AFFIRMING PSYCHOLOGY IN INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY by Mary Schaerer MINOR DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree Magister Commercii in INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY in the FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT at the UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG Supervisor: Fred Guest Co-supervisor: Professor Leon van Vuuren December 2011
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
AFFIRMING PSYCHOLOGY IN INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
by
Mary Schaerer
MINOR DISSERTATION
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree
Magister Commercii
in
INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
in the
FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT
at the
UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG
Supervisor: Fred Guest
Co-supervisor: Professor Leon van Vuuren
December 2011
ii
AFFIDAVIT This serves to confirm that I_______________________________________________________ (Full Name(s) and Surname ID Number____________________________________________________________________ Student number____________________________________________________ enrolled for the Qualification___________________________________________________________________ Faculty _______________________________________________________________________ Herewith declare that my academic work is in line with the Plagiarism Policy of the University of Johannesburg which I am familiar with. I further declare that the work presented in the ___________________________ (minor dissertation/dissertation/thesis) is authentic and original unless clearly indicated otherwise and in such instances full reference to the source is acknowledged and I do not pretend to receive any credit for such acknowledged quotations, and that there is no copyright infringement in my work. I declare that no unethical research practices were used or material gained through dishonesty. I understand that plagiarism is a serious offence and that should I contravene the Plagiarism Policy notwithstanding signing this affidavit, I may be found guilty of a serious criminal offence (perjury) that would amongst other consequences compel the UJ to inform all other tertiary institutions of the offence and to issue a corresponding certificate of reprehensible academic conduct to whomever requests such a certificate from the institution. Signed at _____________________on this ______________day of _______________ 20___. Signature__________________________________ Print name_________________________ STAMP COMMISSIONER OF OATHS Affidavit certified by a Commissioner of Oaths This affidavit conforms with the requirements of the JUSTICES OF THE PEACE AND COMMISSIONERS OF OATHS ACT 16 OF 1963 and the applicable Regulations published in the GG GNR 1258 of 21 July 1972; GN 903 of 10 July 1998; GN 109 of 2 February 2001 as amended.
iii
ABSTRACT
Industrial psychology is an applied sub-discipline of psychology, and industrial psychologists
are trained to be behavioural specialists in the workplace. As such, industrial psychologists
approach workplace problems or enhance organisational functioning from a behavioural
perspective. Industrial psychologists also function as human resource management
practitioners within organisations. An investigation was conducted to determine how
behavioural science could ideally be applied by industrial psychologists in the human
resource management domains. The importance of investigating this research question was
to enable or enhance the practise of industrial psychologists when functioning in the human
resource management domains. The aim of this study was to create a socially constructed
futuristic framework that could inform industrial psychologists on how they could practically
apply psychology in human resource management. A qualitative approach was utilised to
explore the research question. Industrial psychologists (21) that function in the realm of
human resource management were involved as participants through personal semi-structured
in-depth interviews and focus groups to provide an informed perspective on the behavioural
scientific role of psychologists in the human resource management domains. The main
contribution of this study is that industrial psychologists may be better able to position
themselves in order to embed behavioural science in the human resource management
domains. The implications of the findings are discussed.
Keywords: industrial psychology, human resource management, behavioural science
Table 1: Adapted scope of practice of an industrial psychologist 17
Table 2: Roles and primary competences of a psychologist 20
Table 3: Chapter headings demonstrating behavioural science aims in industrial
psychology 23
Table 4: Work content of industrial psychologists 26
Table 5: SIOPSA survey: Summary of areas of practice of industrial psychologists 28
Table 6: Human resource management domains and activities 31
Table 7: Biographical information matrix of participants 47
Table 8: Questions asked in the pilot interview 52
Table 9: Conversion of 328 codes to first-order themes 67
Table 10: First-order themes 71
Table 11: Second-order themes 86
Table 12: Summary of results of the verification survey 92
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Description Page
Figure 1: Research design 37
Figure 2: A futuristic framework for the application of psychology in human resource
management domains (an explanatory figure) 116
1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the research problem
During the last two decades, organisations have had to change the way that they
operate in order to survive in a rapidly changing environment (McGreevy, 2003; van Tonder,
2004). As a result, organisations have had to adapt by reengineering, restructuring, changing
their focus or location of their production, or downsizing (McGreevy, 2003). Each of the
possible activities employed by organisations to adapt to the changing environment has led to
a number of significant changes in the way that work is organised (McGreevy, 2003).
Working people need to deal with technological advances and the increased rate of change,
while managing information and being sensitive to diversity within the workplace. It is
suggested that, in order for organisations to effectively respond to a changing environment,
organisations need to effectively influence behaviour in the workplace (van Tonder, 2004).
Industrial psychology1 is a specialist discipline focused on influencing behaviour at
work. The discipline of industrial psychology aims to understand, predict, and influence
behaviour in the workplace for the good of the employee, groups, the organisation, and
society as a whole (van Vuuren, 2010). According to Bergh (2009), Conte and Landy (2007),
Doyle (2003), Muchinsky (2000), and Strumpfer (2007), industrial psychology is concerned
with the application of psychological theories, models, and principles to the work context.
Industrial psychology is an applied discipline of psychology (Lewis, 2003) and, as such, it is
1The discipline is internationally better known as industrial-organisational psychology, or industrial/organisational psychology. Industrial psychology is also referred to as work and organisational psychology or occupational psychology in European countries. Although the discipline is known as industrial-organisational psychology, industrial/organisational psychology, work and organisational psychology, or occupational psychology, the name industrial psychology is used in this paper.
2
through the principles of psychology that behaviour within the workplace can be understood,
predicted, and influenced.
Despite industrial psychologists being behavioural specialists within the organisation,
it appears that, due to a higher demand for human resource management practitioners than for
industrial psychologists, industrial psychologists often find employment as human resource
management practitioners. Fouche, van Niekerk, and Vorster (2009) conducted a study into
the labour market requirements of industrial psychologists. A total of 52 Sunday Times
editions (in the period from August 2006 to September 2007) of job advertisements recruiting
industrial psychology graduates were reviewed. The study revealed that about 78% of the
occupational categories advertised were human resource management related. These
occupational categories included human resource administration and management, human
resource management development, employment relations, recruitment and selection, human
resource planning, performance management, human resource information systems,
remuneration, organisational health, safety and wellness, quality assurance, and employment
equity. The remaining 22% of the occupational categories advertised included organisational
development, consulting, work study, career management, lecturing, employee assistance
programmes, assessment and evaluation, research, industrial psychology, and consumer
psychology. „Industrial psychology‟ per se, as well as consumer psychology were the least
advertised when compared to the other occupational categories listed. A study performed in
2008 on the work activities performed by industrial psychologists found that these activities
consisted mostly of human resource management activities (Benjamin & Louw-Potgieter,
2008).
