Agency and Empowerment: A Proposal for Internationally ... · To ensure the feasibility of the proposal, we rely on previously-fielded questions whereever possible. Acknowledgements

Oxford Poverty & Human Development Initiative (OPHI) Oxford Department of International Development Queen Elizabeth House (QEH), University of Oxford

* University of Cambridge. ** University of Oxford. This study has been prepared within the OPHI themes on missing dimensions and multidimensional measurement. ISSN 2040-8188

OPHI WORKING PAPER NO. 04 Agency and Empowerment: A Proposal for Internationally Comparable Indicators Solava Ibrahim* and Sabina Alkire**

May 2007

Abstract This article proposes a short list of internationally-comparable indicators of indivisual agency and empowerment (and the corresponding survey questions). Data from these indicators would enable researchers to explore research and policy issues such as the interconnectios between empowerment and economic or human development. The article surveys definitionsof agency and empowerment, adopts the definition from Amartya Sen, supplemented by Rowland’s typology. The proposed ‘short list’ of indicators includes control over personal decisions; domain-specific authonomy; household decision-making; and the ability to change aspects in one’s life at the individual and communal levels. The strengths and weaknesses of each indicator are discussed, as is the need to supplement this shortlist with other variables. To ensure the feasibility of the proposal, we rely on previously-fielded questions whereever possible.

Acknowledgements We are grateful for the comments of Valery Chirkov, Ed Deci, Mridul Eapen, Sunita Kishor, María Ana Lugo, Deepa Narayan, Richard Ryan and Michael Walton on aspects of this paper. We are also grateful to participants of the OPHI launch seminar, particularly Grace Bediako, Stephan Klasen, Deepa Narayan and Michael Walton; and for the energetic and timely research assistance of Afsan Bhadelia. All errors remain our own.

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>% =21/-,5821 ................................................................................................................. 35 <*+*'*1/*5.......................................................................................................................... 36 Appendix 1: Dimensions for Measuring Empowerment .................................................. 41 !77*1486!:9!);723*';*1)!98;*158215!,5*4!4.!=%9! .................................................... 43 !77*1486!;9!#'2725*4!98;*158215!)2!**(5,'*!'2;*175!);723*';*1).......................... 44 !77*1486!<9!2(4-*!&!?!98'*/)!%148/()2'5!2+!);723*';*1)9!+)()*!92;(81 ........................ 45 !77*1486!>9!2(4-*!:!?!98'*/)!%148/()2'5!2+!);723*';*1)9!*('0*)!92;(81 ..................... 46 !77*1486!@9!2(4-*!;!?!98'*/)!%148/()2'5!2+!);723*';*1)9!+2/8(-!92;(81 ....................... 47 !77*1486!A9!2(4-*!<!?!%1)*';*48()*!%148/()2'5!2+!);723*';*1)9!!&*1/.!>+'2;!*685)81&!5,':*.!815)',;*1)5? ............................................................................................................ 48 !77*1486!B9!2(4-*!>!?!=2;;21-.!"5*4!98;*158215!(14!%148/()2'5!2+!'2;*175!);723*';*1) ................................................................................................................... 49

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41

Appendix 1: Dimensions for Measuring Empowerment

Study Purpose of the Study

Dimensions Indicators Data Sources Conclusions

Bartlett (2004)

Developing a model for evaluating empowerment to use in CARE prjects

Three domains of decision-making: Household, community and social domain; 5 types of capital: human, social, natural, physical and financial capital

CARE Bangladesh Key behavioral indicators: - organizational behavior - planning behavior - entitlement behavior - economic behavior - learning behavior - experimental behavior

Reviewing global efforts to evaluate empowerment

- need to capture the process and ends of empowerment - key empowerment indicators should be part of any monitoring and evaluation of CARE projects

Malhotra, Schuler and Boender (2002)

Identifying Dimensions for measuring women’s empowerment

Economic, socio-cultural, familial/interpersonal, legal, political and psychological85

