurethatthesitewillberestored(APECSEC,2015).Listedonthefollowingpagearepicturesofbeforeandafterreclamation:
ConclusionSurface/Mountaintopminingiscosteffective,providesahighrecoveryrate,producesthousandsofjobsdirectlyandindirectly,addstaxpaymentstogovernments,andisthesafest
Tweetthis:Surfaceminingoperationsaloneprovideenoughenergytopowermorethan25millionAmericanhomes(APECSEC,2015).#NoBlackOuts#CoalEqualsReliability
Tweetthis:Production
andusageare
up,yetthe
worldstill
hasn’trunout
of#fossilfuels
33
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
methodofmining.Everyenergymixwillhaveprosandconsforeachsupplysource.However,withlawsandrequirementsinplacetohelppreventcontamination,orfailuretoreclaim,surfaceminingofcoalremainsacosteffectivemethod.Overall,coalminingishelpingtoproducemorejobssafely,whilealsoboostingeconomicgrowththroughoutthecountry.
MiningImpacts,MountaintopandSurfaceMiningFacebookPostSurface/Mountaintopmininghasgoodstrategicreserves,goodrecoveryrate,storagecapacity,andisoneofthesafestindustriesinthecountry.Foreverycoalminingjob,anadditional3.5jobsarecreatedelsewhereintheeconomy(NationalMiningAssociation,2009).Coalminingkeepsabout800,000peopleemployedincludinganestimated80,000coalminersonthejobandearningapaycheck,allowingthemtosupportthemselvesandtheirfamilies(NMA,2015).Surfaceminingoperationsaloneprovideenoughenergytopowermorethan25millionAmericanhomes(NationalMiningAssociation,2010).
MiningImpacts,MountaintopandSurfaceMiningElevatorSpeechSurfaceandmountaintopmininghasbeendescribedaswasteful,environmentallyharmful,andcostly.But,inreality,recoveryratesduringsurfaceminingareapproximately90percent,whichisamuchhigherrecoveryratethanmostformsofminingcanpromise.Inaddition,afterminingisfinished,coalcompaniesarerequiredtoplaceabondthatwillcoverallreclamationcostsandensurethatthesitewillberestored(APECSEC,2015).TheNationalMiningAssociationestimatesthedirectvalueofsurfaceminingactivityatmorethan$5billion.Billionsmorecomefromthepurchaseofminingequipment,costsforcoaltransportation,useofengineersandconsultants,aswellastaxpaymentstogovernment(NationalMiningAssociation,2009).Foreverycoalminingjob,anadditional3.5jobsarecreatedelsewhereintheeconomy(NMA,2015).Coalminingkeepsabout800,000people,includinganestimated125,000coalminers,onthejobandearninganaverageannualwageofapproximately$85,000.Thesetypesofwell-payingcareershelpindustryworkerstosupportfamiliesandcommunities(NationalMiningAssociation,2010).
Coalisthelifebloodofourdomesticenergysupply.Surfaceminingmethodsmakeupabout70percentofU.S.coal.Surfaceminingisanefficient,environmentallyresponsible,andeconomicmeansofprovidingsafeandreliablepower.
MiningImpacts,Mountaintop&SurfaceMining:Objections&ResponsesObjection:Removaloftheoverburdentoextractthecoalfromtheearthtakesatollontheenvironment.
Response:TheSMCRA(SurfaceMiningControlandReclamationActof1977)requiresminingcompaniestoleavereclaimedminesinbettershapethanbeforetheybeganmining.Beforeminingevenbegins,managersmustdecidehowtheywilluseminelandsandpreparedetailedplansandenvironmentalimpactsassessmentstojustifythatuse.Forexample:airports,housingdevelopments,golfcourses,etc.areoftenbuilt.Inotherareas,minesarereturnedtoanaturalstate.Today,coalcompaniesarerequiredtoplaceafinancialbondthatwillensuremineswillberestored,evenifthecompanyexperiencesfinancialdifficulties,ordoesnotproperlyreclaimaminesite.Thesebondsarenotreleaseduntilafterithasbeenfullyreclaimedandmonitoredforasmuchasadecade,dependingonthelocationofthemine.
Objection:Potentialwatercontamination.
Response:Themineisrequiredtoensurewaterqualityismaintainedviaon-sitemonitoring.Ifwaterdoesbecomecontaminated,theareaiscloselycontrolled(pondsaresealed)untilthecontaminantsbecomeasolidthatcanbesafelyremoved.Oncetheremovalprocessiscomplete,priorcontaminationisundetectable.
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
34
Objection:ThenegativeperceptionofSurface/Mountaintopminingwiththelocalcommunities.
Response:Accordingtowww.facesofcoal.org,about70percentofU.S.coalisminedusingvarioussurfaceminingmethods(EnergyandSecurityFederationforAmericanCoal).TheNationalMiningAssociationestimatesthedirectvalueofsurfaceminingactivityatmorethan$5billion.Billionsmorecomefromthepurchaseofminingequipment,costsforcoaltransportation,useofengineersandconsultants,andtaxpaymentstogovernment(NationalMiningAssociation,2009).Jobsintheminingindustryprovideaverageannualsalariesofover$85,000,meaningminesactuallyhelpraiseaveragewagesintheirarea.Notonlydoesthistypeofminingprovidejobstothelocalcommunity,itissafe,andlessexpensivethanothermethodsofmining.
NaturalResources:ResourceDepletionvs.CreationWhenwillwerunoutofFossilFuels?USAToday,6/28/2014:TheWorldHas53.3YearsofOilLeft
TheIndependent,5/16/2014:UKto‘RunOutofOil,GasandCoal’in5Years
Headlineslikethesecaptureourattention.Fromayoungage,wearetaughtthatfossilfuelsarefiniteresourcesandatonepointtheworldwillrunout.Accordingtosomesources,theendpointcouldbeasearlyas2088(Ecotricity):
Suchdoomsdaywarningsarecontradictedbyreportsonhowmuchreservesareleftintheworld.
Energy Reserves over Time
35
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
“…asofJan.1,2010,provedworldoilreservesasreportedbytheOil&GasJournal,wereestimatedat1,354billionbarrels–12billionbarrels(about1percent)higherthantheestimatefor2009(Discovery,2010).”