The prevalence of industrial psychologists operating in the human resource
management domains is apparent from the abovementioned studies. It was also indicated that
industrial psychologists apply the principles of psychology to understand, influence, and
3
predict behaviour in the workplace. Since industrial psychologists may work within human
resource management contexts, an exploration of how industrial psychologists could utilise
behavioural science in the human resource management domains may be required.
1.2 Problem formulation
As previously suggested, industrial psychology is an applied discipline of psychology
and, as such, industrial psychologists should approach organisational problems from a
behavioural perspective. Should industrial psychologists approach organisational problems
from a behavioural perspective as logically expected, it is suggested that industrial
psychologists could approach human resource management domains from the same
psychological perspective. The question can then be raised as to how the principles of
psychology could be applied by industrial psychologists in the human resource management
domains? The importance of conducting research into this question is to ensure that
industrial psychologists approach or continue to approach human resource management
domains from a behavioural perspective. It is intended that, by answering this research
question, a case could be made for industrial psychologists to remain relevant to the needs of
the organisation and to be empowered to apply the principles of behavioural science in
human resource management domains.
1.3 Aim of the study
The aim of this study is to create a socially constructed futuristic framework that
could inform the application of psychological principles, theories, and models by industrial
psychologists when operating in human resource management domains. Since industrial
psychologists seem to be fulfilling human resource management roles within organisations,
the construction of an ideal framework for the application of behavioural science in the
human resource management domains seems warranted. It is intended that the aspirational
4
framework that will be constructed may be of practical value to industrial psychologists that
function in human resource management domains. By pursuing an ideal state where
psychology is applied by industrial psychologists in the human resource management
domains, the practice of industrial psychology could be improved, and psychology may be
affirmed in industrial psychology.
It is also intended that the construction of an ideal framework would provide a
comprehensive perspective on the application of psychology in the human resource
management domains. In order to do so, various influential stakeholders in the profession of
industrial psychology are identified. Participants‟ perspectives regarding the roles that the
Professional Board for Psychology of the Health Professions Council of South Africa and
employing organisations could fulfil in the application of psychology in the human resource
management domains will be investigated.
1.4 Potential contribution of the study
As stated above, the purpose of this study is to inform the practice of industrial
psychologists. The results of this study are aimed at industrial psychologists and, as such, the
construction of the aspirational framework may initiate introspection and reflection by
industrial psychologists on their practice in the human resource management domains.
Although the ideal framework constructed for the application of behavioural science in the
human resource management domains by industrial psychologists may not be conclusive,
industrial psychologists may be able to utilise the framework to enable or enhance their
current practice. Industrial psychologists may then be better positioned to entrench
behavioural science in the human resource management domains. Additionally, by
constructing a comprehensive aspirational framework, the roles of the relevant stakeholders,
(for instance the Health Professions Council of South Africa and organisations) in the
5
application of psychology in the human resource management domains may be clarified. By
virtue of providing a holistic perspective, industrial psychologists may be able to recognise
their responsibility to influence the identified stakeholders to affirm psychology in industrial
psychology.
1.5 Research design overview
A qualitative research approach will be embarked upon as opposed to a quantitative
methodology, due to the exploratory nature of the research question. Since there is little
current information available on the research question, the narratives of industrial
psychologists working as human resource management practitioners need to be explored.
Interpretive paradigmatic assumptions are best suited to the research question. The meanings
ascribed by the industrial psychologists working as human resource management
practitioners will be fundamental to understanding the different elements that contribute to
the construction of a framework that could inform the application of psychology in the human
resource management domains.
Owing to the focus of the research question, purposive sampling will be used to
identify and invite people to participate in the study. Industrial psychologists and participants
with postgraduate degrees in industrial psychology operating in the human resource
management domains will participate in the study. Phenomenology will be the research
strategy used and the data collection methods will be seven in-depth semi-structured
interviews (seven participants) and three focus groups (13 participants). The data gathered
will be audio recorded and transcribed into text. Content analysis will be used to analyse the
data gathered in order to uncover how psychology could be applied in the human resource
management domains. Due to the exploratory nature of the study, an inductive approach will
be adopted during data analysis to capture the essence of the participants' perspectives on the
6
research question. Once the essence of the participants‟ perspectives on the research question
have been extracted, first-order and second-order themes will be generated. A verification
survey will be constructed around the themes identified and sent via electronic mail to all the
participants. A survey will be conducted in order to test whether the results of the study
accurately reflect the participants‟ points of view.
Since the researcher analyses and interprets qualitative data from an interpretive
qualitative research perspective, the personal impact of the researcher on the research
findings needs to be accounted for. This ensures that findings made are transparent.
Accordingly, my2 ontology and epistemology are reflected upon in the research design in
Chapter Three. Lastly, strategies will be employed to ensure good quality research, and
ethical considerations will be observed throughout the research process.
1.6 Integration and preview of contents
The study is concerned with how industrial psychologists could use psychology when
functioning in the human resource management domains to ensure that they approach the
human resource management domains from a behavioural sciences perspective. In this
chapter, an introductory contextual perspective was provided on the research question. The
necessity for investigating how psychology could be applied in the human resource
management domains was explained. The aim and potential contributions of this study were
discussed, and an overview of the research design was provided.
In Chapter Two, the theoretical foundations of the research question are explored. In
Chapter Three, the research design of the study is discussed at length, linking the
2 Since ontology, epistemology, and excerpts from a personal journal are the personal beliefs and records of the researcher, the narrative form of first person will be used throughout this document. It is suggested that the use of first person is appropriate, given that the nature of the study is qualitative and the field of inquiry is a social science (Webb, 2006).
7
appropriateness of the research design to the research question. The results of the research
study are reported on in Chapter Four. In Chapter Five, the results are interpreted and, where
possible, relevant literature is utilised to substantiate further interpretations made. Lastly, in
Chapter Six, a summary of the findings of the research is provided and depicted in a figure,
recommendations to stakeholders are discussed, the limitations of this study are explained,
and final thoughts on the outcome of this study are shared.