A number of indicators in each domain at the household, community and broader arenas. See Table 1 on the commonly used indicators for women’s empowerment

Reviewing 45 studies on women’s empowerment

- need to measure the empowerment process - need for macro-level studies on empowerment - need for meso-level studies on empowerment - any dimension can be operationalized at any level of aggregation

Oakley (2001)

Developing a methodology for evaluating empowerment and social development

Psychological; Social; organizational; cultural; economic; political86

Work division in the household; attitude towards girls, access to household property; control over resources; participation; organization and collective action; self-confidence; social status; work pattern and productivity87

Organizing regional workshops on the evaluation of empowerment in Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Middle East and synthesizing their findings

- empowerment can be promoted through participation, capacity-building, democratization and economic improvement

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42

Parveen and Leonhauser (2004)

Examining how rural women were empowered through micro-credit in Bangladesh

Socio-economic; familial; psychological

- contribution to household income - access to resources - ownership of assets - participation in household decision-making - perception on gender awareness - coping capacity to household shocks

A study conducted in three villages in Bangladesh using household surveys and qualitative methods

- the level of women’s empowerment at the household level is not satisfactory

- education, exposure to information; medial and spatial mobility are the most influential factors for women’s empowerment

Roy and Niranjan (2004)

Developing indicators to measure women’s empowerment in India

Decision-making Mobility Access to economic resources

- indirect indicators of empowerment: education, occupation, age difference and education difference between spouses and their influence on women’s access to and control over resources - direct indicators of empowerment: involvement in decision-making, freedom of movement and access to money88

Analyzing the data of the NFHS survey conducted in 1998-1999 in two Indian states: Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu

- there is a regional divide in the women’s empowerment levels

- women with education have greater self-esteem

Schuler and Hashemi (1994)

Examining how women’s status affects fertility

Mobility and visibility; economic security; status and decision-making power within the household; ability to interact effectively in the public sphere; participation in non-family groups

- mobility - economic security - making small and large purchases - subjection to domination and violence - political and legal awareness - protest and campaigning

Conducting a survey over 18 months with 1305 respondents in addition to ethnographic findings from six villages

Participation in micro-credit programs empower women by enhancing their economic roles

Empowerment is positively associated with contraceptive use

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43

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CIDA (1997)

Examining why and how gender-sensitive indicators can be integrated in development projects

Legal; political; economic; social

Legal empowerment • Enforcement of legislation related to the protection of human rights. • Number of cases related to women's rights heard in local courts, and their results. • Number of cases related to the legal rights of divorced and widowed women heard in local courts, and the results. • The effect of the enforcement of legislation in terms of treatment of offenders. • Increase/decrease in violence against women. • Rate at which the number of local justices/ prosecutors/ lawyers who are women/men is increasing/decreasing. • Rate at which the number of women/men in the local police force, by rank, is increasing or decreasing. Political empowerment • % of seats held by women in local councils/decision-making bodies. • % of women in decision-making positions in local government. • % of women in the local civil service. • % of women/men registered as voters/% of eligible women/men who vote. • % of women in senior/junior decision making positions within unions. • % of union members who are women/men. • Number of women who participate in public protests and political campaigning, as compared to the number of men. Economic empowerment (changes should be noted over time) • Changes in employment/unemployment rates of women and men. • Changes in time-use in selected activities, particularly greater sharing by household members of unpaid housework and child-care. • Salary/wage differentials between women and men. • Changes in % of property owned and controlled by women and men (land, houses, livestock), across socio-economic and ethnic groups. • Average household expenditure of female/male headed households on education/health. • Ability to make small or large purchases independently. • % of available credit, financial and technical support services going to women/men from government/non-government sources. Social empowerment • Numbers of women in local institutions (e.g. women's associations, consciousness raising or income generating groups, local churches, ethnic and kinship associations) relative to project area population, and numbers of women in positions of power in local institutions. • Extent of training or networking among local women, as compared to men. • Control of women over fertility decisions (e.g. number of children, number of abortions). • Mobility of women within and outside their residential locality, as compared to men.

