Agriculture Extension and Communication ver1.2

AGRICULTURE EXTENSION AND COMMUNICATION

AMAT REVIEW 2015 (ver1.2)

By. M.L. Edullantes

Chapter 1: AGRICULTURE EXTENSION AND EXTENSION EDUCATION

Education• Encompasses teaching and learning specific

skills• The imparting of knowledge, good judgment

and wisdom• The act process or art of imparting knowledge

and skill.• Learning that takes place in schools or school-

like environments (formal education) at large.

Formal, Informal and Non-formal Education

Formal education.The hierarchically structured,

chronologically graded education system, running from primary school through university. In addition to general academic studies, a variety of specialized programs and institutions for full-time technical and professional training.

• Informal education. The truly lifelong process whereby every individual acquires attitude, values, skills and knowledge from daily experience and the educative influences and resources in his or her environment.

• Non-formal education. Any organized educational activity outside the established formal system-whether operating separately or as important feature of some broader activity that is intended to serve identifiable learning clientele and learning objectives.

Table 1. Formal education versus Non-formal education

Adult education• It is the practice of teaching and educating

adults• Extension of educational opportunities to

those adults beyond the age of general public education who feel a need for further training of any sort, is also known as continuing education.

• it has also been referred to as andragogy.(adult learning)

Extension educationThe term extension was first used to

describe adult education programs in England in the second half of the 19th century. These programs helped to expand- or extend- the work of Universities beyond the campus and into the neighboring community.

Definition of extension.Extension is an informal educational

process directed toward rural population. This process offers advice and information to help them solve their problems. Extension also aims to increase the efficiency of the family farm, (as agriculture extension), increase production and generally increase the standard of living of the farm family

Four main elements of extension:

– Knowledge and skills– Technical advice and information– Farmers’ organization– Motivation and self-confidence

Agricultural Extension– It involves offering advice, helping farmers

to analyze problems and identify opportunities, sharing information, supporting group formation and facilitating collective action.– They aimed to deliver information and new

technologies to farmers in order to raise production.

Importance, scope & objectives of Extension EducationImportance:– Extension uses democratic methods in educating the

farmers.– Extension Helps in adoption of innovations.– Extension helps in studying and solving the rural

problems.– Extension increases farm yields and improve the

standard of living of farmers– Extension makes good communities better and

progressive.– Extension contributes to national development

programs

Scope:– It includes all activities of rural development. So

extension programs should be dynamic and flexible. The areas indicating scope of Extension are listed below:

– Increasing efficiency in agricultural production.– Increasing efficiency in marketing, distribution and

utilization of agricultural inputs and outputs– Conservation, development and use of natural resources.– Proper farm and home management– Better family living.– Youth development.– Leadership development.– Community and rural development.– Improving public affairs for all round development.

Objectives:– To raise the standard of living of the rural

people by helping them in right use of their resources.– To help in planning and implementing the

family and village plans for increasing production in various occupations.– To provide facilities for better family living.

Chapter 2: HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

The term "extension"It was not until 1867 that a first practical

attempt was made in what was designated "university extension," but the activity developed quickly to become a well-established movement before the end of the century. Initially, most of the lectures given were on literary and social topics, but by the 1890s agricultural subjects were being covered by peripatetic lecturers in rural areas (Jones, 1994).

Towards the Modern Era– Between 1300 and 1700, European society

became transformed from its medieval feudal forms into recognizably modem social systems. It was a period of complex, multistranded development.

– By the mid-eighteenth century, throughout much of Europe, progressive landowners (frequently aristocrats) and their agents and a few similarly minded farmers were being known as "improvers."

In Europe, agricultural science was evolving rapidly by the 1840s, with notable strides being made in Germany by Justus von Liebig at Giessen, and with the establishment of agricultural experiments at Rothamsted in England in 1843 by John Bennet Lawes and Henry Gilbert.

The birth of modern agricultural extension services

– The first agricultural extension service of a modem kind came into existence as the result of a crisis and the initiative of the occupant of a high office of authority.

– The crisis was the outbreak of potato blight in Europe in 1845. In Ireland its effects were particularly severe because the predominantly peasant population relied on potatoes in their diet, and "the potato famine" persisted until 1851.