8
CHAPTER TWO: CONTEXTUAL PERSPECTIVE ON INDUSTRIAL
PSYCHOLOGISTS FUNCTIONING IN HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
DOMAINS
2.1 Introduction
To make sense of the research question, a contextual perspective on the professional
nature of industrial psychology, as well as the discipline‟s science and practice, needs to be
firstly addressed. Psychology as a profession is discussed to broadly outline the
characteristics of a psychological profession. The specific characteristics of a profession in
industrial psychology will be discussed followed by a discussion on the characteristics of the
scientist-practitioner model in industrial psychology. Since the Professional Board for
Psychology (hereafter referred to as the Board) of the Health Professions Council of South
Africa (hereafter referred to as the HPCSA) regulates and influences the education and
practice of industrial psychologists, the role of the Board is briefly addressed. The scope of
practice of an industrial psychologist, psychological profession competences, and the purpose
of behavioural science in industrial psychology will subsequently be discussed.
Following the contextual perspective on the professional nature, the science, and the
practice of industrial psychology, the similarities in the work content of industrial
psychologists and human resource managers is addressed. Studies conducted on the work
activities performed by industrial psychologists are also illuminated to elaborate on the
suggested prevalence of industrial psychologists functioning in human resource management
domains. Lastly, predominant human resource management domains are identified to
provide an indication of the specific human resource management domains that industrial
psychologists may be functioning in. The literature study serves to work towards a problem
statement and specific research questions that will conclude this chapter.
9
2.2 Psychology as a profession
When reference is made to psychology as a profession, it is often preceded by
questions regarding what makes a psychologist a psychologist, and what precludes certain
people from practising as psychologists (Muchinsky, 2000). A person who is a professional
in the field of psychology is regarded as having specialised knowledge and qualifications
(Radford, 2003). Specific ethical standards that are enforced by a code of ethics guides
professionals‟ behaviour within their contexts of practice (Radford, 2003). Self-regulating
entities have been established to ensure compliance with these ethical standards and to ensure
that professionals are qualified and competent to practise within their specialised registration
category (APA Dictionary, 2007; Radford, 2003). Accordingly, a professional in psychology
is distinguishable by the attainment of a pre-determined qualification, obligated to render
services in a responsible manner, and accountable to self-regulatory entities. In practice, a
professional is distinguishable by a knowledge base that is shared amongst affiliated
professionals.
A particular profession is differentiated from other professions by the use of and
building upon a „shared body of knowledge‟ (Radford, 2003, p. 119). It is from this
knowledge base that prospective professionals are educated and performance outcomes are
set (Radford, 2003). The knowledge base forms the framework from which the acquisition of
a qualification is determined. Further to this, the knowledge base shared amongst
professionals mostly determines how their work is conducted within their respective practice
contexts.
A focused profession in psychology involves the application of psychological
principles, theories, and models within a certain context in order to provide a professional
service to particular clients in an ethical and scientific manner (Bartram & Roe, 2005). The
applied disciplines of psychology can be broadly classed into three categories, namely work,
10
health, and educational psychology. In particular, some of the applied disciplines within
psychology include clinical psychology, industrial psychology, educational psychology, and
counselling psychology (Weiten, 2001). Each applied discipline has its own unique body of
knowledge, yet fundamentally involves the application of psychological principles, theories,
and models, albeit within different contexts. Industrial psychology as a discipline is applied
within the work context and is considered to be a profession in its own right (Doyle, 2003).
2.3 Industrial psychology as a profession
Industrial psychology originated from the science of psychology and, as indicated
earlier, is regarded as an applied sub-discipline of psychology (Lewis, 2003). Industrial
psychology has since developed a unique body of knowledge which has also been influenced
by other disciplines. These disciplines include economic and management sciences,
sociology, educational sciences, philosophy, business ethics, and anthropology (van Vuuren,
2010). In addition to industrial psychology‟s shared body of knowledge, the profession is
characterised by specialised skills and knowledge, as well as codes of ethics. The Board of
the HPCSA regulates the profession of industrial psychology (among other professions).
The Board, in consultation with academics, practitioners, and the HPCSA, specifies
requirements on issues relating to codes of ethics and sets standards for education and
training for the professions it regulates (Bergh, 2009). The Board is responsible for ensuring
that newly registered industrial psychologists comply with the minimum standards for
registration (Kriek, Muchinsky & Schreuder, 2002). In order to register as an industrial
psychologist with the HPCSA, a graduate must have completed a Master's degree with an
accredited university and a 12 month internship (Health Professions Council of South Africa,
2005). The internship programme needs to comply with the specifications set by the Board
(Health Professions Council of South Africa, 2005).
11
The Board was also established to protect the interests of the public and to, among
others, ensure that established industrial psychologists consistently practise professionally
and ethically (Kriek et al., 2002). Continuous professional development (hereafter referred to
as CPD) is required by the HPCSA to ensure that registered psychologists advance their
knowledge and skills in their field (Health Professions Council of South Africa, 2007). As a
result of the HPCSA imposing the CPD points system, the body of knowledge used by
industrial psychologists is shared and developed.
2.4 Scientist-practitioner model
The advancement of a shared body of knowledge within a profession relies on
continuous and relevant research. It is suggested that there is a science and a practice
component to being a professional psychologist in the workplace (Radford, 2003), and that
industrial psychologists are trained as scientists and practitioners (Britt & Jex, 2008; Gibby &
Zickar, 2007). The scientist-practitioner model encapsulates the dual nature of industrial
psychology, where knowledge is generated and/or used for the purpose of applying it
practically to the organisational context (Britt & Jex, 2008). The establishment of the
scientist-practitioner is firstly addressed and the benefits and manifestation of the scientist-
practitioner are then discussed.
Psychology first emerged as a philosophical debate about human behaviour
(Hergenhahn, 2005), and it was only in the later years of the 19th century when experimental
methods were used in an attempt to explain human behaviour (Berry & Houston, 1993;
Koppes & Pickren, 2007). The discipline of psychology was established as a scientific
discipline as a result of the use of experimental methods. It was also in the later years of the
19th century that the applications of psychological principles in business commenced (Berry
within an applied psychological discipline is important to avert the risks of haphazard
practice and outcomes. According to Honkanen and Schmidt-Brasse (2008), training in
13
scientific principles enables a practitioner to discern between management fads and sound
research.
Knowledge and skills in research create a different way in which thought processes
occur for an industrial psychologist (Bergh, 2003). Science cultivates a systematic, critical
analysis of information and research (Bergh, 2003; Weiten, 2001). Decisions are based on
empirical data or tested knowledge, and outcomes are interpreted through a myriad of
theoretical lenses (Bergh, 2003). This elliminates conclusions being made according to
subjective preferences, guesswork, intuition, or even prejudices (Bergh, 2003). Analytical
thought processes result from having a scientific orientation.
