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AHS EARTH SCIENCE End of Year Exit Exam Study Notes

1. List all the accomplishments that Galileo was famous for discovering or investigating. Father of the scientific method, discovered Moons of Jupiter, differing masses drop at same speed, projectile motion, parabolic motions

2. Explain Newton’s 3 Laws of Motion with examples.

Every object in a state of uniform motion tends to remain in that state of motion unless an external force is applied to it. A ball moves through space until it hits something.

The relationship between an object's mass m, its acceleration a, and the applied force F is F = ma. The larger the object for a given speed, the more the force.

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.A rocket gases move in one direction, the rocket in the opposite.

3. Illustrate how we used the three types of   variables  (experimental, responding and controlled) in any lab this year, such as the storm the castle lab, radar lab, etc.

4. Describe the subatomic particles that make up atoms. protons –Positive charge, two up quarks, one down, protons are found in nuclei of atoms.Electrons-Negative charge, neutrons are found in the orbits/shells/clouds of atoms.neutrons –Neutral particles formed from two down quarks, one up

5. Order the building blocks of our universe in order from smallest to largest. quark, electron, proton, neutron, atom, molecule, mineral, rock, planet, star, galaxy, universe.

6. Explain the term “Groups” as it applies to the periodic table. Groups are chemical families that have the same chemical properties, because they all have the same number of valence (outer shell) electrons.

7. Describe what the periods of the periodic table tells one about atoms .

Elements are placed in periods due to the number of electron shells surrounding the nuclei of atoms.

8. Define molecules   ...give an example or two. Molecules are atoms that share valence electrons binding the atoms together. Examples of molecules would be: Water, H2O Nitrogen, N2 Oxygen O2 and Carbon Dioxide, CO2 Methane, CH4

9. Explain how   molecules such as silica dioxide combine to make minerals. Molecules are groups of atoms that share valence (outer shell) electrons.Examples would be greenhouse gases like Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Methane (Ch4)

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10. Describe the physical properties use to classify all minerals.Color: very variable, complex causesHardness: strength of atomic bondsDensity: mass and spacing of atomsLuster: how electrons interact with lightCleavage: weak atomic planesCrystal Form: extremely useful but not for beginnersOther properties distinctive at times

Rocks and Minerals10. Identify common rock-forming minerals. Feldspar, Biotite, Hornblende, Quartz

11. Identify common igneous rocks. Granite, Basalt, Pumice

12. Identify common metamorphic rocks. Gneiss, Schist, Marble, Quartzite

13. Identify common sedimentary rocks. Limestone, Sandstone,

Advanced Rock CycleDescribe igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. Igneous Rock is formed when magma cools underground and crystallizes or when it erupts unto the surface of the ground, cools and crystallizes. Magma that erupts onto the surface is called lava. When magma cools slowly underground the crystals are large enough to see. When it cools quickly on the surface, the crystals are very small and you would need a magnifier or a microscope to see them. Sometimes, when the magma cools very quickly, it forms a kind of black glass that you cannot see through. Sedimentary Rock forms from particles, called sediment, that are worn off other rocks. The particles are sand, silt, and clay. Sand has the largest particles while clay has the smallest. If there are a lot of pebbles mixed with the sand, it is called gravel. The sediment gets turned into rock by being buried and compacted by pressure from the weight above it. Another way it becomes rock is from being cemented together by material that has been dissolved in water. Often, both cementing and compaction take place together.Clastic: your basic sedimentary rock. Clastic sedimentary rocks are accumulations of clasts: little pieces of broken up rock which have piled up and been "lithified" (Turned to Rock) by compaction, heat pressure and cementation.Chemical: many of these form when standing water evaporates, leaving dissolved minerals behind. These are very common in arid lands, where seasonal "playa lakes" occur in closed depressions. Thick deposits of salt and gypsum can form due to repeated flooding and evaporation over long periods of time.Organic: any accumulation of sedimentary debris caused by organic processes. Many animals use calcium for shells, bones, and teeth. These bits of calcium can pile up on the seafloor and accumulate into a thick enough layers to form an "organic" sedimentary rock.Metamorphic Rock   is formed by great heat, or pressure, or both. The pressure can come from being buried very deep in the earth's crust, or from the huge plates of the earth's crust pushing against each other. The deeper below the surface of the earth, the higher the temperature, so deep burial also means high temperatures. Another way that high temperatures occur is when magma rises through the earth's upper crust. It is very hot and bakes the rock through which it moves.

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Hot liquids or gases from the magma also can cause chemical changes in the rock around the magma. Common metamorphic rocks include slate, schist, gneiss, and marble.14.Using the rock cycle explain how igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks

can change into each other. Rocks, like mountains, do not last forever. The weather, running water, and ice wear them down. All kinds of rocks become sediment. Sediment is sand, silt, or clay. As the sediment is buried it is compressed and material dissolved in water cements it together to make it into sedimentary rock. If a great amount of pressure is exerted on the sedimentary rock, or it is heated, it may turn into a metamorphic rock. If rocks are buried deep enough, they melt. When the rock material is molten, it is called magma. If the magma moves upward toward the surface it cools and crystallizes to form igneous rocks. This whole process is called the Rock Cycle

15.Explain how the size and shape of grains in a sedimentary rock indicates how it formed.

Landforms are the result of a combination of constructive and destructive forces. Constructive forces include crustal formation, volcanic eruptions, and deposition of sediments transported in

rivers, streams, and lakes through watersheds. Destructive forces include weathering and erosion. The weathering of rocks and decomposed organic matter result in the formation of soils.  The longer a rock has been moved by wind, water the less angular edges it has and the more well rounded it becomes.

16. Explain how the crystal sizes of igneous rocks indicate the rate of cooling and whether the rock is extrusive of intrusive. Large crystals represent slow cooling and small crystals represent fast cooling rates.  Crystals need time to form and since extrusive rocks cool very quickly, they have very tiny crystals (smaller than a grain of sand) and some don't even have crystals because the rate of cooling was so fast that crystals didn't have time to form.  On the other hand, intrusive rocks cool rather slowly allowing crystals large enough to see with the naked eye to grow.