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Stromquist (1995)

Cognitive; Psychological; Economic; Political

Sen (1999)

Absence of gender inequality in:

Mortality rates Natality rates

Access to basic facilities such as schooling Access to professional training and higher

education Employment

Property ownership Household work and decision-making

Jojeebhoy 1995

Knowledge economy,

decision-making economy, physical economy,

emotional autonomy, economic and social autonomy

and self-reliance

Kishor 2000a cited in Malhotra, Schuler and

Boender (2002)

Financial autonomy, participation in the modern sector, lifetime exposure to employment, sharing

of roles and decision-making, family structure amenable to empowerment, equality in

marriage, (lack of) Devaluation of women, women’s emancipation, marital advantage,

traditional marriage

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Source: Holland and Brook. (2004). Measuring Empowerment: Country Indicators. http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/ESSD/sdvext.nsf/68ByDocName/MeasuringEmpowermentCountryIndicators/$FILE/Draft+Background+Paper+Country+Indicators.pdf accessed April 22nd, 2007: 16-17

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Source: Holland and Brook. (2004). Measuring Empowerment: Country Indicators. http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/ESSD/sdvext.nsf/68ByDocName/MeasuringEmpowermentCountryIndicators/$FILE/Draft+Background+Paper+Country+Indicators.pdf accessed April 22nd, 2007: 17-18

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Source: Holland and Brook. (2004). Measuring Empowerment: Country Indicators. http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/ESSD/sdvext.nsf/68ByDocName/MeasuringEmpowermentCountryIndicators/$FILE/Draft+Background+Paper+Country+Indicators.pdf accessed April 22nd, 2007: 4.

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Source: Malhotra, Schuler and Boender. (2002). Measuring Women’s Empowerment as a Variable in International Development. http://www.aed.org/LeadershipandDemocracy/upload/MeasuringWomen.pdf accessed April 22nd, 2007: 13.

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Source: Malhotra, Schuler and Boender. (2002). Measuring Women’s Empowerment as a Variable in International Development. http://www.aed.org/LeadershipandDemocracy/upload/MeasuringWomen.pdf accessed April 22nd, 2007: 26.

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Source: Malhotra, Schuler and Boender. (2002). Measuring Women’s Empowerment as a Variable in International Development. http://www.aed.org/LeadershipandDemocracy/upload/MeasuringWomen.pdf accessed April 22nd, 2007: 30. !

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TYP E O F P O W ER RELATIO N

ECO NO MIC EMP O W ERMENT

W ELL-B EIN G B EN EFITS

CULTURA L\LEGAL AND P O LITICAL EMP O W ERMENT

P O W ER W ITHIN: incr eas e d aware ne s s and de s ir e for chang e for individual woman

- wo me n 's p o s it iv e e v a lu a t io n o f th e ir e co n o mic co n trib u t io n- d es ire fo r e q u a l e co n o mic o p p o rtu n it ies- d es ire fo r e q u a l rig h ts to res o u rc es in th e h o u s eh o ld a n d c o mmu n ity

- wo me n ’s co n fid e n ce a n d h ap p in e s s- wo me n 's d es ire fo r e q u a l w ell-b e in g - d es ire to ta ke d e c is io n s a b o u t s e lf a n d o th ers- d es ire to ta ke co n tro l o f o wn fe rt ility

- as s e rt iv e n e s s an d s e n s e o f au to n o my - rec o g n it io n o f n ee d to ch a lle n g e g e n d e r s u b o rd in a t io n in c lu d in g cu ltu ra l 't ra d it io n , leg a l d is c rimin a t io n a n d p o lit ica l e xc lu s io n- d e s ire to en g ag e in cu ltu ra l, le g a l a n d p o lit ica l p ro ce s s es

P O W ER TO :-incr eas e d individual capacity for c hang e- inc re as ed oppor tunitie s for ac ce s s