–By the close of the nineteenth century, agricultural extension systems modelled to a considerable extent on the GermanWanderlehrer had spread: to Denmark from 1870 onwards; – the Netherlands, where a few extension

workers (wandelleraren) had been appointed by agricultural societies in the late 1840s and 1850s, but had then disappeared before being revived as a government system in the 1890s;

– Italy, where the first itinerant agricultural teacher (cattedra ambulante di agricoltura) was appointed in 1886 at Rovigo, near the estuary of the River Po, with many others following in the next decade and funded largely by public donations, –Meanwhile, in France the first national,

wholly state-funded agricultural extension service was established in 1879.

– The growth of agricultural education and extension work in continental Europe was to have a strong impact on the emergence of comparable activity in the United Kingdom. An official commission on technical education in the early 1880s included a detailed review of the European developments (Jenkins, 1884).

Modern agricultural extension– In the early years of this century, extension

services were in their formative stage; they were relatively small in scale and limited in the scope of their work and contact with farmers, and their organization was often somewhat haphazard even though based on legislation.

– During the past quarter century, the work of extension services has often become more diversified. In the less developed countries, the main focus remains on agricultural (mainly food) production, but there has been a growing recognition of the need to reach, influence, and benefit the multitudes of small, resource-poor farmers.

The future of agriculture extension– The need for agricultural and rural information

and advisory services is likely to intensify in the foreseeable future. In much of the world, agriculture faces the challenge of keeping pace with rapidly increasing population with few reserves of potentially cultivable land. Farmers will have to become more efficient and specialized.

– From government perspectives, whatever priority is given to production, extension will remain a key policy tool for promoting ecologically and socially sustainable farming practices.

ASIA: Four Generations of Extension1. Colonial Agriculture– Experimental stations were established in many

Asian countries by colonial powers.– The focus of attention was usually on export crops

such as rubber, tea, cotton and sugar.– Technical advice was provided to plantation

managers and large landowners– Assistance to small farmers who grew subsistence

crops was rare, except in times of crisis.

2.Diverse-Top Down Extension– After Independence, commodity-based extension

services emerged from the remnants of the colonial system, with production targets established as part of five year development plans.

– In addition, various schemes were initiated to meet the needs of small farmers, with support from foreign donors.

3. Unified top-down extension– During the 1970’s and ‘80’s, the training and visit

system (T&V) was introduced by the World Bank.– Existing organizations were merged into single

national service.– Regular messages, were delivered to groups of

farmers, promoting the adaption of the “green revolution” technologies.

4. Diverse bottom-up extension– When World Bank funding ended, T&V system

collapsed in many countries, leaving behind patchwork of programs and projects funded from various other sources

– The decline of central planning, combined with a growing concerned for sustainability and equity, has resulted in participatory methods gradually replacing top-down approaches.

Evolution of Agriculture

• Prehistory and Pre-Agriculture10,000 B.C.

• Human gatherer• Nomadic• Little or no villages• End of ice age• Burst of new vegetation• Follow herds

•

• “Agriculture Revolution”8000-7000 B.C.

• Many civilization began• Three of the main were:

– Nile river in Africa– Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia– Jerico

Agricultural technologies:• Planted by hand• Stick for plows• Flint sickle to harvest• Wheat grinding stone

• Historical Agriculture2500 B.C. to 500 A.D.– Little change in agriculture, still subsistence farming– Few technologies developed:

• Metal tools• Irrigation in flood plains- China, Egypt, Near East• Fertilizer- manure and fodder

– Use of plow animal power:– Grow more food– Cities grew– Civilization expanded– Population increased

• Feudal Agriculture500 A.D. to 1600 A.D.– Still much of the world is subsistence farming– Egyptians utilized more land with irrigations– Europeans implemented crop rotation

• Scientific Agriculture1600 A.D. to present– Many technical advances in agriculture– Cities grew much larger– Rural population decreased– Sanitation increased life expectancy – Technological advances:

• Metal added to wooden plow (mid 1600’s)• Jehtro Tull’s seed drill(early 1700’s)• Use of limestone (late 1700’s)• Cast-iron molboard plow (1797)• John Deere’s steelpow (1830’s)• Cyrus McCormick reaper (1831)• Steam power replaced horsepower (late1800’s)

• Training and Visit SystemThe Training and Visit system was

developed by World Bank Expert Daniel Benor. It has a simple organization and infra structure with defined objectives. It is based on regular visit to the farmers and periodical trainings to the extension workers. It has wide popularity because it provides problems oriented guidance, flexible management and continuous feed back from the farmers.