17.Explain “contact metamorphism.” happens when hot magma moves into rock, heating and changing it. The area affected is rarely wider than 100 meters. Contact metamorphism produces non-foliated (rocks without any cleavage) rocks such as marble, quartzite, and hornfels.

18.Describe the processes that change one kind of rock to another. The Rock cycle was made by James Hutton (1726—1797), the 18th-century founder of modern geology. The main idea is that rocks are continually changing from one type to another and back again, as forces inside the earth bring them closer to the surface (where they are weathered, eroded, and compacted) and forces on the earth sink them back down (where they are heated, pressed, and melted). So the elements that make up rocks are never created or destroyed — instead, they are constantly being recycled. The earth is like a giant rock recycling machine! http://www.learner.org/interactives/rockcycle/diagram.html

Landforms and Soils19.Explain the origin of Michigan landforms (e.g.** moraines, gravel pits, kettle lakes).

The landforms of Michigan are a result of major changes brought about by continental glaciations. Glacial landforms dominate the surface of the whole state except the western half of the U.P., where eroded peaks of some of the oldest mountains on earth are found.

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20. Explain how physical and chemical weathering leads to erosion and the formation of soils and sediments. Erosion is the weathering and transport of solids (sediment, soil, rock and other particles) from their source and deposited elsewhere. It occurs due to transport by wind, water, or ice; by down-slope creep of soil and other material under the force of gravity.

21.Describe how coastal features are formed by wave erosion and deposition. Waves generally hit the beach at an angle, pushing sand and water up the beach at an angle. However, once on the beach, gravity pulls the water and sand straight down the beach face. This happens thousands of times a day, the water and sand move up the beach face at an angle, then flow straight down the beach, back up at an angle, then straight back down again. Thus the water and sand travels in sort of a zigzag pattern down the beach and near shore area. The movement of the sand is called beach drift and the movement of the water generates the long shore current. Large quantities of sand move along beaches and just offshore due to the action of long shore currents and long shore drift. Thus over time, a flow or stream of sand is continuously moving along the beach and parallel to the beach in the shallow, near shore waters.

Glaciers22. Describe how glaciers have affected the Michigan landscape and our state

economy. As the ice melted, the sediments were deposited, creating huge landforms. Some sediment was deposited in large ridges and hills while others were carried away by vast amounts of melt water streaming from the melting ice sheets.11,000 inland lakes are water accumulating in depressions left by passing glaciers. The swamp land of Michigan was drained for agriculture. This accounted for the loss of 50% of Michigan’s wetlands. The flattest areas of southeast Michigan are plains that are the result of deposits on the bottom of ancient lakes. Detroit and the northwest suburbs used to be under an ancient lake!

23. Explain what happens to the lithosphere (crust) when an ice sheet is removed (glacial/ region rebound). Glacial isostasy is the process of lithospheric depression under the weight of an ice sheet and subsequent rebound when the ice mass is reduced or removed.

24.Explain the formation of the Great Lakes. The Great Lakes were carved out from river valleys with each advance of the ice, they got wider & deeper. The depth of the lake is determined by the thickness of the ice at the time of glaciations. The farther north the lobe of ice, the thicker it was. Because of this, the lakes get shallower in the southern Great Lakes region. Superior =1,333 ft. Michigan = 925 ft. Huron = 725 ft. Ontario = 283 ft. Erie = 212 ft. The Great Lakes are 5 of the lakes in a 5,000-mile long string of lakes through central and western Canada.

Basic Plate TectonicsDescribe (geological) evidence that indicates Africa and South America were once part of a single continent. Identical chemical and radiological rock types on Africa and South America Wegner's continental drift ideas were based on; 1) the near perfect fit of these four continents if the Atlantic Ocean were closed, 2) Evidence for a common glaciations in the southern continents (South America, Africa, and Antarctica), 3) Similarities in rocks and fossils on continents separated by the Atlantic ocean. 25. Describe the three types of plate boundaries and feature associated w/ them

(Divergent mid-ocean ridges, hot spot volcanic and island arcs, Convergent or subduction deep-sea trenches, transform faults).

26. Describe the three major types of volcanoes. Cone, shield, strato or composite volcano

27.What is the significance of the Ring of Fire? The ring of fire marks the edge of subduction zones where earthquakes and volcanoes are common.

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Interior of the Earth28. Describe the interior of the Earth. The outermost layer of the Earth is the crust. The next layer

down is the mantle; this is where most of the internal heat of the Earth is located. Large convective cells in the mantle circulate heat and may drive plate tectonic processes.

29.Explain how and where the magnetic field of the Earth is generated. The magnetic field appears to come from the rotating liquid metal outer core of the earth.

30.Explain how scientists infer that the Earth has interior layers, like a liquid outer core, by using primary (P) and secondary (S) seismic waves. P wave or primary wave. This is the fastest kind of seismic wave, and is the first to 'arrive' at a seismic station. The P wave can move through solid rock and fluids, like water or the liquid layers of the earth. S wave or secondary wave, which is the second wave you feel in an earthquake. An S wave is slower than a P wave and can only move through solid rock, not through any liquid.

31. Describe the differences between oceanic and continental crust. Ocean crust is made from basalt that has a density of 3.0 g/cm3 and Continental crust that has a density of 2.7 g/cm3

32. Explain the uncertainties associated with models of the interior of the Earth. The temperatures and heat of the interior of the earth will keep us from exploring the core for the foreseeable future. The only way to explore is by measuring the different speeds in seismic or earthquake waves.

Plate Tectonics Theory33.Explain how plate tectonics accounts for sea floor spreading, mid-ocean ridges,

subduction zones, earthquakes and volcanoes, & mountain ranges. Convection of molten rock moves less continental plates around the surface of the earth, creating gaps such as where the plates spread apart (sea floor spreading, mid-ocean ridges) or where plates crash together and more dense plates are forced back into the mantle.(Subduction Zones/ Mountain ranges)or hot spots where mantle plumes burn through the crustal plates.