-a cc es s to mic ro -fin a n c e s e rv ice s- ac ce s s to in co me- ac ce s s to p ro d u c t iv e a s s e ts a n d h o u s eh o ld p ro p e rty - ac ce s s to ma rke ts- red u c t io n in b u rd en o f u n p a id d o mes t ic wo rk in c lu d in g c h ild ca re

- s kills in c lu d in g lite rac y - h ea lth an d n u trit io n s ta tu s- a ware n es s o f a n d a cc es s to rep ro d u c t iv e h e a lth s e rv ice s- a v a ila b ility o f p u b lic w elfa re s e rv ic es

- mo b ility an d ac ce s s to th e wo rld o u ts id e th e h o me- kn o wled g e o f c u ltu ra l, leg a l an d p o lit ic a l p ro c es s e s- remo v al o f fo rma l b arrie rs to a cc es s to cu ltu ra l, le g a l a n d p o lit ica l p ro ce s s es

P O W ER O VER: - c hang es in under lying re s ourc e and powe r cons tr aints at hous e hold, community leve l and mac ro-leve l- individual powe r/action to c halleng e thes e cons tr aints

- co n tro l o v er lo a n s an d s av in g s u s e an d in c o me th ere fro m- co n tro l o v er in c o me fro m o th e r h o u s e h o ld p ro d u c t iv e a c t iv it ie s - co n tro l o v er p ro d u c t iv e a s s e ts a n d h o u s eh o ld p ro p e rty- co n tro l o v er h o u s eh o ld lab o u r a llo c a t io n- in d iv id u a l ac t io n to c h a lle n g e d is c rimin a t io n in a cc es s to res o u rc es a n d ma rke ts

- c o n tro l o v er p ara me ters o f h o u s eh o ld c o n s u mp tio n an d o th er v a lu e d a rea s o f h o u s e h o ld d e c is io n -makin g in c lu d in g fe rt ility d e c is io n s-in d iv id u a l a c t io n to d e fen d s e lf ag a in s t v io le n ce in th e h o u s e h o ld a n d c o mmu n ity

- in d iv id u a l ac t io n to ch a lle n g e a n d c h a n g e cu ltu ra l p e rce p t io n s o f wo me n ’s ca p a c it ies an d rig h ts a t h o u s e h o ld an d co mmu n ity le v e ls- in d iv id u a l en g ag emen t with a n d ta kin g p o s it io n s o f a u th o rity w ith in cu ltu ra l, le g a l a n d p o lit ica l p ro ce s s es

P O W ER W ITH or incr eas e d s ol idar ity/joint ac tion with other wome n to challeng e under lying re s ourc e and powe r cons tr aints at hous e hold, community leve l and mac ro-leve l

- ac t in g as ro le mo d el fo r o th er wo men , p art ic u la rly in lu cra t iv e a n d n o n -tra d it io n a l o cc u p a t io n s - p ro v is io n o f wag e e mp lo y me n t fo r o th e r wo me n a t g o o d w ag es- jo in t ac t io n to c h a lle n g e d is c rimin a t io n in w o men 's ac ce s s to re s o u rce s (in c lu d in g lan d rig h ts ), marke ts an d g en d er d is c rimin a t io n in ma cro -e co n o mic co n text .

- h ig h e r v a lu a t io n o f a n d in cre as ed exp e n d itu re o n g irl c h ild ren an d o th e r fe ma le family memb e rs- jo in t ac t io n fo r in cre as ed p u b lic we lfa re p ro v is io n fo r w o men

- in c rea s e in n e two rks fo r s u p p o rt in t imes o f c ris is - jo in t a c t io n to d efe n d o th e r wo men ag a in s t ab u s e in th e h o u s eh o ld an d co mmu n ity - p a rt ic ip a t io n in mo v eme n ts to c h a llen g e cu ltu ra l, p o lit ic a l an d leg a l g en d er s u b o rd in a t io n a t th e co mmu n ity a n d ma cro -lev e l

Source: Mayoux, L. (2000). From Access to Empowerment: Gender Issues in Micro-Finance. CSD NGO Women’s Caucus Position Paper for CSD-8. http://www.earthsummit2002.org/wcaucus/Caucus%20Position%20Papers/micro-finance.pdf accessed April 22nd, 2007: 21.