The Green Revolution– Transformation of agriculture that began in 1945– The term ”Green revolution” was first used in 1938 by

former USAID director- William gaud – Period to describe between the 1960’sto 1990’s. there

was a tremendous boom in agricultural productivity in the developing world.

– In many regions, especially in Asia and Latin America, the yield of major cereals such as rice, wheat and maize --more than doubled.

– Green revolution refers to the renovation of agricultural practices begum on 1940’s at Mexico, its beginning are often attributed to Norman Borlaug, an American Scientist interested in agriculture.

Norman Borlaug– An American scientist who is considered the father

of the green revolution who started working on high-yield wheat varieties in Mexico on 1940’s. In 1960’s, rough combined agricultural practices and HYV on introduced by Borlaug, Mexico begun to be an exporter of wheat in the global market.

– In 1963, through the aid of the Rockefeller and Ford foundation, the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMNYT) was established in Mexico.

Chapter 3: EXTENSION AGENT: ROLES AND FUNCTIONS

Three factors involved in the change process:– The message • -it includes the technology or recommended practices

to be introduced.

– The clientele or end-user• The one who is going to accept and use the message of

technology.

– The change agent• The one which exerts all the effort and means to induce

desirable changes in people and in the community.

The Extension worker/ Change agent– Educational Qualifications and Professional

Requirements of Change agents

An extension or change agent should preferably be a bachelor’s degree holder in any technical or social science field. He/She must have necessary knowledge, skills and experiences to become a credible source if technical information and technology being introduced in the village or rural community.

Personal qualities of a extension or change agent:– Possesses empathy– Interest– Commitment– Patience– Genuity (trueness)– Prudence– Responsible– Dedication to service

KnowledgeFour main areas:• Technical. The agent must be adequately trained in

the technical aspect of his work.• Rural life. This includes anthropological and

sociological studies of the rural area of the project.• Policy. Includes the policies and legislation of the

government or other institution policies which affects the rural area.

• Adult Education. The agent must be familiar with the approaches to adult education, group dynamics and developing participation among the locals.

Personal qualities• Commitment. The agent must have a sense

of dedication and determination to achieve the goals of the extension project.

• Reliability. The agent must carry genuinely the tasks with lesser no supervision from the superiors.

• Humility . The agent must be sensitive to the wishes and feeling of the farmers.

• Confidence. the agent must believe in his abilities and knowledge to achieve something.

Roles and Functions of the Change AgentSpecific functions of the extension/change

agent–Gathering of data or information above the

community and its constituents– Identifying priority areas, problems, needs

and interests of people in the community.– Establishing rapport with the client system– Selecting and formulating appropriate

change objectives

– Translating technical information with farmers language

– Choosing using suitable approaches and extension teaching methods

– Disseminating new information and technology– Conducting extension education activities– Recognizing and guiding the phase of the change

process– Undertaking auxiliary extension functions– Contributing to the professional development of

the discipline

Role of the change agent According to Mojica and Mojica (1991)

are some roles of the extension worker:– A teacher– A mobilize of resources– A developer of potential leader– A catalyst of developmental change– A go-between researchers and farmers– A system manager– A system linker

Principles of Extension EducationPrinciples:

A principle is a statement of policy to guide decision and action in a consistent manner (Mathews).

A principle is a universal truth that has been observed and found to be truth and a settled rule of action.

The principles of extension education are given hereunder:

1. Principle of cultural difference:– People differ in thinking, living and culture.– Extension education methods should be in line

with these differences.

2. Principle of cultural change:– Culture undergoes change due to extension.– Change occurs otherwise also.– Extension Workers should gain the confidence of

people.. Extension workers should organize result demonstration.

3. Principle of grass-root organization:– Extension workers should pay attention to all the

groups’ needs and interests.– Imposed innovations have no relevance to groups.– People will accept the innovations only when they

find those useful.

4. Principle of interests and needs:– People and extension workers should work

together.– Co-operation and help of each other needed for

social upliftment.

5. Principle of interests and needs:– People should voluntarily participate.– Work should start from interests and needs of

people.