Estimatingworldwidereservesisadifficulttaskthattreatstheknownreservesasstaticfigures-apracticalamountofwhatiseasilyextractedandfinanciallyfeasiblethroughcurrentconventionalmethods.However,theseestimatesareneglectingtheamazingcapabilityofhumaningenuity.Weareaspeciesofinventorsandproblemsolvers.NewtechnologiesarecontinuallybeingdevelopedtoaccessandretrieveresourcesfromtheEarththatwerepreviouslyeitherfinancially,orgeologically,difficulttoobtain.
“Wedon’tbelievethatprovenreservesaloneareanappropriatemeasureforjudgingtotalresourceavailabilityinthelongrun.Forexample,despitecontinuedproduction,globalreserveshaven’tdeclinedhistorically(becauseof)exploration,discoveryandreservereplacement,”statedLindaDoman,aninternationalforecastingexpertwithEIA(Discovery,2010).
AdvancesinTechnologyTechnologicaladvancesinhowweextractfossilfuelshavemadesignificantimpactsintheindustry.Theseadvancesaremostnotableinnaturalgasproductionandexploration.Advancesinhorizontaldrillingtechniquesareincreasingproductionatanastonishingrate.Beforethehorizontaldrillingboomaround2009,naturalgasexplorationanddevelopmentinPennsylvaniawassteadywithoperatorsdrillingafewthousandverticalwells.Before2009,wellsinPennsylvaniaproducedaround500millioncubicfeetperday.Asdrillingshiftedfromverticaltohorizontalmethods,gasproductionquadrupledwithwellsinthesameregionnowaveraging3.5billioncubicfeetperdayin2011(EIA).
Thesametechnologicaladvancesusedfornaturalgasarealsohavinganimpactonthecoalindustry.InMarch,2014,BritishscientistsannouncedadiscoveryofmassivecoaldepositfindundertheNorthSea.Seismictestsshowtheseabedcontainsupto20layersofcoalwithanestimateofupto23trilliontonnesofreserves.Energycompaniesknewonshoredepositsextendedoffshore,butwereuncertaintowhatscaleanddeemedinaccessible.Usingtechnologiesnowinplaceforoilandgasdrilling,thesepreviouslyinaccessibledepositsarebeingmovedtoaccessiblestatus,andthereforeprovidingenoughresourcestopowertheUKforyearstocome(UKDailyMail,2014).
Notonlyarewegettingbetterataccessingtheseresources,we’realsomoreefficientusingthem.Greatstrideshavebeenmadeintheautomotivesectorwithregardstofuelconsumption.Vehiclefuel
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
36
consumptionin1975averagedlessthan15milespergallon(mpg).Fast-forwardto2010andvehiclesnowaveragearound27mpg(Pewtrusts,2011)
Evenmorefascinatingiswhatliesaheadforthecoalindustry.Alotofmediafocushasbeenoncleancoaltechnologies(CCT)andcarboncaptureandstorage(CCS)toincreaseoilproductionviaenhancedoilrecovery(EOR).1Asthesetechnologiesprovetobecomemorereliableandfinanciallyfeasible,thereismoreresearchunderwayforevenmoreviablesolutions.UndergroundCoalGasification(UCG)mayprovetobeanotherkeysolutionforfuturesustainability.UCGisappliedtoinsitucoalseams,particularlydeepdepositsthatareuneconomictoextractviatraditionalmethods.Usingthesamechemicalreactionsassurfacegasifiers,theseseamscanbeconvertedtosyngastofuelelectricgenerators.CombiningUCGwithCCScouldverywellbethekeytoextendingthelifeofreservesworldwide(SME,2015)
TheFutureisinOurHandsWemustcontinuetomaketechnologicalandengineeringadvancementsinaccessingandusingfossilfuels.ThisphilosophyisbestexpressedinaReportoftheDepartmentoftheInteriorfrom1919,whichdiscussedthefutureofournation’snaturalresources.Nearlyahundredyearslater,wearestilldiscussingthesesameissuesandcomingupwiththesameconclusions.
“Toknowwhatwehaveandwhatwecandowithit–andwhatweshouldnotdowithit,also!–isapolicyofwisdom,apolicyoflastingprogress.Andinfurtheranceofsuchapolicythefirststepistoknowourresources–ournationalwealthinthingsandintheirpossibilities;thesecondstepistoknowtheiravailabilityforimmediateuse;thethirdstepistoguardthemagainstwasteeitherthroughignoranceorwantonness;andthefourthstepistoprolongtheirlifebyinventionanddiscovery.”(DepartmentoftheInterior,1920)
NaturalResources-Depletionvs.Creation:FacebookPostTechnologicaladvancementsprovideawinningscenarioforfossilfuels:theyhaveledtoincreasesinamount of estimated recoverable reserves, increases in production, and increases in usageefficiency.
1TheprocessofenhancedoilrecoveryisdescribedontheOfficeofFossilEnergy,U.S.DepartmentofEnergy’swebsite-http://energy.gov/fe/science-innovation/oil-gas-research/enhanced-oil-recovery
37
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
NaturalResources-Depletionvs.Creation:ElevatorSpeechFordecades,themediahasbeenreportingtheworldisrunningoutoffossilfuels.Yet,asourtechnologyandabilityimproves,morereservesarebeingdiscoveredacrosstheglobe.Wecannowaccessreservespreviouslydeemedtechnicallyoreconomicallyunminable.Wecandrilldeeperandminefurtherthaneverbefore.Wehaveimprovedrecoveryandaretremendouslyefficientinusingnaturalresources.Mostimportantly,wearemorecreativeincomingupwithmethodsofkeepingourresourcessustainable.Whatoncesoundedlikesciencefiction–horizontaldrilling,carboncapture,andundergroundcoalgasification–isnowbecomingareality.Thankstotechnology,insteadofrunningout,weareaddingdecadestothelifespanoffossilfuels.