34. Explain why tectonic plates move. Convection from radioactive decay and the earth’s accretion in the inner and outer core moves the plates.

35. Explain a “hot spot” by using the motion history of Hawaii (using rate, time, and distance).

As a plate moves over mantle plume hot spot it burns through it makes a line of islands.

36. Predict the temperature in the lithosphere as you move away from the mid-ocean ridge. As you move away from the mid ocean ridge, the temperature decreases as the rock becomes colder, older and less radioactive.

37.Describe how the direction and rate of movement for the North American plate has affected the local climate over the last 600 millions years (e.g. salt & coal is found in Michigan). When the North American Plate was on the equator it was warm

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and huge swamp forest grew and died forming giant peat beds that were buried under tons of sediment and heat and pressure formed coal. Salt beds were formed when shallow seas evaporated.

Earthquakes and Volcanoes38. Use the distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes to locate the plate boundaries.

Most volcanoes (80%) are found on the subduction zones that mark the edges of the ring of fire where most earthquakes and volcanoes are found. Almost all other earthquakes and volcanoes are found at the edges of plates.

39. Describe how the sizes of earthquakes and volcanoes are measured. Volcanoes rated on VI1-8 scale, earthquakes on Richter scale. I (one) being so small to feel to IIIV (eight) having the energy of atomic bombs.

40. Describe the effects of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions on humans. Earthquakes and volcanoes disrupt utilities, food and water supplies leaning to suffering

Lava can kill people, but the ash and dust can cause breathing, climate and mechanical problems, and it stays in the air a long time. Ash in the atmosphere can change weather for years or decades. Volcanoes can also give off poisonous gases.

41. Explain how the chemical composition of magmas relates to the structure, and explosively of volcanoes. Runny magma is found in shield volcanoes and moves slowly.Stratovolcanoes near subduction zones, have high silicon content and sticky magma that traps CO2 and other gasses causing explosive gasses.

42. Explain how volcanoes change the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and other Earth systems.

Volcanoes have allowed gasses trapped in the molten rock as the earthed formed from asteroid impacts to slowly rise to the surface because gasses are less dense. Volcanoes gave earth its atmosphere of CO2, Methane and Nitrogen that plants would change to the present air composition.

43. Explain why fences are offset after an earthquake, using the elastic rebound theory.The earth bends as plates move then after the earthquake shift, the earth snaps back.

Water Cycle44. Describe the water cycle:The first step is evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, surface runoff, absorption, and groundwater. (Water table)

45.Analyze the flow of a watershed, including surface features Evaporation cased by absorbed radiation from the sun making the molecules break weak bonds and move, transpiration condensation and then precipitation causes infiltration into the ground water table or water accumulates into streams, rivers, wetlands lakes, and groundwater.)

46.Describe river and stream types, features, and processes including cycles of flooding, erosion, and deposition.

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Meandering streams erode on the outer meander bends and depositing sediment along the inner meander bends, meandering stream channels tend to weave back and forth across their flood plain. Floodplains and Levees - As a stream overtops its banks during a flood, the speed of the flood will first be high, but will suddenly decrease as the water flows out over the more gentile slope of the floodplain. Because of the sudden decrease in velocity, the coarser grained suspended sediment will be deposited along the riverbank, eventually building up a

natural levee. Natural levees provide some protection from flooding because with each flood the levee is built higher and therefore discharge must be higher for the next flood to occur.

47.Explain the types and

benefits of wetlands. Wetlands help stop pollutants from entering receiving waters and are also valuable for hunting, fish, bird watch, or photograph wildlife.

Marshes are defined as wetlands frequently flooded with water, characterized by soft-stemmed vegetation used to living in saturated soil conditions.

A swamp is any wetland dominated by woody plants.

Bogs have spongy peat deposits, acidic waters. Bogs receive all or most of their water from precipitation rather than from runoff, groundwater or streams. As a result, bogs are low in the nutrients needed for plant growth, a condition that is enhanced by acid forming peat mosses.

Weather and the Atmosphere

48.Describe the composition and layers of the atmosphere. Troposphere is where all weather takes place. Stratosphere, where air flow is mostly horizontal, (The jet stream that separates warm equatorial air from cold polar air is found in this

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layer.) and has the ozone layer. Manmade fluorocarbons compounds may be breaking down the ozone layer, which may harm large segments of life on Earth. Mesosphere burns up asteroids, Thermosphere is so hot it is ionized and bounces radio waves. Exosphere is considered space.

49. Describe the difference between weather and climate. Weather- Daily precipitation temperature, wind direction and

humidity. Influenced by earth’s rotation around sun, and the sun’s radiation angle. (The Earth’s constant 23.5 degree angle that points to Polaris, and differing angles relative to the sun, causes the resulting seasonal weather.)

Climate- weather over decades hundreds of years influenced by CO2, volcanoes, snow cover, asteroids and the Sun’s Michlovichian cycle

50.Explain the differences between fog and dew formation and cloud formation . FOG FORMATION Evaporation and Transpiration (puts water vapor in air) Air rises and cools due to expansion Cools to dew point temperature Condensation begins on condensation surface (aerosols – dust, salt crystals)Fog formsAir Temperature = Dew Point Temperature CONDENSATION begins. The dew point is a temperature at which the air becomes saturated with water molecules, clouds form. Dew Point Temperature is a measure of how much water vapor in the air if a surface cools below the dew point, water condenses on the surface and dew drops are formed on surface objects.

51.Describe relative humidity. Relative humidity is the amount of moisture in the air compared to what the air can "hold" at that temperature.

52.Describe conditions associated with front boundaries (cold, warm, stationary, and occluded).

Cold fronts are typically accompanied by a narrow band of showers and thunderstorms. Warm fronts bring rain over a period of hours or days. Occlusion, which is also known as the triple point in meteorology

53.Describe movement of major air masses and the jet stream across North America.