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Source: Oakley, P. (2001). Evaluating Empowerment: Reviewing the Concept and Practice. Oxford: INTRAC: 52-53. !

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Appendix 13: Indicators Measuring Empowerment in the State Domain Women

Justice Participation in Politics

Social Services Delivery/ Access

-Ratio of women to men serving in village and district councils90 -Women’s representation in community groups91 Equal treatment (of women) in judicial system92 - Women’s awareness of their rights93 - Women’s representation in government94 - Number of people women can rely on for support95 - Women’s ability to speak in public96 - Women’s ability to break traditional rules of conduct97 - Women’s ability to affect political decisions 98 - Women’s representation in civil service99 - Women’s representation in parliament100 - Women’s representation in elected regional councils101 - Women’s access to services - Women’s awareness of their rights to and

- Perceptions of fairness of courts 103 - Ability of citizens to approach the police104 - Ability of the police and courts to apply the laws correctly and solve their conflicts105 - Functioning and accountability of local authorities106 - Egalitarian formal rules vs. unfair informal rules107 - What rights do people have108 - What are the source of these rights109 - Crime rate in a country110 - Role of/existence of Local informal and dispute resolution systems111 - State reform including government effectiveness, corruption perceptions index, incidence of illicit payments112 - Reform of legal system: rule of law, quality of regulations, pro-poor decentralization113 State/Justice114 - existence of systems of justice - use of systems of justice - frequency of using and accessing justice

- Citizen participation in local decision-making 115 - People’s protection from political oppression116 - participation of Excluded social groups (social exclusion)117 - Ability of different social groups to participate in the political process118 - In case of crisis, the type of institutions that people can go to119 - Municipal budgeting 120 - Participation in ongoing peace processes (but context-specific!)121 - Democracy: civil liberties and political freedoms, voice and accountability, strength of civil society 122 - Removal of social barriers to citizen participation: share of women in political offices, income inequality, building social capital123 State/Political124: - frequency of elections at different levels - interest in elections at different levels - having voting rights in elections at different levels - exercise of voting rights at different levels - willingness to exercise voting in elections - decision-making of voting decision

- Social transfer systems: their availability, especially to vulnerable people125 State/Service Delivery126 - availability of public services - access to public services - actual use of public services - quality of services - denied access to public services - individual complaint about public services - communal complaint about public services - frequency of complaints about public services - equal effectiveness in addressing people’s needs - impact of ethnicity and religion on people’s treatment

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practicing these rights 102

- satisfaction with justice system - fair treatment (perception of past treatment) - fair treatment (perception of future treatment) - equal treatment in justice system (individual) - equal treatment of other social groups by the justice system - access to justice system - activity in complaining about the justice system - effectiveness of complaints - independence of police force - punishment of corrupt activities

- impact of local leaders on voting decisions - ability of local leaders to affect people’s voting decisions - actual involvement in the political process - willingness to be involved in the political process - awareness of political parties and movements - influence of local representatives on the political process - perceived fairness of the electoral process - satisfaction with elected representatives - ability to hold local representatives accountable - actually using local accountability systems - effectiveness of accountability systems

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Appendix 14: Indicators Measuring Empowerment in the Market Domain Women Credit Provision

and Services Labour Market and Employment

Asset Entitlement and Consumption

- Women’s education and income levels127 - Women’s possession of job specific skills128 - Women’s access to different sources of information129 - Cultural restrictions on the nature of women’s professions130 - Amount of time women dedicate to household chores131 - Gendered rules governing access to productive assets and markets132 - Women’s participation in the labour force133 - Women’s ability to choose their type of employment134 - Entrepreneurial and business skills of women135 - Type of activities undertaken by women: tradable activities, sheep and husbandry136 - Women’s economic participation and decision-making: administrative and managerial positions, professional and technical positions137 - Gender-disparity in earned income Economic independence of women138

