AG ED 423/623 Chapter 6 Curriculum Theory. The foundation of curriculum that is least appreciated is curriculum theory.

AG ED 423/623AG ED 423/623

Chapter 6Chapter 6

Curriculum TheoryCurriculum Theory

The foundation of curriculum that is least The foundation of curriculum that is least appreciated is curriculum theory.appreciated is curriculum theory.

The behaviorist approach to curriculum is The behaviorist approach to curriculum is based largely on psychological theories of based largely on psychological theories of learning.learning.

We are no longer satisfied with merely being We are no longer satisfied with merely being technicians following curriculum development technicians following curriculum development recipes in blind adherence to past models of recipes in blind adherence to past models of previous thinking.previous thinking.

They are very much immersed in investigating They are very much immersed in investigating how current curricula are created and how current curricula are created and maintained and how particular programs maintained and how particular programs evolve and emerge in response to dynamic evolve and emerge in response to dynamic times. They wish to produce theoretical times. They wish to produce theoretical knowledge that can serve the practical knowledge that can serve the practical purposes of explaining, prescribing, guiding, purposes of explaining, prescribing, guiding, and describing what people involved in and describing what people involved in education do within the curriculum arena and education do within the curriculum arena and within the general social context.within the general social context.

With theory, curriculum decision makes can With theory, curriculum decision makes can draw on the most advanced and valid draw on the most advanced and valid knowledge available and apply it to many knowledge available and apply it to many situations. situations.

We can provide ourselves with ways of We can provide ourselves with ways of viewing the world and how it works so that viewing the world and how it works so that education will be “real,” will relate to the education will be “real,” will relate to the world, and will have applicability to real issues world, and will have applicability to real issues and challenges.and challenges.

Theoretical PerspectivesTheoretical Perspectives

The challenge of bringing into focus visions of the The challenge of bringing into focus visions of the future and then skillfully initiating actions that assure future and then skillfully initiating actions that assure attainment of these visions is not small. attainment of these visions is not small.

Curriculum is a complex phenomenon existing within Curriculum is a complex phenomenon existing within ever expanding social and political dynamics.ever expanding social and political dynamics.

Perhaps we can be more receptive to theory if Perhaps we can be more receptive to theory if we realize that theorizing is a process that we realize that theorizing is a process that engages us in imagining the how and why of engages us in imagining the how and why of certain phenomena. certain phenomena.

It challenges us to analyze why we think a It challenges us to analyze why we think a curriculum should be developed in a certain curriculum should be developed in a certain way for particular students and focused on way for particular students and focused on certain content. certain content.

Theory can also suggest ways in which we can Theory can also suggest ways in which we can teach what we think is important.teach what we think is important.

In many ways, theory is an expression of In many ways, theory is an expression of belief.belief.

George Beauchamp has asserted that all George Beauchamp has asserted that all theories are derived from three broad theories are derived from three broad categories of knowledge: (1) the humanities; categories of knowledge: (1) the humanities; (2) the natural sciences; and (3) the social (2) the natural sciences; and (3) the social sciences. These sciences. These divisions of knowledgedivisions of knowledge are are well established as the basic realms of well established as the basic realms of knowledge.knowledge.

There are two major categories of curriculum There are two major categories of curriculum theories – design theories and engineering theories – design theories and engineering theories.theories. Design theoriesDesign theories address the basic organization of address the basic organization of

the curriculum plan. For this, curricularists draw the curriculum plan. For this, curricularists draw on philosophy as well as on social and psychology on philosophy as well as on social and psychology theory.theory.

Engineering theoriesEngineering theories explain, describe, predict, or explain, describe, predict, or even guide curriculum-development activities. even guide curriculum-development activities. They involve specific plans, principles, and/or They involve specific plans, principles, and/or methods or procedures. Engineering theories of methods or procedures. Engineering theories of curriculum are also partially based on principles of curriculum are also partially based on principles of measurement and statistics.measurement and statistics.