EPARegulationsofAirborneEmissionsTheCleanPowerPlan(CPP)hasbeenpromotedbygovernmentofficialsasbeinga“Landmarkactiontoprotectpublichealth,reduceenergybillsforhouseholdsandbusinesses,createAmericanjobs,andbringcleanpowertocommunitiesacrossthecountry(OfficeofthePressSecretaryoftheWhiteHouse,2015).”But,whentheCPPisanalyzedonacloserlevelwebegintoaskourselves…aretheseresultsplausible?Beforedelvingintothis,alistofmainpointssummarizingtheCPPhasbeendisplayedbelow:
• OnAugust3rd,2015,GinaMcCarthyreleasedthefinalCPP.TheCPPexpressedthebestsystemofemissionreduction(BSER)intheformoftwosource-specificcarbondioxideemissionratesforpowerplants–oneperformancerateforcoalsteamandoilsteamplants,andoneperformanceratefornaturalgasplants(SidleyAustinLLP,2015).
• TheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)GreenhouseGasUtilityRegulationsconsistsoftwoparts,whichareasfollows:1.)StandardsofPerformanceforGreenhouseGasEmissionsforNew,ModifiedandReconstructedSources
o CleanAirAct(CAA)section111(b)establishstandardsforcarbondioxideemissionratesfornewandmodifiedenergygeneratingunits(EGUs)(SidleyAustinLLP,2015).
2.) CarbonPollutionEmissionGuidelinesforExistingStationarySourceso CleanAirAct(CAA)section111(d)establishesrequirementsforeachstateforperformance
forcarbondioxideforexistingfossilfuelfiredEGUs(SidleyAustinLLP,2015).
• Overall,thenationalcarbondioxide(CO2)reductiontargetincreasedfrom30percentbelow2005levelsby2030intheproposedrule,to32percent(SidleyAustinLLP,2015).
• TheCAAincentivizesrenewableenergyanddemandsizeenergyefficiency.Thisrulediscouragestheuseofnaturalgasasanalternativetomeetthestringent32percentreductiontargetof2030(SidleyAustinLLP,2015).
• Theruleisdesignedtopromotezerocarbonrenewableenergyandenergyefficiency(SidleyAustinLLP,2015).
• Compliancebeginsin2022,thoughEPAhasinstitutedanew“CleanEnergyIncentiveProgram”thatrewardsstateswithemissionscreditsfortakingactionspriorto2022(SidleyAustinLLP,2015).
• Individualstatetargetsaresignificantlychangedfromtheproposedrule.AccordingtoEPA,thischangehelpsto“rebalance”stategoalsandmaketherulemoreequitable(SidleyAustinLLP,2015).
• Comparedtotheproposedrule,33stateshavelessstringenttargetsand16stateshavemorestringenttargets(seegraphicbelow).However,itisimportanttocomparefinaltargetstobaselineprojectionstounderstandandcomparestatecompliancechallenges.(Grant,2015).
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
38
Fromapublichealthstandpoint,airpollutantsundertheCPPfallunderthreecategoriesonhowthey’reregulated.Section111doesnotapplytoairpollutantsthatarenotregulatedasacriteriapollutantundersection108,orasahazardousairpollutant(HAP)undersection112.Hazardousairpollutantsarechemicalsthatareknown,orsuspected,tocausecancerorotherserioushealtheffects,suchasreproductiveproblemsorbirthdefects,andthatadverselyaffecttheenvironment.Othercriteriapollutantssuchassulfurdioxidefallundersection108.Regulationsundersection111areseparatedintotwoparts:(b)appliesonlytoairpollutionsforwhichtheexistingsourcewouldberegulatedundersection111ifitwereanewsourceand(d)establishesemissionguidelinesforexistingsources.CO2isnotacriteriapollutantregulatedundersection108,oraHAPundersection112.CO2fallsunder111asapollutantthatmaybeharmfultopublichealthorwelfare(EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,2015).ThefocusforreducingcarbondioxideemissionsisthatburningcoalandnaturalgasforenergyemitsCO2,whichisthoughttoleadtoglobalclimatechange.CO2emissionsaremeasuredingigatons(GT)andoccurinnatureasfollows:plants120GT,oceans90GT,andhuman–fromfossilfueluse–9GT.Afteritisemitted,CO2isre-absorbedbyoceans,forests,andother"carbonsinks"whichnaturallyabsorbexcessCO2fromtheatmosphere.“About50percentoftheCO2releasedfromtheburningoffossilfuelsandotherhumanactivitieshasalreadybeenre-absorbedbytheearth’scarbonsinks”(ProCon,2015).Therefore,withoutclearscientificprooffromtheEPAthatCO2isactuallyknowntoharmpeopleortheenvironment,arulehasbeenissuedrestrictingit.
EPAclaimsthattheCleanPowerPlanwillreduceenergybillsforhouseholdsandbusinesses,andcreateAmericanjobs.Ascanbeseeninthechartbelow,whichshowsarelativereferenceofwherestatesfallintermsofprogressmeetingtheCPPrestrictions,somestateswillneedtospendvastlymorethanotherstomeettheemissiongoals.
Tweetthis:TheClean
PowerPlan
willcost
227,000
hardworking
bluecollar
peopletheir
jobby2030
(Dayaratna,
2015).#CPPReality
#SupportJobs
39
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
40
Statesthatrelyheavilyoncoal,inregionssuchasWyoming,theSoutheast,andtheMidwest,arerequiredtomakethemoststringentcuts.Thesestatesrelyoncoaltopowertheirinfrastructure.Iftheutilitiesinthesestatesneedtoreplacetheircurrentgenerationwithnewsources,thecapitalcostsofdoingsowillflowdirectlytotheratepayer.Inaddition,ifstateswantedtoretrofitoldercoalornaturalgasboilerstobecompliantwiththerule,theCPPlanguagemakesitnearimpossibletodoso.
(Association,2015)
41
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
(Association,2015)
TheCPPrestrictsCO2emissionsfromnaturalgasandcoalfiredfacilitiesasfollows:
GenerationType Section111(b)(NEW) Section111(d)(Existing)
Coalfiredpowerplant 1,400poundsCO2/MWh 1,305poundsCO2/MWh
Naturalgascombinedcycle 1,000poundsCO2/MWh. 771poundsCO2/MWh
TheserestrictionsshowthatexistingcoalandnaturalgasplantsmustoutputlessCO2thanthenewesttechnologyavailable.CCSwouldbeanoptionifitwereprovenonacommercialscale.Howeverithasnotbeen,andifitdoesgetthereitwillbeextremelycostlyfortheutilities,andtheratepayerstoconstruct(Allison,2014).