The relevance of science in practice is made clear in the above text. What is not clear,
however, is the relationship between and the integration of the two. The integration of
science and practice is explained by Conte and Landy (2007) as being the application of
research to real workplace problems. Conte and Landy (2007) explain that the practitioner is
the consumer of research as opposed to a generator of knowledge, which is largely left to the
researcher within the profession. This means that the consumer of knowledge (the
practitioner industrial psychologist) may engage in science by reviewing some peer-reviewed
articles, and utilise basic scientific principles in implementing an intervention, while
comprehensive research is conducted by the academic industrial psychologist.
Jones and Mehr (2007) describe how science and practice are used in the application
of psychology in clinical practice. Although the applied discipline of clinical psychology is
different to that of the field under discussion, the article provides an insight into how
psychological principles can be applied in practice through research skills and knowledge.
Jones and Mehr (2007, p. 767) elaborate on the integration of the two by stating that “A
psychologist who blends the role of a clinician and a researcher into one entity is practising in
14
accordance with the scientist-practitioner model.” Here the interplay between research and
practice is infused into inseparable but recognisable parts, whereby psychological theories are
utilised in practice.
With specific reference to industrial psychology, Augustyn and Cillie (2008) provide
some insights into how the scientist-practitioner model may find expression in the
organisational context. It is proposed that theories and models provide the frameworks by
which psychological phenomena may be dealt with in the workplace (Augustyn & Cillie,
2008). Additionally, psychological processes and systems as they exist in the world of work
may be assessed and developed through the use of scientific principles and research
(Augustyn & Cillie, 2008). Despite the application of science to the workplace, practitioners
also need to inform researchers in the profession of the gaps in research. If researchers
studied and researched the identified gaps, the findings would add value in the organisational
context and provide practical relevance (Lappointe, 1990).
The industrial psychologist as a practitioner contributes to the profession of industrial
psychology in a unique way. According to Honkanen and Schmidt-Brasse (2008), the
practitioner develops unique skills and competencies that are acquired through practice. The
practitioner acquires implicit knowledge that is gained through contextual influences and
developed through interactions with peers (Honkanen & Schmidt-Brasse, 2008). Since
practitioner industrial psychologists interact mostly with the working community and
represent the profession in the workplace, the practitioner industrial psychologist is also the
largest contributor to the perceptions that are formed of the profession (Honkanen &
Schmidt-Brasse, 2008). These perceptions may also be mediated by the extent to which a
profession is regulated. The role that the Board fulfils in regulating the profession of
industrial psychology influences the perceptions of the working community as it is the Board
that ensures that industrial psychologists are competent to practice.
15
2.5 The role of the Board for Psychology of the Health Professions Council of South
Africa in the profession of industrial psychology
As discussed, the Board regulates issues such as codes of ethics and codes of conduct
for the profession of industrial psychology. What is pertinent to this study, however, is the
role that the Board (in consultation with academics, practitioners, and other voluntary
psychological associations) fulfils in the specification of the scope of practice of the
industrial psychologist and the practical training and learning content, from undergraduate to
postgraduate degrees in industrial psychology (Bergh, 2009). Curricula set for the acquisition
of degrees within the field of industrial psychology outline the competences, knowledge, and
skills required in order to practise as a professional industrial psychologist.
The Health Professions Act 56 of 1974 (hereafter referred to as the Act) provides a
regulatory framework to govern the activities of industrial psychologists (among other
psychologists and related professions). The Act determines a scope of practice that sets
boundaries of practice. These boundaries serve two main purposes in the profession of
industrial psychology. The first purpose is to distinguish the types of activities that an
industrial psychologist may and may not perform relative to the acquired competence of an
industrial psychologist. The second purpose is to regulate the profession according to the
boundaries set to ensure that industrial psychologists do not act without the necessary training
and competence. The Board‟s role is to enforce these boundaries as well as protect the public
from harm caused as a result of unethical practices and/or psychologists and other related
professions performing acts not within their scope of practice.
2.6 The scope of practice of an industrial psychologist
The scope of practice of an industrial psychologist is regulated by Section 7 of the Act
(Health Professions Act 56 of 1974; 2010). According to Section 7 of the Act, industrial
16
psychologists aim to understand, modify, and enhance individual, group, and organisational
behaviour and determine the effectiveness of each (Health Professions Act 56 of 1974; 2010).
In addition, industrial psychologists aim to determine the appropriateness and/or potential for
training, development, and employment, and facilitate processes for effective organisational
functioning. Lastly, industrial psychologists‟ purpose includes the enhancement of
performance of individuals, groups, and organisations (Health Professions Act 56 of 1974;
2010).
Industrial psychologists make use of paradigms, theories, models, constructs, and
principles of psychology in order to achieve their aims within the workplace (Health
Professions Act 56 of 1974; 2010). These professionals also make use of psychometric and
other assessments as well as psychological research as tools to optimise individual, group,
and organisational effectiveness and wellbeing (Health Professions Act 56 of 1974; 2010).
Industrial psychologists‟ activities include planning, applying, designing and developing,
standardising, implementing, facilitating, managing, evaluating, advising, and referring
people to the appropriate professionals (Health Professions Act 56 of 1974; 2010). The scope
of practice includes the training and supervising of other industrial psychology practitioners
as well as designing, managing, conducting, reporting on, and supervising research within the
discipline of industrial psychology (Health Professions Act 56 of 1974; 2010).
The scope of practice outlined by Section 7 of the Act as amended in April 2010, has
been adapted to form Table 1. The formulation of Table 1 serves to structure the industrial
psychologists‟ scope of practice as outlined by Section 7 of the Act around five points: the
purpose of industrial psychology; methods, principles and theories; the subject of activities;
the context within which the activities are operationalised; and a list of the activities
performed by industrial psychologists.
17
Table 1
Adapted scope of practice of an industrial psychologist
Five points identified to frame the scope of practice for this paper
Scope of practice
Purpose of industrial psychology
To understand, modify, and enhance individual, group, and organisational behaviour; To determine the potential and/or suitability for training, development, and employment; To determine effectiveness of individuals, groups, and organisations; To enhance performance of individuals, groups, and organisations.
Methods, principles, and theories
Psychological theory and research; Psychometric and other assessments.
Subject of activities Individuals, groups, and organisations.
Context Work environment
Activities performed
Planning, developing, and applying paradigms, theories, models, constructs, and principles; Designing, developing, standardising, and implementing assessment tools and procedures related to work; Facilitating individual and group processes; Designing and implementing training programmes; Designing and developing strategies in consumer behaviour; Developing interventions; Referring patients to appropriate professionals for assessment or intervention; Designing and implementing programmes based on understanding ergonomics; Advising on the development of policies; Designing, managing, and evaluating industrial psychology intervention programmes; Training and supervising other psychology practitioners (such as interns and psychometrists) in industrial psychology; Conducting psychological practice and research in accordance with the Ethical Rules of Conduct for Practitioners; Designing, managing, conducting, reporting on, and supervising research.