The Meaning of TheoryThe Meaning of Theory

““A theory is a way of making sense of a A theory is a way of making sense of a disturbing situation so as to allow us most disturbing situation so as to allow us most effectively to bring to bear our repertoire of effectively to bring to bear our repertoire of habits, and even more important, to modify habits, and even more important, to modify habits or discard them altogether, replacing new habits or discard them altogether, replacing new ones as the situation demands…”ones as the situation demands…”

- Abraham Kaplan- Abraham Kaplan

A challenge for curricularists is to determine A challenge for curricularists is to determine just what aspect of the field of curriculum we just what aspect of the field of curriculum we are processing. Our assumption is that the are processing. Our assumption is that the field of curriculum should involve field of curriculum should involve curricularists in theorizing about curriculum curricularists in theorizing about curriculum design and curriculum development.design and curriculum development.

Most curricularists do seem to agree on two Most curricularists do seem to agree on two points.points. First, curricularists agree that curriculum is of First, curricularists agree that curriculum is of

fundamental importance to our teachers and fundamental importance to our teachers and students, and to the nature of teaching and students, and to the nature of teaching and learning.learning.

Second, curriculum development is greatly Second, curriculum development is greatly influenced by the values we bring to the process.influenced by the values we bring to the process.

The term The term theorytheory sometimes refers to a set of sometimes refers to a set of propositions inductively derived from propositions inductively derived from empirical findings. These generalizations refer empirical findings. These generalizations refer to various facts, laws, or hypotheses that are to various facts, laws, or hypotheses that are related to each other in a systematic way and related to each other in a systematic way and that form a type of whole – an entity.that form a type of whole – an entity.

Scientific theory, then, is comprised of general Scientific theory, then, is comprised of general facts, laws, or hypotheses related to each other.facts, laws, or hypotheses related to each other.

Scientific theory is a “set of assumptions from Scientific theory is a “set of assumptions from which can be derived by purely which can be derived by purely logicomathematical procedures, a larger set of logicomathematical procedures, a larger set of empirical laws. The theory furnished an empirical laws. The theory furnished an explanation of these empirical laws and unifies explanation of these empirical laws and unifies the subject matter.”the subject matter.”

Philosophical and Humanistic TheoryPhilosophical and Humanistic Theory

Such theories produce a set of assumptions or Such theories produce a set of assumptions or beliefs that beliefs that explain what ought to be.explain what ought to be.

Philosophers’ theories describe their outlooks Philosophers’ theories describe their outlooks – their views of reality and their place within – their views of reality and their place within it.it.

Much of the theory that relates to education, and Much of the theory that relates to education, and specifically to curriculum, stems from the specifically to curriculum, stems from the philosophical and/or humanistic orientation.philosophical and/or humanistic orientation.

Philosophical and humanistic theory is largely Philosophical and humanistic theory is largely normative (based on values). It essentially normative (based on values). It essentially indicates what should or should not be indicates what should or should not be included or done in some action. included or done in some action.

Humanistic theory emphasizes the melding of Humanistic theory emphasizes the melding of the emotion and physical with the intellectual.the emotion and physical with the intellectual.

The Functions of TheoryThe Functions of Theory

Educators may ask, “Why do we need theory at Educators may ask, “Why do we need theory at all?” Often, they do not wait for a reply and all?” Often, they do not wait for a reply and state, “I do not need your damn theory.”state, “I do not need your damn theory.”

The aim of science is to understand the The aim of science is to understand the phenomena studied. Philosophers also seek phenomena studied. Philosophers also seek answers to their questions: What is knowledge, answers to their questions: What is knowledge, what is reality, what is of value?what is reality, what is of value?

Theory comes from the Greek word Theory comes from the Greek word theoriatheoria connoting “wakefulness of mind.” It is a type connoting “wakefulness of mind.” It is a type of “pure viewing” of truth. Theory explains of “pure viewing” of truth. Theory explains reality; it makes people aware of their world reality; it makes people aware of their world and its interactions.and its interactions.