IntermsofAmericanjobs,theCPPwillhaveasignificantnegativeimpactonmanufacturingandminingstates.WorkforcesinstatessuchasAlabama,Georgia,andWisconsinareprojectedtoseeapproximatelya4to6percentdecreaseoftotalmanufacturingjobsbyyear2023(Dayaratna,2015).AcrosstheentireUnitedStates,itisprojectedthat500,000jobswillbelostinmanufacturingduetotheCPP(Dayaratna,2015).Thisincludestheeliminationofmorethan45percentofcoal-miningjobs,andatotalincomelossperpersonof$7,000(Dayaratna,2015).EconomistspredictthatthenewCPPregulationswillcreate273,000jobsoverall(IEC,2015).Therefore,overalltheCPPendsupbeingabaddealforAmericanworkersastheseprojectionsindicateanetjoblossof227,000.
Intermsofprovidingcleanpower,yestheCPPsupportswindandsolarprojects,whichmayprovide“cleanpower”whilegenerating.Howeverthisdoesnottakeintoaccountthecarboncreatedwhenminingtherareearthmetalsfortheirproduction,orrefiningthesteelusedintheirconstruction,orthespinningreservepower–typicallyfossilfuels–thatisrequiredtofirm,orbackup,renewableenergywhenthewinddoesnotblowandthesundoesnotshine.Therefore,windandsolarcannotclaimtobecarbonfreesourceseither.
TheCPPmayreduceCO2emissions,butotherwiseitappearsbenefitsoftheCPPlistedbygovernmentofficialsare,atbest,speculative.ItisnotknowniftheCPPwillhaveanyeffectonpublichealth.AstheCPPwillendupcostingmanyfamiliesmoreontheirutilitybills,andisprojectedtoresultinnetjoblossesaroundthecountry,overallimpactsonhealthandwell-beingarelikelytobeprofoundlynegative.
EPARegulationsofAirborneEmissions:FacebookPostEPAclaimsthattheCleanPowerPlanwillreduceenergybillsforhouseholdsandbusinesses,andcreateAmericanjobs.But,ifyouliveinmajorcoalpoweredstatethiswillnotbetrue,ascostsforthesenewgeneratingsourceseventuallyarepassedontoratepayers.Jobgrowth?Tryjobloss.About500,000manufacturingjobsbytheendof2030areexpectedtobeeliminatedduetotheCleanPowerPlan(Dayaratna,2015).
EPARegulationsofAirborneEmissions:ElevatorSpeechTheCleanPowerPlan’s(CPP)goalistoreduceCO2emissionsfrompointsourcessuchascoalandgas-firedpowerplantsbypushingstatestowardsrenewablesourcesofenergy.Bydoingso,governmentofficialsclaimthatpublichealthwillimprove,energybillswillbereduced,andAmericanjobswillbecreated(OfficeofthePressSecretaryoftheWhiteHouse,2015).However,whenanalyzingtheCPP,noneofthesedesirableeffectsseemplausible.TheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)describesCO2asacompoundthatmayormaynotcauseharmtotheenvironmentorpeople,meaningthattheEPAdoesnotpossessfirmproofofanyactualharmduetoitspresence(EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,2015).Intermsofenergybills,utilitieswillhavetospendbillionsofdollarstoconstructwindandsolarprojectstoreplacegasandcoal-fueledgenerators.Utilitiesareallowedtorecoupcostsassociatedwiththeseprojectsfromratepayers,whichwillmostlikelycorrelatetoanincreaseinelectricitycostsforthem,notadecrease.Lastly,itisestimatedthat
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
42
500,000manufacturingjobswillbelostduetotheCPP,withonlyanincreaseofapproximately273,000jobsfromthebill(Dayaratna,2015)(IEC,2015).Thisresultsinanetdecreaseof227,000jobsacrosstheUnitedStates.TheCPPisastepbackforAmericansociety;bothfromanemploymentandeconomicsstandpoint,withoutanyconcreteevidenceofincreasedhealthbenefits.
PollutioninChinaChinadoeshaveapollutionproblem,andtheworldisurgingthemtoaddressit.Chinaisamajorcontributortoglobalgreenhousegasemissions,andwithcoalrepresentingabout70percentoftheirenergyproduction(InstituteforEnergyResearch,2015),theuseofcoalisgettingaverycloselook.InNovemberof2014,ChinaandtheU.S.announcedanagreementinwhichChinesePresidentXiJinpingpromisedhiscountry’sCO2emissionswouldpeakaround2030(BloombergNews,2015).
However,unliketheU.S.,Chinacontinuestobuildnewcoalpowerplants.“Chinaadded39gigawattsofcoal-fueledcapacityin2014.Thatisequivalenttothree1,000megawattunitseveryfourweeks.Inaddition,Chinaisexpectedtoaddtheequivalentofanew600-megawattplantevery10daysforthenext10years(InstituteforEnergyResearch,2015).”China’scoalgenerationcapacityiscurrentlytwicethatoftheUnitedStates,butisprojectedtobefourtimesasmuchby2040(InstituteforEnergyResearch,2015).Chinaisachievingthisbyusing“ultra-supercritical”technologyinitsnewcoalplants,whileshuttingdownsmallerlessefficientplants.Ultra-supercriticaltechnologyrunscoalboilersattemperaturesabove1,100oFandatsupercriticalpressurestoensureoptimalsteamcycleefficiency.Thismeanslesscoalisneededtocreatethesameamountofenergyasatypicalpulverizedcoalboiler.Inaddition,ultra-supercriticalplantshaveloweremissions,lesssolidwastetodisposeof,reducedwateruse,andloweroperatingcosts(AmericanElectricPower,2011).AccordingtoSophieLu,aBeijing-basedanalystfromBloombergNewEnergyFinance,theultra-supercriticalcoalplantswillproduceabout90percentfewerpollutants,suchasdustandsulfurdioxide(SO2)perkilowatt-hourofelectricitygenerated(BloombergNews,2015).