Table 1 demonstrates the adapted scope of practice of an industrial psychologist from
a regulatory perspective. Although the Act makes reference to patients, in the context of
industrial psychology reference is made to clients to denote the subject of activities. Since
the HPCSA regulates typical health professions in South Africa, it appears that the HPCSA
uses the medical model to frame all professions that fall within its scope. Although industrial
psychologists are psychologists, it is suggested that the medical model is inappropriate for
18
understanding and regulating the industrial psychology profession, given the nature and
context of the practice of industrial psychology. As discussed, industrial psychologists aim to
understand, modify and enhance behaviour as well as enhance effectiveness and performance
of individuals, groups and organisations (Health Professions Act 56 of 1974; 2010). In
addition, industrial psychologists apply their knowledge and skills in the organisational
context. The aim and context of industrial psychology are characterised by challenges that
may not be appropriately addressed by the medical model.
Nonetheless, the scope of practice broadly indicates that by applying psychological
theories and research and using psychometric assessments, psychology is practised within the
organisation. Effectively applying psychology within the work context requires that the
industrial psychologist be competent to do so. According to Bartram and Roe (2005), there
are a range of competences unique to the psychological profession in terms of the content,
knowledge, and skills required for their performance.
2.7 Psychological profession competences
Competence is the ability to perform to a set standard by applying knowledge and
skills (Bartram & Kurz, 2002) whereas competencies are defined as sets of behaviours that
result in desired outcomes or results (Bartram, Callinan & Robertson, 2002). Competence is
learnt through the integration of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and personal values, and is
generally built upon existing knowledge and skills (Bartram & Roe, 2005). Employees
demonstrate their competence through the achievement of set goals (Bartram & Kurz, 2002).
Psychologists are expected to demonstrate competence within their respective fields of
specialisation in order to perform to the required standard of their profession (Honkanen &
Schmidt-Brasse, 2008).
19
Bartram and Roe (2005) identified 20 primary competences that relate to a
psychologist‟s professional role. These competences are unique to the psychological
profession but are generic across the different psychological specialisations (Bartram & Roe,
2005). A psychologist registered under any specialisation should be able to demonstrate the
primary competences identified, yet the expression of these competences would differ
depending on the context (Bartram & Roe, 2005). The primary competences identified are
categorised into specific professional roles that include goal specification, assessment,
development, intervention, evaluation, and communication (Bartram & Roe, 2005). The
roles, the 20 primary competences, and the descriptions of the 20 primary competences are
provided in Table 2.
20
Table 2
Roles and primary competences of a psychologist
Roles Primary competences Description
Goal specification
Needs analysis Goal setting
Gathering information about the client‟s needs by means of appropriate methods, clarifying, and analysing the needs to a point where meaningful further action can be taken.
Proposing and negotiating goals with the client, establishing acceptable, and feasible goals, and specifying criteria for evaluating goal fulfilment at a later time.
Assessment Individual assessment
Carrying out assessment by means of interviewing, testing, and observation of individuals in a setting relevant for the service demanded.
Group assessment
Carrying out assessment by means of interviewing, testing, and observation of groups in a setting relevant for the service demanded.
Organisational assessment
Carrying out assessment by means of interviews, surveys, and other methods and techniques that are appropriate for studying organisations in a setting that is relevant for the service demanded.
Situational assessment Carrying out assessment by means of interviews, surveys, and other methods and techniques that are appropriate for studying situations in a setting that is relevant for the service demanded.
Development
Service or product definition and requirement analysis
Defining the purpose of the service or product, identifying relevant stakeholders, analysing requirements and constraints, and drawing up specifications for the product or service, taking into consideration the setting in which the service or product is to be used.
Service or product design Designing or adapting services or products in accordance with the requirements, and constraints, taking into consideration the setting in which the service or product is to be used. Testing the service or product and assessing its feasibility, reliability, validity, and other characteristics, taking into consideration the setting in which the service or product is to be used.
Service or product testing
Service or product evaluation
Evaluating the service or product with respect to utility, client satisfaction, user-friendliness, costs, and other aspects that are relevant in the setting in which the service or product is to be used.
Intervention Intervention planning
Developing an intervention plan that is appropriate for reaching the set goals in a setting relevant for the service demanded.
Direct person orientated intervention
Applying intervention methods that directly affect one or more individuals in accordance with the intervention plan, in a setting relevant for the service demanded.
Direct situation-oriented intervention
Applying intervention methods that directly affect selected aspects of the situation in accordance with the intervention plan, in a setting relevant for the service demanded.
21
Roles Primary competences Description
Indirect intervention Applying intervention methods that enable individuals, groups, or organisations to learn and take decisions in their own interest, in a setting relevant for the service demanded.
Service or product implementation
Introducing services or products and promoting their proper use by clients or other psychologists.
Evaluation Evaluation planning Designing a plan for the evaluation of an intervention, including criteria derived from the intervention plan, and the set goals, in a setting relevant for the service demanded.
Evaluation measurement Selecting and applying measurement techniques that are appropriate for effecting the evaluation plan, in a setting relevant for the service demanded.
Evaluation analysis Conducting analyses in accordance with the evaluation plan, and drawing conclusions on the effectiveness of interventions in a setting relevant for the service demanded.
Communication
Giving feedback Providing feedback to clients, using appropriate oral and/or audio-visual means, in a setting relevant for the service demanded.
Report writing Writing reports to inform clients about the results of assessment, service or product development, interventions, and/or evaluations, in a setting relevant for the service demanded.
Industrial psychologists should posses these competences and perform them
independently in order to provide a professional service to the clients whom they serve
(Honkanen & Schmidt-Brasse, 2008). As discussed, the manifestation of the primary
competences differs depending on who the client is and what the context requires. For
instance, a clinical psychologist demonstrating assessment competence would be vastly
different from an industrial psychologist demonstrating the same competence. Additionally,
the manifestation of the primary competences will also be dependent on the purpose of
behavioural science within each of the respective psychological specialisations.
2.8 The purpose of behavioural science in industrial psychology
Theron (2009) explains that the basic aims of behavioural science in industrial
psychology are to understand, explain, predict, and influence behaviour at work. Van Vuuren
(2010) endorses this viewpoint, but adds that the purpose of the discipline of industrial
22
psychology includes the assessment, motivation, changing, and optimisation of behaviour at
work. These aims are achieved through the application of psychological theories, principles,
and models. It is important to note that these basic aims are applied to individuals, groups or
teams, and organisations.