Many writers have ascribed four functions to Many writers have ascribed four functions to theory:theory: DescriptionDescription PredictionPrediction ExplanationExplanation GuidanceGuidance

Description Description provides a narrative classification provides a narrative classification of knowledge in a particular theoretical field. of knowledge in a particular theoretical field. It furnished a structure through which It furnished a structure through which individuals’ interpretations of complex individuals’ interpretations of complex activities can be verified. It organizes and activities can be verified. It organizes and summarizes knowledge.summarizes knowledge.

PredictionPrediction – A theory can predict the – A theory can predict the occurrence of as yet unobserved events on the occurrence of as yet unobserved events on the basis of explanatory principles embedded in it. basis of explanatory principles embedded in it. Perhaps this is the ultimate function of theory.Perhaps this is the ultimate function of theory.

ExplanationExplanation addresses “why.” It not only addresses “why.” It not only points out the relationships between points out the relationships between phenomena, but suggests either explicitly or phenomena, but suggests either explicitly or implicitly the reasons for the relationships.implicitly the reasons for the relationships.

Guidance.Guidance. Theory also acts as a guide. It helps Theory also acts as a guide. It helps researchers choose data for analysis and make researchers choose data for analysis and make economical summaries of the data. The theory economical summaries of the data. The theory generated promotes further investigation.generated promotes further investigation.

Theory BuildingTheory Building

Essentially, the process of theory development Essentially, the process of theory development is tied to inductive and deductive thinking.is tied to inductive and deductive thinking. InductionInduction means building a theory by means building a theory by

accumulating and summarizing a variety of accumulating and summarizing a variety of inquiries.inquiries.

They form propositions on the basis of research They form propositions on the basis of research that began as tentative hypotheses they tested and that began as tentative hypotheses they tested and validated.validated.

DeductionDeduction, in contrast to induction, is the , in contrast to induction, is the process of inferring necessary conclusions process of inferring necessary conclusions from a combination of premises whose truth from a combination of premises whose truth has either been accepted as given or assumed has either been accepted as given or assumed to be true. People employing deduction to be true. People employing deduction develop theory by constructing logical develop theory by constructing logical sequences. They proceed from the general to sequences. They proceed from the general to the specific.the specific.

Steps in Theory BuildingSteps in Theory Building

To engage in theory is to deal with symbols, To engage in theory is to deal with symbols, facts, or words that can be classified into large facts, or words that can be classified into large concepts and generalizations. concepts and generalizations.

The problem with theory is when it must be The problem with theory is when it must be applied in the real world.applied in the real world.

Defining Terms. Defining Terms. One of the basic rules in One of the basic rules in theory building is to be clear about terms.theory building is to be clear about terms.

Selecting terms is governed by two rules:Selecting terms is governed by two rules: The wording must be clear, andThe wording must be clear, and The terms, once defined, must be used The terms, once defined, must be used

consistently.consistently.

Concepts are either nominal or operational. Concepts are either nominal or operational. NominalNominal definitions present the attributes of definitions present the attributes of

a term or concept.a term or concept. In contrast, In contrast, operationaloperational definitions indicate definitions indicate

the context in which the concept is the context in which the concept is employed.employed.

These These primitiveprimitive terms are accepted by those terms are accepted by those who use them in their theoretical work. In who use them in their theoretical work. In mathematics, for example, the terms “point” or mathematics, for example, the terms “point” or “straight line” are primitive terms.“straight line” are primitive terms.

Another category of terms used in theory is Another category of terms used in theory is theoreticaltheoretical terms or operational constructs; terms or operational constructs; theories with any degree of sophistication theories with any degree of sophistication contain such terms. A construct is a concept contain such terms. A construct is a concept that represents relationships among things that represents relationships among things and/or events and their properties.and/or events and their properties.

Classifying.Classifying. The second activity in theory The second activity in theory building is classification. Theorists attempt to building is classification. Theorists attempt to organize and integrate what they know about organize and integrate what they know about the areas being theorized. They begin the areas being theorized. They begin summarizing discovered uniformities of summarizing discovered uniformities of relationships between two or more variables or relationships between two or more variables or concepts.concepts.