Inthefaceofmountingpressureconcerningpollutionandglobalwarming,Chinaisnotturningitsbackoncoal.Infact,theyareinvestingincoaltechnologytofindwaystocontinuetousethecheap,abundantresource,butinamoreenvironmentallyfriendlyway.CoalisprojectedtoremainthedominantfuelsourceinChinafordecadestocome,withthehelpofcontinuingimprovementsincoaltechnology(InstituteforEnergyResearch,2015).
PollutioninChina:FacebookPostUltra-supercriticalplantshaveloweremissions,lesssolidwastetodisposeof,reducedwateruse,andloweroperatingcoststhantraditionalcoalplants(AmericanElectricPower,2011).Chinahasadded39GWsofcoal-fueledgenerationin2014alone,theequivalentofthree1,000megawattunitseveryfourweeks,muchofitusingtheseadvancedtechnologies(InstituteforEnergyResearch,2015).Newer,cleancoaltechnologiessuchastheultra-supercriticalcoalplantsallowforacleaneratmosphere,whilealsosecuringenergyreliability.
PollutioninChina:ElevatorSpeech
Tweetthis:Ultra-supercriticalcoalplantswillproduce90%fewerpollutants,producelesssolidwaste,reducewateruse,andhaveloweroperatingcosts(AmericanElectricPower,2011).#Coalcares#Thefutureishere
43
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
Chinaisaddressingitspollutionissuesresponsiblybyretiringolder,lessefficientcoalboilers,andreplacingthemwithnewcoalboilers!Chinahasadded39GWsofcoalfiredgenerationin2014alone,theequivalentofthree1,000megawattunitseveryfourweeks.Inaddition,Chinaisprojectedtoaddtheequivalentofanew600-megawattpowerplantevery10daysforthenext10years(InstituteforEnergyResearch,2015).Cleancoaltechnologyhasmadeseriousadvancementsinthepast20years.Oneofthesetechnologicaladvancementsisultra-supercriticalboilers,whichhaveloweremissions,lesssolidwastetodisposeof,reducedwateruse,andloweroperatingcoststhantraditionalcoalplants(AmericanElectricPower,2011).Inaddition,ultra-supercriticalboilersstillprovidethereliabilitythatfossilfuelsareknownforinanenergyportfolio.Chinaisrefusingtogiveuptheirsourceofreliablegeneration,whilealsoworkingtomeettheiremissiongoals.Withnewer,cleaner,coaltechnologiessuchastheultra-supercriticalcoalplants,andreasonableregulations,asimilargenerationportfoliocouldbeestablishedintheUnitedStates,onethatallowsforacleaneratmosphere,whilealsosecuringenergyreliability.
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
44
WorksCitedAllison,A.(2014,February3).CarbonCaptureandSequestration-ExpensiveandUnproven.RetrievedfromAdvancingtheworldofPetroleumGeosciences:http://www.aapg.org/publications/blogs/energy-policy/article/articleid/12373/carbon-capture-and-sequestration%C3%A2%E2%82%AC%E2%80%9Cexpensive-and-unproven
AmericanCoalitionforCleanCoalElectricity.(2015).FrequentlyAskedQuestions.RetrievedAugust5,2015,fromamericaspower.org:http://www.americaspower.org/faq
AmericanElectricPower.(2011,January).Ultra-SupercriticalGeneration:IncreasedEfficiencywithImprovedEnvironmentalPerformance.Retrievedfromswepco.com:https://www.swepco.com/global/utilities/lib/docs/info/projects/TurkPlant/supercriticalfactsheet.pdf
APECSEC.(2015,February25).ProsandConsofStripMining.RetrievedfromAsia-PacificEconomicsBlog:http://apecsec.org/pros-and-cons-of-strip-mining/
Asia-PacificEconomicsBlog.(2015).ProsandConsofHydroelectricity.Retrievedfromhttp://apecsec.org/pros-and-cons-of-hydroelectricity/
AssociationofAmericanRailroads.(2015).ClassIRailroadStatistics.RetrievedfromAssociationofAmericanRailroads:https://www.aar.org/Documents/Railroad-Statistics.pdf
AssociationofAmericanRailroads.(2015).RailroadsandCoal.Retrievedfromhttps://www.aar.org/BackgroundPapers/Railroads%20and%20Coal.pdf
Association,E.V.(2015).EPA'sCleanPowerPlan-AnEconomicImpactAnalysis.RetrievedfromNationalMiningAssociation:http://nma.org/attachments/article/2372/11.13.15%20NMA_EPAs%20Clean%20Power%20Plan%20%20An%20Economic%20Impact%20Analysis.pdf
BloombergNews.(2015,April19).Here’sWhatChinaClosingCoal-PowerPlantsMeansforEmissions.RetrievedfromBllombergBusiness:http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-04-19/here-s-what-china-closing-coal-power-plants-means-for-emissions
BP.(2015).EnergyOutlook2035.RetrievedfromEnergyEconomics:http://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/energy-economics/statistical-review-of-world-energy/downloads.html
BPGlobal.(2014).Coalreserves.RetrievedJuly20,2015,fromBP:http://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/about-bp/energy-economics/statistical-review-of-world-energy/review-by-energy-type/coal/coal-reserves.html
Catlett,R.(2014,January14).How“Green”isWindandSolarPower?RetrievedJuly20,2015,fromMediaTrackers:http://mediatrackers.org/montana/2014/01/14/green-wind-solar-power
CATOInstitute.(2014,November13).TheOneStatisticClimateCatastrophistsDon’tWantYoutoKnow.RetrievedJuly20,2015,fromCATOInstitute:http://www.cato.org/blog/one-statistic-climate-catastrophists-dont-want-you-know
Citi:WorldMovingto"EverythingbutCoal".(2014,November26).RetrievedfromMacroBusiness:http://www.macrobusiness.com.au/2014/11/citi-world-moving-to-everything-but-coal/
45
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
Clinton,".f.(2015).https://www.hillaryclinton.com/issues/climate/.
Dayaratna,K.(2015,February17).TheObamaAdministration’sClimateAgendawillHitManufacturingHard:AState-by-StateAnalysis.RetrievedfromHeritageFoundation:http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2015/02/the-obama-administrations-climate-agenda-will-hit-manufacturing-hard-a-state-by-state-analysis
DepartmentofEnergy.(n.d.).ABriefHistoryofCoalUse.RetrievedfromU.S.DepartmentofEnergy:http://www.fossil.energy.gov/education/energylessons/coal/coal_history.html
DepartmentoftheInterior.(1920).AnnualReportoftheDepartmentofInterior.