Six textbooks‟ tables of contents were analysed in order to determine from the chapter
headings the practical applications of understanding, assessing, explaining, predicting,
influencing, motivating, changing, and optimising behaviour at work. These chapter
headings were obtained from industrial psychology introductory textbooks that cover all the
main domains within the discipline of industrial psychology in general. Table 3 depicts the
allocation of some of the chapter headings derived from the six textbooks. Only the best
descriptor headings were included in Table 3 for the purpose of concisely illustrating the
practical application of behavioural science in the work context. The chapter headings were
allocated to the aims of behavioural science within the discipline of industrial psychology.
The overall content of the chapter was determined from the chapter headings, and the
headings were allocated to the respective aims based on the determined content.
23
Table 3
Chapter headings demonstrating behavioural science aims in industrial psychology
Purpose of behavioural science in industrial psychology
Chapter headings References
Understand “Theoretical perspectives in psychology” “Group behaviour and other social processes in organisations”
Bergh & Theron (2009) Bergh & Theron (2009)
“Understanding organisational behaviour” Crafford, et al. (2006)
Assess “Individual differences and assessment” Conte & Landy (2010)
“General mental ability in the world of work: occupational attainment and job performance”
Silvester (2008)
“Assessment of personality and individual differences” Bergh & Theron (2009)
Explain “The biological basis of behaviour” Bergh & Theron (2009)
“Cognition” Bergh & Theron (2009)
“Pro-social behaviours, aggression and conflict” Bergh & Theron (2009)
Predict “Individual differences and assessment” Conte & Landy (2010)
“Person-organisation fit: an integrative review of its conceptualisations, measurement, and implications”
Silvester (2008)
“General mental ability in the world of work: occupational attainment and job performance”
Silvester (2008)
Influence “Stress management: Dealing with demands of life” Aamodt (2010)
“Attitudes and values” Bergh & Theron (2009)
“Psychological well-being” Bergh & Theron (2009)
Motivate “Employee motivation” Aamodt (2010)
“Motivation through the design of work: test of a theory”
“Overcoming resistance to change” Silvester (2008)
24
Purpose of behavioural science in industrial psychology
Chapter headings References
Optimise “Application of cognitive, skill based, and affective theories of learning outcomes to new methods of training evaluation”
Silvester (2008)
“Building a learning organisation” “Performance appraisal: Assessing and developing performance and potential”
Silvester (2008) Chmiel (2008)
As indicated in Table 3, industrial psychologists use behavioural science in various
ways to understand, explain, predict, and influence behaviour in the workplace. For instance,
industrial psychologists need a fundamental understanding of the concepts used in assessing
personality and individual differences in order to be competent at assessing candidates and
recommending suitable candidates for a position. Industrial psychologists may be able to
explain individuals‟ behaviour in the workplace by referring to the biological basis of
behaviour or the way in which people may reason. Industrial psychologists may need to refer
to human beings‟ natural resistance to change in order to effectively influence change within
the workplace. The examples provided illustrate that industrial psychologists could use
behavioural science as a basis for practice within the workplace.
Aside from the use of behavioural science in the workplace, it is suggested that
industrial psychologists‟ and human resource managers‟ work content may be very similar.
Human resource managers may collaborate with similar occupational groups, use similar
methods, and provide services to the same clients as industrial psychologists. Before
addressing the similarities in the work content of industrial psychologists and human resource
management practitioners, the purpose of human resource management is addressed.
Human resource managers aim to ensure that the organisation can achieve its
objectives through people (Armstrong, 2010). In order to achieve the organisation's
25
objectives, human resource managers aim to align the human resource strategies and
practices with the organisation's strategies (Ulrich, 1997). Human resource management also
aims to improve organisational effectiveness by improving its capability to make the most of
the resources available (Armstrong, 2010). The aims provided are the overall aims of human
resource management, and are covered in this section to make sense of the suggested
similarities between the work content of industrial psychologists and human resource
managers.
2.9 Similarities in the work content of industrial psychologists and human resource
managers
Bartram and Roe (2005) developed a model to describe the work content of an
industrial psychologist. The model includes eight characteristics delineating the work content
of an industrial psychologist, namely the work setting, co-workers, clients, purpose, object,
tools, methods, and timing of the work to be performed. Table 4 delineates the work content
characteristics and the specific work content of industrial psychologists as suggested by
Bartram and Roe (2005).
26
Table 4
Work content of industrial psychologists
Work content characteristics
Industrial psychology work content
Work setting Consultancy, business firm, public service, and government agencies.
Co-workers Support staff, economists, engineers, human resource management specialists, and managers.
Clients Individual employees and managers. Groups, organisations, trade unions, and public agencies.
Purpose Optimisation of productivity, social relations, and wellbeing of individuals in organisations.
Object Individuals, groups, and larger entities. Social and physical work environment. Work tools and equipment. Policies and procedures.
Tools Tests, observation schemes, interviews, surveys, group and organisational assessment techniques, models of behaviour in work settings, design, and change methods.
Methods Job and organisational analysis. Selection, appraisal, training, and career development. Job, team, organisation, and workplace design. Organisational change.
Timing According to business needs and cycles.
(Copied from Bartram & Roe (2005)
It is suggested that the work content of human resource managers is similar to the
work content of the industrial psychologist in terms of the work setting, co-workers, clients,
purpose, objects, methods, and time frame for providing a service to the client. Perhaps the
only difference between the work content of industrial psychologists and human resource
managers lies in the tools they use. The most notable difference in the types of tools utilised
by industrial psychologists and human resource managers is that the industrial psychologist is
able to utilise psychometric assessments, whereas human resource managers are not legally
entitled to use, interpret, or provide feedback on psychometric tests (Health Professions Act
56 of 1974; 2010).
The similarity in the work content indicates that there is little tangible difference
between the practice of industrial psychology and that of human resource management.
Despite the similarities in work content, industrial psychology originated from the science
and discipline of psychology and, as such, industrial psychologists approach organisational
27
problems from a behavioural understanding and perspective. Regardless of industrial
psychologists‟ behavioural approach to organisational problems and challenges, it would
seem plausible for industrial psychologists to be functioning in the human resource
management domains due to the similarity in the work content of industrial psychologists and
human resource managers.