Jet Streams separate warm air from colder polar air and move high pressure systems from the west to the east generally.

54.Explain the primary causes of seasons. The tilt of the earth 23.5 degrees, relative to the sun, causes the seasons.

55. Identify major global wind belts. 8

Hadley Cells drive climate-Polar Jet streams separate cold air from the poles from warm moist tropical air at the equator.

Hydrogeology

56.Compare and contrast surface water systems (lakes, rivers, streams, wetlands) and groundwater and their relative (%) sizes as Earth’s freshwater reservoirs.

57.Explain the sustainability of North American aquifers and how they are changing.

The sustainability of North American aquifers has changed in recent history (the past 100 years) we are using water faster from the water table faster than it is being recharge by precipitation. The more we pave the less water is absorbed and the more runoff we cause. Agricultural practices, urbanization and industrialization impact water quality.

58. Explain how water quality is impacted by land use decisions (farming/fertilizers, cities/sewage disposal.

Groundwater also is an important water resource that serves as a source of drinking water for more than 140 million people in the United States.Contamination from natural and human sources has affected the use of these waters. For example, naturally occurring minerals within bedrock can impair the taste of groundwater and in some cases limit its use. The spilling, leaking, improper disposal, or intentional application of chemicals at the land surface can result in runoff that contaminates nearby streams and lakes, or infiltration that contaminates underlying aquifers.

Oceans and Climate59.Describe the major causes for the ocean’s surface and deep-water currents. The global oceanic conveyer belt (is a concept that connects the ocean's surface and thermohaline (deep mass) circulation, transporting heat, carbon and salt on a planetary scale. It keeps the warm parts of the planet cooler, and the cool parts warmer than they would be without the current.

60. Explain how interactions between the oceans and the atmosphere influence climates. Warm or cool ocean currents can cause those same warm or cool climates near the ocean’s shore. The warm Gulf Stream current causes Great Britain and northwestern Europe to be much warmer than would be predicted based on their latitude. The Labrador Current in a similar way cools the east coast of Canada.

61.Describe: heat transfer by ocean currents, thermohaline circulation, climatic zones, and the ocean as a major CO2 reservoir.

An estimated three-quarters of all marine life is maintained by a single ocean-circulation pattern in the Southern Hemisphere that pulls nutrient-rich waters from the deep ocean, brings them to the surface, and moves them around the world. The nutrient-rich waters help feed phytoplankton, single-celled plants at the bottom of the marine food chain that live at the ocean surface. As phytoplankton die, some slowly sink, decomposing along the way and carrying nutrients to the deep ocean. (65% of CO2 is in the deep ocean) The conveyor belt

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system can be thought of as beginning near Greenland and Iceland in the North Atlantic where dry, cold winds blowing from northern Canada chill surface waters. The combined chilling of surface waters, evaporation, and sea-ice formation produces cold, salty North Atlantic Deep Water.

62. Explain the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and its effect on climates. El Niño impacts on the United States, North America and the Atlantic regions include:Wetter than the normal conditions in tropical latitudes of North America, from Texas to Florida, including more intensive wintertime storms.

63. Describe salinity and how density affects oceanic layering and currents. Distinct layers in the Atlantic Ocean can be identified as to where they originated (e.g., North Atlantic, Mediterranean Sea, etc.). Their unique characteristics (and the order of their position in the water column) are due to their temperatures and salt concentrations.

64. Explain the differences between maritime and continental climates. Marine (maritime or oceanic) climates have larger amounts of moisture and smaller temperature changes from summer to winter than continental climates. Continental climates have large annual temperature range (hot summer and cold winter).  In Sahara have measured the highest recorded temperature, 58°C, ) and in Siberia the lowest recorded surface temperature, -70°C, at Verkhoyansk.  Continental climate type is marked by dry, sunny weather with low humidity. (Except in the equatorial region.)

65. Explain how the Coriolis Effect controls oceanic circulation. Coriolis Effect curves the path of ocean currents that controls oceanic circulation as combination of surface and deep flow creates a giant global heat conveyor that controls earth’s climate.

66.Explain how El Niño affects economies (e.g., in South America).It destroys the fish and fertilizer industries and farming in South America.

Severe Weather

67.Describe the conditions needed for these to form: thunderstorms, tornadoes, hurricanes, floods, waves, and drought (forms of severe weather).

Warm air rising to a level where the temperature is below the dew point can form thunderstorms. Conditions needed for tornado to form: thunderstorm with cold air from the north, warm air from the south and a jet stream for uplift. Floods happen when ground is saturated (full) of water and must all run off. (Long duration thunderstorms/hurricanes) Droughts occur when it does not rain in a location for weeks, months or years.

68.Describe the damage resulting from, and the social impact of severe weather. The damage resulting from severe weather includes loss of trees, damage to and destruction of buildings, infrastructure like power poles or bridges and the resulting loss of businesses, income and homes. Whole towns can be wiped of the map by severe weather, or be paralyzed by the passage of a hurricane or blizzards.

69.Describe severe weather and flood safety. Flood:If your car stalls, abandon it immediately and climb to higher ground.

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Six inches of water will reach the bottom of most passenger cars, causing loss of control or possible stalling.Do not drive through flooded areas. If you see a flooded-out road ahead, turn around. Two feet of rushing water can sweep away all vehicles — including SUVs and pick-ups. Flash floods can come rapidly and unexpectedly. They can occur within a few minutes or hours of excessive rainfall, or when a dam or levee fails and even a sudden release of water held by an ice or debris jam.  Tornado: Go to a pre-designated shelter area such as a safe room, basement, storm cellar, or the lowest building level. If there is no basement, go to the center of an interior room on the lowest level (closet, interior hallway) away from corners, windows, doors, and outside walls. Put as many walls as possible between you and the outside. Get under a sturdy table and use your arms to protect your head and neck. Do not open windows. Watch out for flying debris. Flying debris from tornadoes causes most fatalities and injuries.