Curriculum TheoryCurriculum Theory

The challenge to curricularists is to make The challenge to curricularists is to make sense out of the complexity of the field of sense out of the complexity of the field of curriculum and to determine whether they curriculum and to determine whether they should create their own curriculum theory or should create their own curriculum theory or theories, borrow theories from other theories, borrow theories from other disciplines – such as psychology, sociology, disciplines – such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, and philosophy – or do both.anthropology, and philosophy – or do both.

To create a single curriculum theory that would To create a single curriculum theory that would describe, and more importantly explain, describe, and more importantly explain, curriculum is perhaps an unrealistic goal; curriculum is perhaps an unrealistic goal; curriculum covers too many aspects of education.curriculum covers too many aspects of education.

Maccias’ TheoryMaccias’ Theory

Consequently, they organized theory as formal Consequently, they organized theory as formal theory, even theory, valuational theory, and theory, even theory, valuational theory, and praxiological theory.praxiological theory.

1.1. Formal theoryFormal theory. This theory deals with . This theory deals with speculation about the structure of the speculation about the structure of the disciplines that comprise the disciplines that comprise the curriculum.curriculum.

2.2. Event theory. Event theory. This theory, very similar This theory, very similar to what we have been discussing as to what we have been discussing as

scientific theory, refers to speculation scientific theory, refers to speculation about about occurrences. It attempts to occurrences. It attempts to predict what will predict what will occur given certain occur given certain circumstances.circumstances.3.3. Valuational theory. Valuational theory. This theory involves This theory involves

speculation about the appropriate speculation about the appropriate means to attain the objectives most means to attain the objectives most desired desired and to include the content and to include the content judged to be the judged to be the best.best.

4.4. Praxiological theory.Praxiological theory. Such theory refers to Such theory refers to speculation about appropriate means to attain speculation about appropriate means to attain what is considered valuable. It is about practices.what is considered valuable. It is about practices.

Johnson’s TheoryJohnson’s Theory

Johnson’s definition of curriculum – an Johnson’s definition of curriculum – an intended series of learning outcomes – they intended series of learning outcomes – they should realize the usefulness of distinguishing should realize the usefulness of distinguishing between theorizing about curriculum as a plan between theorizing about curriculum as a plan and theorizing about the means by which such and theorizing about the means by which such plans are generated.plans are generated.

Macdonald’s TheoryMacdonald’s Theory

Macdonald defines Macdonald defines curriculumcurriculum as the social system as the social system that actually produces a plan for that actually produces a plan for instructioninstruction, which he , which he in turn defines as another social system within which in turn defines as another social system within which formal teaching and learning take place.formal teaching and learning take place. Teaching Teaching is different from instruction and is defined as a is different from instruction and is defined as a

personality system–the teacher–acting in a particular personality system–the teacher–acting in a particular manner to facilitate learning.manner to facilitate learning.

LearningLearning is defined as a personality system too; the student is defined as a personality system too; the student becomes involved in specialized task-related behaviors.becomes involved in specialized task-related behaviors.

Curriculum InquiryCurriculum Inquiry

Curricularists are confronted with making sense Curricularists are confronted with making sense of the world, not only to describe it but to of the world, not only to describe it but to manage it in the present and to entertain and manage it in the present and to entertain and initiate ways of modifying it in the future.initiate ways of modifying it in the future.

Decker Walker, who is classified by some as Decker Walker, who is classified by some as a conceptual curricularist, has outlined five a conceptual curricularist, has outlined five questions:questions:

1.1. What are the major features of a given What are the major features of a given curriculum?curriculum?

2.2. What are the personal and social consequences What are the personal and social consequences that a given curriculum feature elicits?that a given curriculum feature elicits?

3.3. What accounts for the stability and change in What accounts for the stability and change in curriculum features?curriculum features?

4.4. What accounts for people’s judgments of the What accounts for people’s judgments of the merit or worth of various curriculum merit or worth of various curriculum features?features?

5.5. What sorts of curriculum features should be What sorts of curriculum features should be part of a curriculum designed for a particular part of a curriculum designed for a particular purpose?purpose?