2.10 Industrial psychologists functioning in human resource management domains
Benjamin and Louw-Potgieter (2008) conducted a study into the activities performed
by industrial psychologists. From a sample of 129 registered industrial psychologists, it was
found that industrial psychologists spent 67% of their time performing human resource
management functions such as recruitment, selection, and succession planning. Additionally,
it was found that the sample of industrial psychologists spent 22% of their time on
performing psychological assessments, and 6% on therapy and counselling.
In addition to the above study, the Society for Industrial and Organisational
Psychology South Africa (hereafter referred to SIOPSA), along with other stakeholders,
commissioned a project during 2009 to review the scope of practice of industrial
psychologists. A survey was conducted by SIOPSA in 2010 with a sample of 240 of the
society‟s members in the industry (membership includes practising psychologists and is not
limited to industrial psychologists). Members within the field of industrial psychology were
asked to report in the survey on the types of activities they performed. The results of the
survey indicated a vast array of areas of practice covered. Table 5 summarises the areas of
practice reported by members who took part in the study (Society for Industrial and
Organisational Psychology South Africa, 2010).
28
Table 5
SIOPSA survey: Summary of areas of practice of industrial psychologists
Area of practice Percentage of members practicing within the listed area
Psychometric assessment 52.5%
Career development 45.4%
Leadership development 43.3%
Organisational culture 41.3%
Selection 40.4%
Organisational change 39.6%
Assessment and development centres 38.3%
Performance management 37.1%
Coaching 35%
Human resource development (HRD) 34.6%
Change management 34.2%
Succession planning 32.5%
Competency profiling 29.2%
Job analysis and job design 29.2%
Group processes and dynamics 23.3%
Employee wellness 22.9%
Counselling 22.1%
Conflict management 21.7%
Self-management 17.5%
Design and development of assessment tools 16.7%
Employment (labour) relations 15.8%
Research methodology and statistical analysis 13.8%
Downsizing/organisation restructuring 13.3%
Supervision of interns 10.8%
Work and family (Quality of work life) 9.6%
Compensation and benefits 7.9%
Ethics 7.9%
Psycho-legal/forensic 5.8%
Teaching (academic) 5.8%
Mergers and acquisitions 3.8%
Technology and industrial psychology 3.8%
Human factors and ergonomics 3.3%
Consumer psychology 2.1%
Litigation support 1.7%
Neuropsychology 0.8%
29
Area of practice Percentage of members practicing within the listed area
Ergonomics 0.4%
(Copied from SIOPSA Future Fit Report, 2010)
From Table 5 it is noted that human resource management forms a large part of the
functions performed by members within the field of industrial psychology. Performance
management accounts for 37.1% of their total function, human resource development for
34.6%, succession planning for 32.5%, competency profiling for 29.2%, job analysis and job
design for 29.2%, employment/labour relations for 15.8%, compensation and benefits for
7.9%, and mergers and acquisitions account for 3.8%.
Furthermore, the SIOP (Society of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, based in
the United States of America) compiled a list of job titles of qualified industrial psychologists
that was posted on SIOP‟s JobNet in 2009 (Society for Industrial and Organizational
Psychology, 2009). Of the titles listed, some of the prominent human resource management-
Triangulation was used in this study to improve the credibility of the findings (cf.
Guba & Lincoln, 1985). There are four different possible modes of triangulation, and these
include the use of multiple and different sources, methods, investigators, and theories
(Denzin, 1978 in Guba & Lincoln, 1985). In the current study, different and multiple
methods were used to improve the credibility of the data obtained. Seven in-depth, semi-
structured interviews and three focus groups were used to meet the requirements of multiple
and different methods of triangulation.
Triangulation can increase the confidence in the results of a study and strengthen the
completeness of the study (Arksey & Knight, 1999). Data obtained from different methods
contributes more to the understanding of research questions (Arksey & Knight, 1999). By
using different methods, different perspectives on the research topic are elicited. A deeper
understanding of the research question is secured as a result of the multiple perspectives,
which improves the quality of the research findings (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011).
In the current study, the structure of the in-depth, semi-structured interviews ensured
that the participants were able to provide an in-depth explanation of their experiences as
industrial psychologists functioning in human resource management domains. In addition,
the interviews ensured that participants were able to explain in depth a futuristic perspective
49
on the use of psychology within the human resource management domains. The focus groups
consisted of many participants, which created a dynamic where participants were able to
build upon and, on occasion, dispute each other's ideas. The dynamics of the focus group
generated many complex perspectives on a futuristic framework for the application of
psychology within the human resource management domains. The data-gathering techniques
used in the current study generated information that had depth and richness, resulting from
the in-depth, semi-structured interviews (cf. Arksey & Knight, 1999), as well as complexity,
resulting from the focus groups (cf. Litosseliti, 2003). The data obtained from each method
was uniquely beneficial to the interpretation of an aspirational framework for the application
of psychology within the human resource management domains. Accordingly, the structure
of each data-collection method elicited information with different and valuable properties
(Barbour, 2007; Schurink & Schurink, 2011), and subsequently improved the confidence in
the results of this study. The data collection methods as well as their inherent benefits are
addressed in the following sections.
3.1.8 In-depth, semi-structured interviews
Meanings ascribed to a phenomenon by a participant could be accessed through the
use of interviews (Burman, 1994). According to Arksey and Knight (1999), qualitative
interviews allow participants to make overt what is embedded in their perceptions,
understandings, and feelings. Meanings that are implicit to the participant are made explicit
through an interview, which was an especially valuable advantage of using in-depth, semi-
structured interviews in the current study. The application of psychological principles,
theories, and models are mostly implicit to each participant. From an interpretive, qualitative
approach, and in terms of the research question, the objective of the study was to understand
how the principles of psychology could be applied in human resource management domains.
50
In-depth, semi-structured interviews were the means by which I could access the participants‟
authentic views on the topic.
During the in-depth, semi-structured interviews, certain themes were covered whilst
flexibility was retained to allow participants to control what was said, where they wanted to
add more data, and where not (cf. Arksey & Knight, 1999; cf. Marshall & Rossman, 1999).
Open-ended questions were posed to the participants during the interviews to ensure that rich
data from each participant‟s perspective was obtained (cf. Arksey & Knight, 1999), whilst
relevance to the research question was maintained. The less structured nature of the in-depth,
semi-structured interview was therefore in accordance with the principles of the interpretive
paradigm and qualitative approach in that the interviews allowed the participants to share
their perspectives with little guidance on what to say. Accordingly, the interviews were the
means by which I learnt, through the participants' ideas and experiences, how psychology
could be used in the human resource management domains. In order to capitalise on the
benefits of an in-depth, semi-structured interview listed, a pilot interview was conducted.