70.Describe the seasonal variations in severe weather. The numbers of severe weather reported are much higher when the atmosphere is warmer allowing for greater convection and storm formation during the warmer months of the year.

71.Describe conditions associated with frontal boundaries that result in severe weather (thunderstorms, tornadoes, and hurricanes).

Cold Front - cold air moves into an area occupied by warm air. Steep frontal boundary with warm air forced up and over. Often accompanied by cumulonimbus clouds and thunderstorms. Move at speeds of 20-30 mph, followed by rapid clearing. Warm Front - warm air moves into area occupied by cold air. Gentle slope to the front. Move at 10-20 mph. Cloud sequence cirrus, status, nimbostratus. Steady gentle rains. Occluded Front - rapidly moving cold air overtakes warm air. Often associated with periods of prolonged heavy showers.Stationary Front - boundary between warm and cold fronts that does not move appreciably.

72. Describe how mountains, frontal wedging, convection, and convergence form clouds and precipitation.

Mountains, frontal wedging, convection, and convergence can all form clouds and precipitation by uplifting moist air until adiabatic cooling (expansion) cools the air below the dew point and moisture condenses on dust and dirt particles forming clouds.

73.Explain the process of adiabatic cooling and adiabatic temperature changes to the formation of clouds.

Adiabatic cooling results in adiabatic temperature changes as air rises and under less atmospheric pressure, expands. As air reaches the dew point moisture condenses on dirt and dust particles to form clouds.

Sky Observations74. Describe the motions of various celestial bodies (the Sun, moon) and some effects

of those motions (tides). Tides are the result of the water on earth flowing into the changing gravity wells of both the moon and Sun.

75.Explain the primary cause of seasons. The reason for seasons is that the earth is tipped from an impact with a Mar’s sized object 4 bya that tilted it 23.5 degrees, gave us more iron that we should have, created more internal

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heat energy than would have had without it and created the moon from the fragments of the impact!

76.Explain how a light year can be used as a distance unit. A light year is a measure of distance, and the time it takes to move that distance. It is the distance that light, which travels in a vacuum at the rate of 186,000 miles (300,000 kilometers) per second, can travel in a year (365 1/4 days). This is equal to 5,870 billion miles or 9,460 billion kilometers.

The Earth in Space 77. Describe the position and motion of our solar system in our galaxy.

The symbols below are used to represent different regions of space. 

78. Describe the overall scale, structure, and age of the universe.The Earth is spinning around its axis. At the equator, the Earth's surface moves 40,000 kilometers in 24 hours. That is a speed of about 1040 miles/hr (1670 km/hr or 0.5 km/sec). This is calculated by dividing the circumference of the Earth at the equator (about 24,900 miles or 40,070 km) by the number of hours in a day (24). As you move toward either pole, this speed decreases to almost zero (since the circumference of the spinning circle at the extreme latitudes approaches zero). The Earth orbits, on average, 93 million miles (149,600,000 km) from the Sun (this distance is defined as one Astronomical Unit (AU)), taking one year to complete an orbit. The Earth revolves around the Sun at a speed of about 18.5 miles/sec (30 km/sec). The sun is about 26,000 light-years from the center of the Milky Way Galaxy, which is about 100,000 light-years across (and less than 7,000 light-years thick). We are located on one of its spiral arms, out towards the edge. It takes the sun (and our solar system) roughly 200-250 million years to orbit once around the Milky Way. In this orbit, we (and the rest of the Solar System) are traveling at a velocity of about 155 miles/sec (250 km/sec). The Milky way Galaxy is just one galaxy in a group of about 20 galaxies called the Local Group. Within the Local Group, the Milky Way Galaxy is moving about 185 miles/sec (300 km/sec), and has been doing so for 13.72 billion years.

79. Describe how the Big Bang theory accounts for the formation of the universe.

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The Big Bang Theory says that the universe was once small and hot and expanded outward in all directions. Certain areas were cooler by 3 millionths of a single degree and in these areas hydrogen produced by the cooling radiation came together to form super massive stars that died quickly and left black holes that formed the cores of galaxies, or vast star nurseries. Large stars then fused light elements into heavy elements like carbon and when they die make nebulas that accrete into solar systems with planets like earth, which form with layers due to density. The Universe continues to expand and has and cooled to 2.73 degrees above absolute zero at this time.

80. Explain the “cosmic microwave background” and how it helps us determine the age of the universe.Cosmological red shift is a measure of the total "stretching" of space that the universe has undergone between the time the light was emitted and the time it was received. Doppler shift allows us to see how fast galaxies are moving away relative to our own location. So, to figure out the various true speeds of objects away from us in the universe it is Cosmological red shift + Doppler red shift= speed.

81. Differentiate between the cosmological and Doppler red shift. Cosmological red shift is a measure of the total "stretching" of space Doppler shift allows us to see how fast galaxies are moving away relative to our own location.

The Sun82. Identify patterns in solar activities (sunspot cycle, solar flares, and solar wind).Sun spot activity comes and goes in approximately 11 year cycles, the last cycle peaking during 2001 while the next cycle should peak during 2012.

83. Relate events on the Sun to phenomena such as auroras, disruption of radio and satellite communications, and power grid disturbances.During a solar storm, direct electrical currents build up on transmission wires, and when the currents get strong enough they will trip out satellites, circuits and destroy transformers, or even cause the air to glow in what is called auroras.

84. Describe how nuclear fusion produces energy in the Sun.Fusion the process that powers the sun and all the other stars. Fusion happens when two atomic nuclei are forced together by high pressure in the cores of stars or by high explosives in H-bombs ... high enough to overcome the strong repulsive forces of the respective protons in the nuclei. When the nuclei fuse, they form a new element, and release excess energy in the form of a fast-moving neutron. The energy is 'extra' because the mass of the newly formed nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of the original two nuclei; the extra mass is converted to energy according to Einstein's equation E=mc2

85. Describe how nuclear fusion and supernovas in stars have led to the formation of all the other chemical elements.10 and 40 mass stars fuse light elements into heavy elements of the periodic table using the heat pressure found in the cores of large stars.