Deschenes,O.(2002).TheEconomicImpactsofClimateChange:EvidencefromAgriculturalOutputandRandomFluctuationsinWeather.UniversityofCalifornia,SantaBarbara.
Dinan,T.(2012,March6).HowMuchDoestheFederalGovernmentSupporttheDevelopmentandProductionofFuelsandEnergyTechnologies?.RetrievedJuly20,2015,fromCongressionalBudgetOffice:https://www.cbo.gov/publication/43040
Discovery.(2010,September24).HowMuchFossilFuelisintheEarth.RetrievedfromDiscoveryNews:http://news.discovery.com/earth/global-warming/how-much-fossil-fuel-is-in-the-earth.htm
Dowdey,S.(2007,July18).science.howstuffworks.com.RetrievedAugust4,2015,fromHowStuffWorks:http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/green-science/clean-coal.htm
Ecotricity.(n.d.).TheEndofFossilFuels.Retrievedfromhttps://www.ecotricity.co.uk/our-green-energy/energy-independence/the-end-of-fossil-fuels
EIA.(n.d.).http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.cfm?id=6390.RetrievedfromHorizontaldrillingboostsPennsylvania’snaturalgasproduction:http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.cfm?id=6390.
EnergyandSecurityFederationforAmericanCoal.(n.d.).U.S.CoalandtheU.S.Economy.RetrievedfromFACES:http://www.facesofcoal.org/index.php?u-s-coal-and-the-u-s-economy
Engineering,H.S.(2013).RethinkingWindPower.Retrievedfromhttp://www.seas.harvard.edu/news/2013/02/rethinking-wind-power
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2015,October23).CarbonPollutionEmissionGuidelinesforExistingStationarySources:ElectricGeneratingUnits.RetrievedfromFederalRegister:http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2015-10-23/pdf/2015-22842.pdf
Epstein,A.(2014).TheMoralCaseforFossilFuels.NewYork:PenguinGroup(USA)LLC.
Euracoal.(2015).MarketReport.
FederalReserve.(2015,July15).IndustrialProductionandCapacityUtilization.RetrievedJuly20,2015,fromBoardofGovernorsoftheFederalReserveSystem:http://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/g17/Current/default.htm
Foundation,N.W.(2014).2.NationalWaterwaysFoundation.(2014).InlandNavigationintheUnitedStates:AnevaluationofEconomicImpactsandthePotentialEffectsofInfrastructureInvestment.RetrievedAugust4,2015,fromNationalWaterwaysFoundationResearch..
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
46
Garrett,K.(2006).ClimateChangeEffectsonPlantDisease:GenomestoEcosystems.KansasState.
GlobalCCSInstitute.(n.d.).HowCCSWorks-Capture.RetrievedAugust4,2015,fromwww.globalccsinstitute.com:https://www.globalccsinstitute.com/content/how-ccs-works-capture
Goklany,I.(2015,October12).IndurGoklany:TheGreatCarbonBoom.RetrievedfromFinancialPost:http://business.financialpost.com/fp-comment/indur-goklany-the-great-carbon-boom
Grant,A.(2015,August5).SomeStatesStillHaveaLongRoadtoCleanPowerPlanCompliance.RetrievedfromSNL:https://www.snl.com/InteractiveX/Article.aspx?cdid=A-33449883-10030
Haub,C.(2012,July).FactSheet:WorldPopulationTrends2012.RetrievedJuly20,2015,fromPopulationReferenceBureau:http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2012/world-population-data-sheet/fact-sheet-world-population.aspx
Helman,C.(2014,April24).SolarPowerIsBooming,ButWillNeverReplaceCoal.Here'sWhy.RetrievedAugust5,2015,fromforbes.com:http://www.forbes.com/sites/christopherhelman/2014/04/24/solar-is-booming-but-will-never-replace-coal/
Herzog,H.(2014).Yes:InnovativeTechnologyWillRisetotheChallenge.TheWallStreetJournalOnline,Online.
HistoryofCoal.(n.d.).RetrievedfromHistoryofCoal:http://f03.classes.colgate.edu/fsem037-coal/Coal/History%20of%20Coal/history.htm
Hoskins,E.(2014,August10).TheDiminishingInfluenceofIncreasingCarbonDioxideonTemperature.RetrievedJuly20,2015,fromWhat'supWithThat?:http://wattsupwiththat.com/2014/08/10/the-diminishing-influence-of-increasing-carbon-dioxide-on-temperature/
IEC.(2015).AssessmentoftheEconomy-WideEmploymentImpactsofEPA'sProposedCleanPowerPlan.CollegePark:UniversityofMaryland.
InstituteforEnergyResearch.(2015,April23).AsU.S.ShuttersCoalPlants,ChinaandJapanareBuildingThem.RetrievedfromIER:LatestAnalysis:http://instituteforenergyresearch.org/analysis/as-u-s-shutters-coal-plants-china-and-japan-are-building-them/
InstituteforEnergyResearch.(2015,August6).ChinaWillContinuetoUseCoalasaMajorGeneratingSource.RetrievedfromIER:LatestAnalysis:http://instituteforenergyresearch.org/analysis/china-will-continue-to-use-coal-as-a-major-generating-source/
IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange.(2001).ClimateChange2001:TheScientificBasis.RetrievedJuly20,2015,fromhttp://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/pdf/wg1_tar-front.pdf
IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange.(2013).Observations:AtmosphereandSurface.RetrievedJuly20,2015,fromClimateChange2013:http://www.climatechange2013.org/images/report/WG1AR5_Chapter02_FINAL.pdf
InternationalEnergyAgency.(2015).EnergySnapshotoftheWeek.RetrievedfromInternationalEnergyAgency:https://www.iea.org/newsroomandevents/graphics/the-growing-role-of-international-trade-in-coal-markets.html
47
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
Istvan,R.(2014,June11).Clean(?)Coal.(J.Curry,Producer)RetrievedJanuary29,2016,fromClimateEtc.:https://judithcurry.com/2014/06/11/clean-coal-2/
Jefferson,T.(1820).ThomasJeffersontoWilliamC.Jarvis,1820.ME15:278.