6. Principle of participation:– Attachment will not develop by offering ready made

things.– Participation develops leadership and increases

confidence.. Involving leaders

7. Principle of adaptability in the use of teaching methods:– People differ in knowledge and understanding.– Method should vary accordingly.

8. Principle of leadership:– Extension workers should utilize local leadership

for increasing speed of work– Identification, training and encouragement of

leaders is necessary.

9. Principle trained specialists:– Agricultural and other sciences are developing

speedily.– Maintaining competency in any of these sciences

is a continuous process.

10. Principle of satisfaction:– The extension program should give satisfaction to the

people.– People will not participate if they do not get

satisfaction.

11. Principle of whole family approach:– Extension work should reach all the family members.– Neglecting any member may result in rejection of

innovations e.g. Hybrid maize in U.P.

12. Principle of evaluation:– Determining the research results in unbiased way is

necessary.– Intermittent review of progress is necessary.

13. Principle of applied Science and Democracy:– People have freedom to accept or reject the

technology.– Applied agricultural Science is a two way process.

14. Principle of Learning by doing:

Some more Other Principles:1. The citizen is the Sovereign (Supreme) in the democracy.2. Home is the fundamental unit of civilization.3. Family is the first training group of the human race and4. Average farm is endowed with great resources and facilities

Chapter 4: EXTENSION METHODS

Definition of Teaching Methods:

“Teaching methods may be defined as the devices or tools used to create learning situation in which effective communication can take place between the teacher and the learner”.

Functions of Extension Teaching Methods1. To provide communication so that the learner may see, hear and do the things to be learnt.2. To provide stimulation that causes the desired mental or physical action on the part of learners.3. To take the learner through one or more steps of teaching, learning process e.g. Awareness, Interest, Evaluation, Trial, Adoption.

While using the foregoing methods the extension worker uses these methods independently or takes the help of certain audio-visual aids. The word audio-visual comprises three words namely:– Audio – refers to sense of hearing,– Visual – refers to sense of seeing and Aid – instructional

device.

Chapter 5: EXTENSION TEACHING AND LEARNING

Definition of Extension methods– The ways or techniques used by an

extension system to influence its target groups– The extension-teaching methods are tools

and techniques used to create situations in which communication can take place between rural people and extension workers.

Classification of Extension teaching methodsA. According to use and nature of contact- whether

they are used for contacting people individually, in groups or masses.– individual;– group;– mass contact method

B. According to form- extension-teaching methods are also classified according to their forms such as;– written;– spoken– audio-visual

Extension Teaching– It is the process of arranging situations in which the

important things learned are called to the attention of the learners, their interest developed, desire aroused, and action promoted.

Extension Teaching Requires Specific and Clearly Defined Objectives:– While deciding the objectives of teaching, following aspects

are to be considered:

a. People to be taught.b. Behavioral changes to be developed in people.c. Content or subject matter to bring the desired change in behavior.d. The life situation in which the action is going to

take place.

Extension Learning– It is the process by which an individual,

through his own efforts and abilities, changes his behaviors.

Chapter 6: APROACHES TO EXTENSION

Objectives of Rural Development1. Changes in what people know their knowledge

of themselves of their society and of their physical environment.

2. Changes in what people can do their skills, mental and physical.

3. Changes in what people think and feel their attitude towards themselves towards their society and towards their physical environment.

4. Changes in what people actually do their actions related to factors determining their own welfare.

Training approach to Rural Development– The training approach is considered to be

related to the extension approach. But it has a different basic educational tradition and philosophy, closely related to institutionalized schooling. It emphasis more systematic and deeper learning of specific basic skills and related knowledge.

Cooperative Self Help Approach to Rural Development– The cooperative self-help approach starts

with the assumption that the complex process of rural transformation must begin with changes in the rural people themselves.

Integrated Rural Development Approach– The integrated development approach

emphasis is the need of coordinating different agencies under a single management system of essential components (including education) required to get agricultural or rural development moving.

Chapter 7: COMMUNICATION

Extension communication is purposive. It concerns with the eliciting behavioral changes from the extension clientele:

Changes in:–What they know (knowledge)–What they feel (attitude)–What they do (practice)

Definition of CommunicationComes from the Latin word

“communis”-- to make common or to establish commonness among two or more

people. When we enter communication, we assume that we have something to begin

with: – Common language– Common symbols whose meaning are shared

Communication is a process which is a Source sends a Message to a Receiver through means of Channels in order to produce a Response from the receiver in accordance to the intention of the source.