Stellar Evolution13

86. Explain the Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagram. The H-R Diagram compares stars brightness to its temperature into four groups, with most stars falling into the main sequence followed by the grouping of giants, super giants and dwarfs.

87.Explain how you can infer the temperature, life span, and mass of a star from its color. Astronomers use star color (Blue-hot and young, red cool and old) and actual brightness to determine the stage in a star’s life cycle. In general, the smaller the mass of a star, the longer its life. Most stars fall into four distinct groups in the H-R diagram, because the groups represent stages in the life cycles of the stars, Main Sequence, Giants, Super Giants and White Dwarfs.

88. Use the H-R diagram to explain the life cycles of stars.Stars start as a large cloud of hydrogen (and helium) gas and dust. This is a nebula form the beginnings of a star. Temperatures rise, driven by gravitational collapse and a Protostar forms at about 2000-3000°K.The star evolves to be part of the main sequence of stars. The position on the main sequence depends upon the mass of hydrogen present in the star. Nuclear fusion takes place within the center of the star and helium is formed. The star eventually changes into a Red Giant and expands to up to 100 times the diameter of the original star. Red Giants develop as the hydrogen in the core is used up and the helium tries to fuse to make carbon. A Red Giant is sometimes described as a 'bloated' star.The final stage of stellar evolution depends upon star size. Smaller stars end up as the surviving cores of Red Giants which become greatly reduced in size to the White Dwarf stage. Larger stars shed nearly all their remaining gaseous matter and synthesize elements in a supernova a huge explosion marking the end of the life of the star. Within the dense supernovae, neutron stars may form as the extremely dense endpoint in the life of a star.

89. Explain the balance between fusion and gravity in a star (equilibrium).In each layer of a star, there is a balance between the thermal pressure (outward) and the weight of the material above pressing downward (inward). This balance is called hydrostatic equilibrium. A star is like a balloon. In a balloon the gas inside the balloon pushes outward and the elastic material supplies just enough inward compression to balance the gas pressure. In a star the star's own gravity causes the inward compression. Gravity compresses the star into the most compact shape possible: a sphere. Stars and planets are round because gravity attracts everything equally in an object toward the center.

90. Compare the evolution paths of low-, moderate-, and high-mass (1, 10 & 40 mass) stars using the H-R diagram.90% of all stars are on the main sequence of the H-R diagram. A one mass star like our own will swell into a red giant and then die as a white dwarf, cooling to a black dwarf and falling off the H-R Diagram. Larger 10 mass stars will swell into red giants and burn out faster, die as supernovas that produce the elements of the periodic table leaving behind remnant neutron stars. 40 mass stars burn out even faster and move from the main sequence to the red giant and after a supernova, disappear off the H-R Diagram as a Black Hole.

Earth History and Geologic Time14

91. Explain how the solar system formed from a nebula of dust and gas in a spiral arm of the Milky Way Galaxy about 4.56 Ga (billion years ago). Dust and gas from a nebula left over from an exploded star clumps together under gravity (accretion) to form a sun and planets. The gravity wells of each of these bodies sweep up the matter in their orbits.

92. Describe radioactive decay how radioactive elements are used to date the rocks.Because the radioactive half-life of a given radioisotope is NOT affected by temperature, physical or chemical state, or any other influence of the environment outside the nucleus save direct particle interactions with the nucleus, then radioactive samples continue to decay at a predictable rate. That is, any radioactive nucleus acts as a clock. If determinations or reasonable estimates of the original composition of a radioactive sample can be made, then the amounts of the radioisotopes present can provide a measurement of the time elapsed.

93. Relate major events in the history of the Earth to the geologic time scale, including formation of the Earth, formation of an oxygen atmosphere, rise of life, Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) and Permian extinctions, and Pleistocene ice age.3.6 billion years ago simple life created an oxygen atmosphere from the CO2 that killed off most of the life that was present at the time on earth. Permian Extinction: Over 90 percent of Earth’s species, including insects, plants, marine animals, amphibians and reptiles, were destroyed worldwide. The End of the Dinosaurs: The K-T extinctionAlmost all the large vertebrates on Earth, on land, at sea, and in the air (all dinosaurs) suddenly became extinct about 65 Ma, at the end of the Cretaceous Period. At the same time, most plankton and many tropical invertebrates, especially reef-dwellers, became extinct, and many land plants were severely affected. This extinction event marks a major boundary in Earth's history, the K-T or Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary, and the end of the Mesozoic Era. The K-T extinctions were worldwide, affecting all the major continents and oceans.

94. Describe how index fossils can be used to determine time sequence.Index fossils can be used to determine a time sequence or match up the time of formation of rock layers at different locations around the earth.

Geologic Dating

95.Explain why C-14 can be used to date a 40,000-year-old tree, but U-Pb cannot.The half-life of C-14 is 5730 years, so the tree specimen would have undergone 7 half-lives. Uranium to Lead has a half-life of 4 billion years. It would only have experienced a small amount of decay and it would be extremely inaccurate to measure the amount of decay in the material.

96. Identify a sequence of geologic events using relative-age dating principles (the principle of superposition).The geological events in Earth's history are a series of processes that have changed the structure of Earth’s crust. Geologists use scales to date these geological events and to measure the age of the Earth. One scale records relative time and helps to describe the geologic record. Relative time places events in a sequence but does not tell us the actual date of occurrence. It indicates age in comparison with other events. The relative time scale is based on the sequence of layering of the rocks and the evolution of life. Being able to determine when a particular organism existed, for example by comparing samples of DNA through electrophoresis, within particular geologic strata,  layers of rock can be correlated to

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reveal the sequence of changes the Earth’s crust experienced. The correctly ordered layers of strata often reveal an untold story of our planet’s hidden history and perhaps a look at its future.