Kimball,B.(1983).IncreasingAtmosphericCO2:EffectsonCropYield,WaterUseandClimate.Phoenix:AgriculturalResearchService.
Knoth,G.(2013,July16).4WaysElectricitycanJumpstartAfricanEconomicDevelopment.RetrievedfromOne:http://www.one.org/us/2013/07/16/4-ways-electricity-can-jumpstart-african-economic-development/
McCarthy,G.(n.d.).EPAAdministratorGinaMcCarthytestifyingbeforeCongress-https://youtu.be/hkkeLpbz0-Y.Retrievedfromhttps://youtu.be/hkkeLpbz0-Y.
McIntyre,S.(2003).CorrectionstotheMannet.al.(1998)ProxyDataBaseandNorthernHemisphericAverageTemepratureSeries.EnergyandEnvironment,3-23.
Moore,T.G.(1996,April17).HealthandAmenityEffectsofGlobalWarming.RetrievedJuly20,2015,fromhttp://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.198.364&rep=rep1&type=pdf
NationalMiningAssociation.(2009).MountaintopMiningFactbook.NationalMiningAssociation.
NationalMiningAssociation.(2010).TheEconomicContributionsofU.S.Miningin2008.PricewaterhouseCoopers.
NationalMiningAssociation.(2015,February9).WhyFossilFuels.(N.M.Association,Producer)RetrievedJanuary29,2016,fromwww.nma.org:http://www.countoncoal.org/2015/02/09/why-fossil-fuels/
NETL.(n.d.).HistoryofCoalUse.RetrievedfromNET:KeyIssuesandMandates:http://energybc.ca/cache/historyofenergyuse/www.netl.doe.gov/KeyIssues/historyofcoaluse.html
Nijhuis,M.(2014,April).CanCoalEverBeClean?RetrievedAugust5,2015,fromnationalgeographic.com:http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2014/04/coal/nijhuis-text
NMA.(2015).CoalStatistics.RetrievedfromNationalMiningAssociation:http://nma.org/index.php/coal-statistics
NMA.(2013,September16).NMAWarnsNewPowerPlantRulesMeansHigherUtilityBills.RetrievedfromTheNationalMiningAssociation:http://www.nma.org/index.php/press-releases/press-releases-2013/1077-nma-warns-new-power-plant-rules-means-higher-utility-bills
NMA.(2015,February).U.S.CoalMineEmploymentbyState,Region,andMethodofMining-2013.RetrievedJanuary29,2016,fromNationalMiningAssociation:http://nma.org/pdf/c_employment_state_region_method.pdf
NorthAmericanElectricReliabilityCorporation.(2013,August).NERCFrequentlyAskedQuestionsAugust2013.RetrievedJuly2015,fromhttp://www.nerc.com/AboutNERC/Documents/NERC%20FAQs%20AUG13.pdf
NorthAmericanElectricReliabilityCorporation.(2014,November).PotentialReliabilityImpactsofEPA'sProposedCleanPowerPlan.RetrievedJuly2015,from
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
48
http://www.nerc.com/pa/RAPA/ra/Reliability%20Assessments%20DL/Potential_Reliability_Impacts_of_EPA_Proposed_CPP_Final.pdf
NorthAmericanElectricReliabilityCorporation.(2014,November).PotentialReliabilityImpactsofEPA'sProposedCleanPowerPlan.RetrievedJuly2015,fromhttp://www.nerc.com/pa/RAPA/ra/Reliability%20Assessments%20DL/Potential_Reliability_Impacts_of_EPA_Proposed_CPP_Final.pdf
Nugent,D.(2014).AssessingtheLifecycleGreenhouseGasEmissionsfromSolarPVandWindEnergy:ACriticalMeta-Survey.EnergyPolicy,229-244.
OfficeofthePressSecretaryoftheWhiteHouse.(2015,August3).FactSheet:PresidentObamatoAnnounceHistoricCarbonPollutionStandardsforPowerPlants.RetrievedfromTheWhiteHouse:https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2015/08/03/fact-sheet-president-obama-announce-historic-carbon-pollution-standards
Pewtrusts.(2011,April).HistoryofFuelEconomy.RetrievedfromThePew:http://www.pewtrusts.org/~/media/assets/2011/04/history-of-fuel-economy-clean-energy-factsheet.pdf
Photosynthesis.(n.d.).RetrievedJuly20,2015,fromTripod:http://sawsankibbi.tripod.com/Media/images/Photosynthesis%202.jpg
PlantsNeedCO2.(n.d.).CO2-EnrichedAirImprovesPlantMedicinalProperties.RetrievedJuly20,2015,fromPlantsNeedCO2:http://www.plantsneedco2.org/default.aspx?menuitemid=398
PlantsNeedCO2.(n.d.).CO2-EnrichedAirImprovesPlantMedicinalProperties.RetrievedJuly20,2015,fromPlantsNeedCO2:http://www.plantsneedco2.org/default.aspx?menuitemid=398
PlantsNeedCO2.(n.d.).ElevatedAtmosphericCO2ConcentrationsEnhanceHealth-PromotingPropertiesofFoods.RetrievedJuly20,2015,fromPlantsNeedCO2:http://www.plantsneedco2.org/default.aspx?menuitemid=397&AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1
PlantsNeedCO2.(n.d.).FutureIncreasesinCO2WillNotProduceAnyDirectAdverseHealthEffects.RetrievedJuly20,2015,fromPlantsNeedCO2:http://www.plantsneedco2.org/default.aspx?menuitemid=394
PolarBearScience.(2014,October29).WHudsonBayPolarBearPopulationNoLonger“Declining”–WherearetheHeadlines?RetrievedJuly20,2015,fromPolarBearScience,PastandPresent:http://polarbearscience.com/2014/10/29/w-hudson-bay-polar-bear-population-no-longer-declining-where-are-the-headlines/
PowerMag.(2015).StorageisKeytoCSP'sFuture.RetrievedfromPowermag:http://www.powermag.com/storage-is-key-to-csps-future-ceos-say/
ProCon.(2015,June8).IsHumanActivityPrimarilyResponsibleforGlobalClimateChange?RetrievedfromProCon.org:http://climatechange.procon.org/?print=true
PublicUtilitiesCommision.(2010).UtilityRatesStudy.