- Access to finance/credit and demand for/receipt of loans and the size of these loans139 - Access to credit: accessibility, effectiveness, transparency, accountability, freedom from corruption140 - Control over credit in the household141

Market/Credit142 - need to access credit - actual access to credit/borrowing - number of credit sources (formal and informal) - mostly used credit sources - reasons for preferential use of credit sources - credit sources denied access to specific social groups/individuals - reasons for lack of accessibility of certain credit sources - availability of savings - decision-making on the use of savings

- Legal labour standards and people’s awareness of them143 - Employer’s compliance to labour standards144 - Government’s insurance of Employer’s compliance to labour regulations145

- Understanding people’s perceptions of power146 Market/Labour147 - ability to choose own occupation - ability to change occupation (if want to) - reasons for (in) ability to change occupation - doing household work - kind of household work done - frequency of doing household work - household work that is never done

- transparent rules of transaction148 - differences in gaining control over resources and information149 - lack of contract enforcement150 - Capacity to negotiate

in markets, especially negotiating prices151

- Asset endowments152 - Change in specific

markets: labour, land, water, housing153

- Differential access to market by different social groups154

- Transparency and accountability of market transactions

- Access and control over productive assets, especially for different social groups155

- Inheritance of assets - Government policies

in relation to land redistribution156

- Access and control over consumption goods and services157

Market/Goods158 - threat to be evicted from land (land security) - protection from authorities/enactment of property rights

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- restrictions on rent/ownership rights/ property rights - reasons for restrictions on property rights - individual inheritance - family inheritance - traditional rules of inheritance

Appendix 15: Indicators Measuring Empowerment in the Social Domain Household and kinship group entitlements

Roles and Responsibilities

Community organizations and relationships

- Customs that influence whether women are allowed to disagree with their husbands or not159

- Sending girls to school/ girls’ schooling160

- Existence of traditional harmful practices (THP)161

- Women’s mobility: ability to go out alone/ freedom of movement162

- Women’s ability to ride a cart163

- Women’s ability to wear trousers164

- Women’s engagement in savings and credit activities165

- Women’s subjection to genital mutilation166

Decision-making with the household about the number and spacing of children, use of contraceptives (in relation to women’s education, income, self-confidence, awareness of reproductive health, participation in women’s groups) 171

Whether women are expected to play a subservient role regarding sexual conduct172

Women’s willingness to make independent decisions173

Who does the

- Associational and social interaction among people of different identities 179 - Caste systems180 - Local implementation of formal institutions181 - Existence of membership organizations182 - Rules governing membership in communal organizations183 - Existence of conflict between the degree to which the community has changed with regards to: altruism, common values, communal services, communication within the community, confidence, political and administrative context, information intervention, leadership,

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- Forced and early marriages167 - Ability of women to choose

their husbands168 - Women’s subjection to rape169 - Women’s subjection to

domestic violence170

housework Institutionalized

gender inequalities174 women’s say in

household economic decisions175

women’s participation in family size decisions176

women’s exposure to coercive controls by their husbands177

having control over decisions pertaining personal welfare, health and body178

networking, organization, political power, skills, trust, unity, wealth 184 - sense of meanings and beliefs, competence, self-determination and impact or efficacy185 - activity and effectiveness of civil society in informing, educating, building capacity for collective action, empowering poor people and women, building social capital186 - community-level gender attitude187 - psychological empowerment: perceived knowledge, skills development, perceived participation, compliance, expected future individuals contributions, perceived group accomplishments, future expected accomplishments 188 - micro: attitude, feelings, skills/ interface: participation and action immediately around the individual/ macro: beliefs, action and effects189 - access to health services190 - access to education and training services191 - estimated spending on personal

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health192 - decision-making on public services in the community193 - actual involvement in communal decision-making194 - willingness to be involved in communal decision-making 195 - individual influence on communal decision-making processes196