Climate Change

97.Explain the greenhouse effect; include the major greenhouse gases (water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone).Greenhouse gases are transparent to certain wavelengths of the suns' radiant energy allowing them to penetrate deep into the atmosphere or all the way into the Earths' surface. Greenhouse gases and clouds prevent some of infrared radiation from escaping, trapping the heat near the Earths' surface where it warms the lower atmosphere. Changing this natural barrier of atmospheric gases can raise or lower the mean global temperature of the Earth.Greenhouse gases include Carbon Dioxide. Methane, Nitrous Oxide, Chlorofluorocarbons, and water vapor Carbon dioxide, Methane, and Nitrous Oxide have significant natural and human sources while only industries produce.

98 Compare and contrast the major greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, fluorocarbons), their abundance and heat trapping capacity. Sulfur Hexafluoride is 22,000 times more effective at trapping heat than CO2. Nitro oxide and Methane are also better at trapping heat than CO2.

99. Describe how major volcanic eruptions, changes in sunlight received by the Earth, and meteorite impacts could result in significant changes in climate.Climatologists have found evidence to suggest that only a few factors are mostly responsible for most of the past episodes of climate change on the Earth. These factors include: Variations in the Earth's orbital characteristics, Atmospheric carbon dioxide variations, Volcanic eruptions, Variations in solar output, Asteroid impacts

100. Anayze the relationship between the emissions of carbon dioxide, atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, and the average global temperature over the past 150 years.

101. Based on evidence of recent history explain the consequences of warmer oceans and changing climatic zones (including the adaptive capacity of the biosphere). Warming is very likely to change the release and uptake of greenhouse gases from soils, vegetation, and coastal oceans.Ocean acidification will hurt marine calcifies by making it more difficult for these organisms to form protective shells. Reduction in sea ice is very likely to have devastating effect for polar

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bears, (With out ice, they cannot swim forever!) ice-dependent seals, and local people for whom these animals are a primary food source.Reduced sea ice is likely to increase marine access to the region’s resources, expanding opportunities for shipping and possibly for offshore oil extraction (although operations could be hampered initially by increasing movement of sea ice in some areas).As frozen ground thaws, many existing buildings, roads, pipelines, airports, and industrial facilities are likely to be destabilized.Increased areas of tree growth in the Arctic could serve to take up carbon dioxide (CO2, the principal greenhouse gas emitted by human activities) and supply more wood products and related employment, providing local and global benefits. However, tree growth would mean absorption of additional sunlight (as the land surface would become darker and less reflective) and add to regional warming.

102. Explain how the current melting of polar ice caps can impact the climatic system.Melting of Arctic glaciers is a contributing factor to sea-level rise around the world.

103. Describe geologic evidence that implies climates were significantly colder at times in the geologic record. Glacier passage evidence, (Moraines, Kettle Lakes, Erratic Boulders, chatter marks, striations, and oh yeah,…the Great Lakes.

104. Explain why the Earth is essentially a closed system in terms of matter.The atmosphere, which is made of various gases, also keeps Earth’s temperature within a range that makes the planet habitable by living organisms. When plants and animals die, their remains are decomposed by organisms in the soil.  The nutrients in the previously living organism then become available to plants to support their growth. Part of this decomposed material is carbon, which at one time was carbon dioxide in the air. Soil organisms release some of this carbon as carbon dioxide during the decomposition process, while a portion of the carbon remains in the soil. Over long periods of time, this carbon can become ‘locked up’ in the form of coal, oil, limestone and natural gas, forms that historically were not part of the carbon cycle. When we humans extract and burn these fossil fuels does that carbon return to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, shifting the balance of carbon dioxide uptake and release by plants and animals, causing the atmosphere to trap more of the sun’s energy, and warming our planet.

105. Analyze the interactions between the major systems (geosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere) that make up the Earth.Lithosphere        HydrosphereIncreased erosion of loose soil may have led to increased sediments (i.e. soil particles) in stream water, making the water "muddier“ as it carries silicon and Carbon in the form of increased plant life and nutrients to the sea. Lithosphere        BiosphereA decrease in vegetation may have resulted in increased soil erosion because there were fewer roots to hold the soil in place; this increases carbon in the rivers sea. Lithosphere         AtmosphereAsh particles in the air may have been carried by the wind and dropped on the ground miles away from the forest fires or volcano; the ash particles—silicon dioxide, which have a high pH--may have changed the pH of the soil. Limestone may be re-melted by subduction and given off as gas by volcanoes back into the atmosphere. Hydrosphere        Biosphere

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Ash particles in the water may have clogged the gills of fish and other aquatic organisms and choked them. When they died their remains may form limestone. (Solid Carbon Dioxide) Hydrosphere        AtmosphereThere may have been more precipitation in neighboring areas because ash particles in the air may have become condensation centers upon which raindrops could form. Acid rain may form, causing the erosion of limestone. Very dry, windy air may have drawn moisture out of the living grasses (Which are made from Carbon) and trees through the process of evaporation. Biosphere        AtmosphereSmoke in the air may have coated the lungs of animals--including people--and affected their ability to breathe. Carbon Dioxide gases given off by volcanoes may suffocate humans and animals. (i.e.- 1,700 people dead at Lake Nyos one morning in Africa- Google it!)

106. Explain, using specific examples, how a change in one system affects other Earth systems. When organisms die, decomposers consume their bodies. In the process, some of the carbon returns to the physical environment by way of fossilization in rocks like limestone, coal or oil. As subduction around tectonic plate edges occurs, limestone is re-melted and the CO2 is returned to the mantle, where some of it will be released through volcanoes and returned to the cycle. Some of it remains in the biological environment as other organisms eat the decomposers.

Energy in Earth Systems107. Describe the Earth’s sources of internal and external energy Solar energy and gravitational energy are the basic sources of energy for the Earth's climate system.

108. Identify differences in the origin and use of renewable- solar-sun, wind-sun convection, water-gravity, biomass-burning plants and nonrenewable- fossilized sunlight fuels-coal/oil/gas, nuclear [U-235] from supernova of stars.