Elements of communication• Source

– The person who encodes the message, using such codes such as verbal, nonverbal, visual, musical or any other modality

• Message– It is used to convey the source’s meaning by means of any

codes.• Channel

– It is the method of carrying the source’s message using any combination of basic senses.

• Receiver– It is the object to whom the message is directed.

• Feedback– It is the check on how successful we have been in transferring

our messages as originally intended.

Communication as a processAny phenomenon which shows continues changes

in time the events and relationships among elements are seen as:– Dynamic- changing all the time. source-receiver– On-going- continues and then.. .. there is feedback– Interactive- components interact with one another– Interrelated- interrelating with one another.– Interdependent- any change in one component and

affect the other elements and the system as a whole– Irreversible- no taking back once it has been said.

Purpose of communicationSpecifically, we communicate to:– Inform- aims at making the people aware and let

them know certain thing.– Bring about greater understanding– Motivate- is encourage or stimulate clientele into

action– Persuade- aims at influencing the feeling, thoughts

and behavior of listeners– Learn a new skills– Change or adapt a new practice– To entertain

Levels of communication– Intrapersonal- communication with oneself.– Interpersonal- is the interaction with two or more

individuals– Organizational- when communication operates

within an organizational structure or bureaucracy.– Mass- when message is channeled through public

forum and use of mass media.

When is communication effective?

Communication is said to be effective when the receiver is in the accordance with the intention of the source.

Chapter 8: THE DIFFUSION AND ADOPTION OF INNOVATION

What is diffusion?– It is the process by which an innovation is

communicated through certain channels over a period of time among the members of a social system.

Four elements of diffusion:– Innovation; – Communication channels;– Time; and– Social system

• The Innovation– It is an idea, practice or object that is perceived as

new. What might seems familiar to some is new to other innovations can be material or nonmaterial.

Three types of Innovation:• Continuous innovation

– it is the simple changing on improving of an already existing product where the adopter still uses the product (e.g automobile).

• Dynamically continuous– the innovation can be either a creation of a new product

or a radical change to a existing one (e.g. compact dics).• Discontinuous innovation

– produces a totally new product in the market. Because of the big change, its changes the consumers’ buying and using patterns (e.g. typewriter replaced by computers).

Characteristics of Innovation:• Relative advantage- the degree in which the innovation

is perceived as better than the idea supersedes.• Compatibility- the degree in which the innovation is

perceived as being consistent with existing values, past experiences and needs of potential adopters.

• Complexity- the degree in which the innovation is perceived as difficult to understand and use.

• Trialability- the degree in which the innovation may be experimented on a limited basis.

• Obervability- the degree in which the innovation are visible to others.

• Communication channels– These are the means by which messages get from

one individual to another.• Time– The three factors are:• Innovation-decision process• Relative time with which an innovation is adopted by an

individual orgroup• Innovation’s rate of adoption

Categories of Adopters• Innovators (first 2.5 percent of adopters)– Tend to be venturesome, cosmopolite with complex

technical knowledge however they do not significantly affect the adoption process.

• Early adopters (next 13.5 percent of adopters)– These people are respected and more local than

innovators. They are also venturesome, sufficiently skeptical to recognize good innovations.

• Early majority (next 34 percent)– Seldom hold positions of opinion leaders but have

strong connection within the system’s interpersonal networks.

• Late majority (next 34 percent)– Tend to adopt from economic/social necessity due

to diffusion effect.• Laggards (final 16 percent)– They are the most localite, suspicious of change

agents and innovations and have few resources to risk.

• Social SystemsSocial systems referred to the group

or groups of people that an innovation diffuses to. It can be split into:

a. traditional andb. modern .

--End of review of EXTN and COM—

Thank You !!! :D

REFERENCES

AgriInfo.in(2013). Introduction to Extension Education. http://agriinfo.in/default.aspx?page=topiclist&superid=7&catid=41

Jones, G.W. (n.d.). The history, development and future of agriculture extension. http://www.fao.org/docrep/w5830e/w5830e03.htm

Mojica (2012). Hand outs on Extension Education. Cavite State University Indang, Cavite Ph.