Romm,J.(2015,February5).FutureGenDeadAgain:ObamaPullsPlugon'NeverGen'CleanCoalProject.RetrievedAugust5,2015,fromthinkprogress.org:http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2015/02/05/3619195/futuregen-clean-coal-project-dead/
49
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
ScottWalker,G.o.(2015,May21).CountOnCoal.RetrievedFebruary15,2016,fromCountOnCoal:http://www.countoncoal.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Walker-May-2015-letter.pdf
SidleyAustinLLP.(2015,August6).EPA’sFinalGreenhouseGasUtilityRegulations:AssessingWhat’sNewintheFinalRule.RetrievedfromSidleyAustinLLP:http://www.sidley.com/en/news/2015-08-06_environmental_update
Silverstein,R.(2012).SpecificityisRarelyAbsoluteinCoral-AlgalSymbiosis:ImplicationsforCoralResponsetoClimateChange.ScienceDaily.
SME.(2015,January26).UndergroundCoalGasification:-AnAlternate,Economical,andViableSolutionforFutureSustainability.RetrievedfromSMEColoradoSection:http://www.smecoloradosection.org/blogs/kumar-abhishek/2015/01/26/underground-coal-gasification-an-alternate-economical-and-viable-soluti
Spencer,R.W.(2013,October14).MaybeThatIPCC95%CertaintyWasCorrectAfterAll.RetrievedJuly20,2015,fromhttp://www.drroyspencer.com/2013/10/maybe-that-ipcc-95-certainty-was-correct-after-all/
TheGuardian.(2012,August7).Rare-EarthMininginChinaComesataHeavyCostforLocalVillages.RetrievedJuly20,2015,fromTheGuardian:http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/aug/07/china-rare-earth-village-pollution
U.S.CensusBureau.(2013).U.S.CensusBureau2013AmericanCommunitySurvey.
U.S.DepartmentofTransportationMaritime.(2011).America’sMarineHighwayReporttoCongress,fromMARAD.
U.S.EnergyInformationAdministration.(2015,May).AnalysisoftheImpactsoftheCleanPowerPlan.RetrievedJuly2015,fromhttp://www.eia.gov/analysis/requests/powerplants/cleanplan/pdf/powerplant.pdf
U.S.EnergyInformationAdministration.(2015).AnnualEnergyOutlook2015.
U.S.EnergyInformationAdministration.(2015).CoalExplained-Howmuchcoalisleft?Retrievedfromhttp://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/index.cfm?page=coal_reserves
U.S.EnergyInformationAdministration.(2015).FrequentlyAskedQuestions.RetrievedfromEIA:http://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.cfm?id=427&t=3
U.S.EnergyInformationAdministration.(2015,March31).U.S.ElectricityGenerationbySource.Retrieved2015,fromhttp://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.cfm?id=427&t=3.
U.S.EnergyInformationAdministration.(2015).USCoalReserves.Retrievedfromhttp://www.eia.gov/coal/reserves/
UKDailyMail.(2014,March30).CoalFindCouldFuelUKforCenturies.RetrievedfromDailyMail:http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2593032/Coal-fuel-UK-centuries-Vast-deposits-totalling-23trillion-tonnes-North-Sea.html
Umbach,F.(2010).TheFutureRoleofCoal:InternationalMarketRealitiesvsClimateProtection?London:TheEuropeanCentreforEnergyandResourceSecurity.
USArmyCorpsofEngineers.(2012).WaterborneCommerceoftheUnitedStates.Alexandria.
American
Coa
lCou
ncilTo
morrow’sLeade
rshipCo
uncil201
5Co
al
Commun
icationsKit
50
Watkins,T.(n.d.).TheDirectandIndirectEffectsofIncreasedCarbonDioxideandPlantGrowth.RetrievedJuly20,2015,fromSanJoseStateUniversity:http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/CO2plants.htm
Watts,A.(2015,January5).PolarIceCapsMoreStableThanPredicted,NewObservationsShow.RetrievedJuly20,2015,fromWhat'supwiththat?:http://wattsupwiththat.com/2015/01/05/polar-ice-caps-more-stable-than-predicted-new-observations-show/
WorldCoalAssociation.(2015).CoaltoLiquids.Retrievedfromhttp://www.worldcoal.org/coal/uses-of-coal/coal-to-liquids/
WorldCoalAssociation.(2015).ImprovingEfficiencies.Retrievedfromhttp://www.worldcoal.org/coal-the-environment/coal-use-the-environment/improving-efficiencies/
WorldEnergyCouncil.(2013).StrategicInsight.RetrievedJuly20,2015,fromCoal:https://www.worldenergy.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/WER_2013_1_Coal.pdf
WorldEnergyCouncil.(2013).WorldEnergyPerspective.London:WorldEnergyCouncil.
WorldNuclearAssociation.(2015,February).CleanCoalTechnologies,CarbonCapture&Sequestration.RetrievedAugust5,2015,fromwww.world-nuclear.org:http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Energy-and-Environment/-Clean-Coal--Technologies/
WorldofWindEnergy.(2015).AboutWind-MajorIssue.Retrievedfromhttp://worldofwindenergy.com/knowledge-centre/about-wind-power/about-wind-major-issues/
WorldShippingCouncil.(2015).CarbonEmissions.RetrievedfromWorldShippingCouncil:IndustryIssues:http://www.worldshipping.org/industry-issues/environment/air-emissions/carbon-emissions
WorldSteelAssociation.(2015).SteelFacts.Retrievedfromhttp://www.worldsteel.org/Steel-facts.html
Yamagata,B.(2014,January7).ARoadmapfortheAdvancementofLow-EmissionsCoalTechnologies.RetrievedAugust4,2015,fromcornerstonemag.net:http://cornerstonemag.net/a-roadmap-for-the-advancement-of-low-emissions-coal-technologies/
Zwally,H.J.;Li,Jun;Robbins,J.W.;Saba,J.L.;Yi,Donghui;Brenner,A.C.(2015).MassgainsoftheAntarcticicesheetexceedlosses.JournalofGlaciology.Retrievedfromhttp://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/igsoc/jog/pre-prints/content-ings_jog_15j071
Related Documents