109. Describe where heat transfer in the Earth occurs by conduction, convection and

radiation. Examples of heat transfer in the Earth are conduction from the earth’s inner radioactive core, to the liquid outer core, where it causes convection in the mantle that drives plate tectonics and radiation from the sun that warms the lithosphere and lets plant life thrive.

110. Identify the main sources of energy to the climate system.Solar energy and gravitational energy are the basic sources of energy for the Earth's climate system.

111. Explain how energy changes form through Earth systems.The three main components of the Earth are the atmosphere, its gaseous envelope, the hydrosphere, the surface coating of water, and of course, the solid earth. All three are subdivided into subsystems. Together convection, conduction and radiation work together as gears in a recycling machine. The atmosphere and hydrosphere get their energy mostly from the Sun, and the solid earth gets its energy from internal heat, some of which is produced by radioactive decay and some is left over from the formation of the earth. A tiny amount of energy also comes from gravitational interactions between the Earth, the Moon, and the Sun.

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112. Explain how elements exist in different compounds and states as they move from one reservoir to another.Earth's atmosphere contains 0.0392% carbon dioxide, CO2, and the biological environment depends upon plants to pull carbon from the air to create the molecules of sugars, proteins, and fats. Using photosynthesis, plants use sunlight to share the electrons of carbon to make the molecules of glucose, and as a waste product, releasing the molecule oxygen (O2). Through other metabolic processes, plants may change glucose to other sugars, proteins, or fats. Animals get their carbon by eating and digesting plants, so carbon moves through the biology environment. Herbivore eats plants, but are themselves eaten by carnivores.Carbon returns to the physical environment in a number of ways. Both plants and animals respire, so they release CO2 during respiration. Luckily for animals, plants just happen to consume more CO2 through photosynthesis than they can produce. Another route of CO2 back to the physical environment occurs through the death of plants and animals. When organisms die, decomposers consume their bodies. In the process, some of the carbon returns to the physical environment by way of fossilization in rocks like limestone, coal or oil. As subduction around tectonic plate edges occurs, limestone is re-melted and the CO2 is returned to the mantle, where some of it will be released through volcanoes. Some of it remains in the biological environment as other organisms eat the decomposers.

Biogeochemical Cycles113. Explain how carbon moves through the Earth system (including the geosphere) and how it may benefit (e.g., improve soils for agriculture) or harm (e.g., act as a pollutant) society. Plate tectonics is the theory of geology that helps explain all features and processes in the geosphere, even the carbon cycle. Large quantities of carbon dioxide can be taken in by the Earth’s plants, algae, and also remain dissolved in ocean water. (65% of all carbon dioxide is found in the deep ocean!) The carbon cycle is a biogeochemical cycle that quantifies the movement of carbon through the four major Earth systems. Carbon dioxide is a major greenhouse gas that makes Earth warm enough to sustain life as we know it. Human industrialization and burning of fossil fuels has dramatically increased the percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, making the Earth warmer and changing the

climate system. Increased levels of carbon and organic matter make soils richer and allow plants to grow easily. Too much CO2 in the atmosphere and the molecule becomes a pollutant and changes the climate. (Weather conditions over ten, hundreds or millions of years.)

114. Explain how the nitrogen cycle is part of the Earth System.The nitrogen cycle is part of the Earth system. Nitrogen comes from the atmosphere and is returned to the atmosphere when the plant dies and is used by plants for growth and is part of nutrients that effect water quality.

115. Explain why small amounts of some chemical forms may be beneficial for life but are poisonous in large quantities (e.g., algae plumes, fluoride in drinking water).Water fluoridation reduces cavities which are roughly equivalent to preventing 40% of cavities though fluoridation may still be a relevant public health measure among the poor and disadvantaged, it may be unnecessary for preventing tooth decay, in industrialized countries where tooth decay is rare. Sodium fluoride and fluorosilicates dissolve easily into ground water as it moves through gaps and pore spaces between rocks. Most water supplies contain some naturally occurring fluoride. Fluoride also enters drinking water in discharge from

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fertilizer or aluminum factories. Also, many communities add fluoride to their drinking water to promote dental health. Too much fluoride can be toxic. Algae blooms happen when high ocean temperatures and excess nitrogen runoff from agriculture and fish farms cause huge multiplication in the number of algae as seen in the view of Florida below. Nitrogen is a key ingredient in fertilizers that are used on farms. Excessive precipitation causes runoff that increases the rate of growth of plants (algae) in the rivers, lakes and ocean.

Resources and Human Impacts on Earth Systems116. Describe renewable and nonrenewable sources of energy for human consumption solar, wind, water, biomass and nonrenewable- fossil fuels, nuclear U-235

117. Explain the impact of human activities on the environment (e.g., deforestation, air pollution, coral reef destruction).Deforestation is the destruction of forests. Land is often cleared for agricultural land to feed growing numbers of people, cattle ranching, and firewood or building materials. Forests and woodlands act as major carbon stores. Removing these stores means that carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere will climb. Trees also help to circulate water in the local ecosystem, removing those leads to the possibility of a drier climate. Air pollution comes from a number of sources. These include industrial sites, home heating, transportation vehicles, and burning.Human activities can release substances into the air, some of which cause problems for humans, plants, and animals. People with health problems such as asthma, heart, and lung disease may also suffer more when the air is polluted.Coral reef destruction can occur when seawater warms up. The coral expels the algae, losing its major source of food. The algae give the reefs its color, so “bleaching” occurs. Over fertilization is another problem that kills reefs.

118. Explain ozone depletion (why are we worried about it?) and methods to slow human activities to reduce ozone depletion. Without the stratospheric ozone layer, the Earth would not be shielded from the sun’s damaging UV-B radiation, which can affect human health and ecosystems. Chlorofluorocarbons that destroy the ozone layer come from human manufacture; if we reduce the manufacture of these chemicals we can reduce the destruction of the ozone layer.

119. Describe the life cycle of a product, including the resources, production, packaging, transportation, disposal, and pollution. Drill for oil, manufacturing, labeling, rail or truck to store, car home, use and truck to land fill.

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