During the pilot interview, the effectiveness in yielding rich, contextual data in
relation to the questions posed was assessed. The questions asked in the pilot interview are
provided in Table 8. After the pilot interview was conducted, another question was added to
the interview questions. The question added was: “What factors do you think restrict the use
of psychological theories, principles, and models when working within the human resource
management practice domains?”
An audio recorder was used in the pilot interview as well as every other interview to
record the participants‟ narratives. The interview questions were sent via electronic mail to
P3, P4, P5, and P6 a few days before their interviews were conducted, in order to provide
them with the opportunity to prepare. I had learnt from the previous in-depth, semi-
51
structured interviews conducted that the participants may have wanted some time to reflect
on the research questions before their scheduled interviews. During the interviews, all the
participants were provided with a document listing the predominant human resource
management domains identified in section 2.2.11 of Chapter Two, namely performance
management and human resource potential assessment, human resource acquisition, human
resource development, compensation, industrial relations, and employee welfare and
wellness.
52
Table 8
Questions asked in the pilot interview
Questions Probing questions
1. What is the purpose of a human resource management function in organisations?
2. Industrial psychologists often work as human resource management practitioners in organisations. What makes them different from human resource management practitioners who are NOT industrial psychologists?
3. Tell me about the role of psychology in modern human resource management practices within organisations?
4. What psychological theories, principles, and methods are important for you to use when operating in these human resource management domains?
1) What psychological theories should be considered when operating in the identified human resource management domains?
2) What are the psychological principles that should be used when operating in the identified human resource management domains?
3) What methods should you use when working from a psychological knowledge base in the identified human resource management domains?
5. What is the role of the HPCSA in ensuring that psychology is affirmed in industrial psychology?
1) What guidelines should the HPCSA establish to ensure that psychological theories, principles, and models are used within each of the predominant human resource management domains?
6. What context should employing organisations create to ensure that psychology is affirmed in industrial psychology?
1) How should organisations support the use of psychological principles and methods when working within the identified human resource management domains?
2) How could organisations enable the use of psychological principles and methods when practising within the identified human resource management domains?
7. What should you do to ensure that you continually apply psychological theories, principles, and models when working within the human resource management domains?
1) How should you go about practising from a psychological knowledge base when practising within the identified human resource management domains?
2) What actions should you take to ensure that you practise from a psychological knowledge base?
3) How would you know that you are practising from a psychological knowledge base when practising within the identified human resource management domains?
3.1.9 Focus groups
A focus group is a discussion between a small number of individuals who share
commonality on a particular aspect relevant to the research question(s) (Schurink &
53
Schurink, 2011). An encouraging and open environment created by the moderator is
necessary in order to elicit a dynamic group interaction between participants (Marshall &
Rossman, 1999). Group dynamics provide another facet to gaining rich data, and for this
reason, three focus group sessions were conducted in addition to the interviews, in order to
collect data in the current study.
Insightful information was generated on the research question as a result of the focus
groups sessions. Participants shared their experiences of being employed as human resource
managers and the use of psychology within the human resource management domains. As
discussed, the participants built upon each other's ideas, and refuted or confirmed the ideas
shared (cf. Litosseli, 2003). The insights shared amongst the participants resulted in a
complex construction of meanings with regards to the research question (cf. Litosseliti,
2003). The focus group not only generated complex information but also created the
opportunity for the social construction of an ideal futuristic framework for the application of
psychology in the human resource management domains. The sharing of ideas and
experiences amongst participants in the focus group was the manifestation of a social
construction of a futuristic state. Since focus groups represent a constructivist data collection
method (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011) and a constructivist perspective is situated within the
interpretive paradigm (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005), focus groups were well suited to the
research design and paradigm of the current study.
The focus groups were conducted using the same questions employed in the in-depth
semi-structured interviews; however, question four of Table 8 changed slightly. The focus
group participants were only asked to provide the psychological theories that should be used
within the identified human resource management domains. The focus groups' narratives
were recorded with audio recorders and their interactions were facilitated by industrial
psychologists with experience in moderating focus groups.
54
3.1.10 Research setting
It is crucial to the data collection phase to ensure that the interviewees are comfortable
and at ease (Arksey & Knight, 1999; Schurink & Schurink, 2011). The research setting
contributes to ensuring that the interviewees are comfortable. The in-depth, semi-structured
interviews were conducted at a venue chosen by the respective interviewees. The settings
within which the interviews took place were quiet, comfortable, and free from distractions.
A venue at a university in Johannesburg was used to conduct two of the three focus
group sessions. The other session was held in a conference room at one of the participants'
place of employment. The rooms were quiet, free from distractions, and participants were
seated such that they were all able to face one another (cf. Barbour, 2007; cf. Schurink &
Schurink, 2011). Once data had been collected, the data was transcribed from the audio
recordings into text for analysis.
3.1.11 Data analysis: Content analysis
As mentioned previously, content analysis was used to analyse the data. According to
Grbich (2007), there are different methods of content analysis, which include enumerative
(referring to the number of times words occur in text) as opposed to the thematic method that
requires coding frames to analyse text. Thematic analysis was used in the current study to
analyse the data. Thematic analysis involves the analysis of data in order to uncover
meanings ascribed by participants to the phenomenon under investigation through the
identification of patterns in text and meaning (Braun & Clarke, 2006). In the current study,
an inductive approach was adopted to analyse the data collected, where I was guided by the
data (cf. Braun & Clarke, 2006). The data were not shaped against any theoretical
frameworks due to the exploratory nature of the research study (cf. Braun & Clarke, 2006). In
addition to and in accordance with the phenomenological approach described in section 3.1.5
55
of this chapter, the analysis of the data was conducted with the aim of uncovering the
meanings of the participants in this research study (cf. Grbich, 2007). The guiding principle
employed throughout the analysis process was to allow common meanings of the participants
to surface through identifying particular patterns and meanings ascribed by the participants in
relation to the research question.
The process followed to analyse the data included becoming familiar with the data
and creating coding frames through a systematic and comprehensive engagement with the
data (cf. Braun & Clarke, 2006). Once the data had been read through a few times, the
analytic process of open coding was used, firstly, to establish initial concepts and categories
(cf. Corbin & Strauss, 1998). Open coding is an analytic process through which concepts are
identified and their properties discovered (Corbin & Strauss, 1998). Open coding was
utilised initially, since the nature of the current study was exploratory and open coding
allowed the participants' meanings to be established without being shaped against theory. As
such, words and phrases were analysed and coded relative to the objective of the study. The
level of abstraction for generating codes varied between the participants' literal words and
inclusive concepts. For example, where a participant explained that the HPCSA‟s role is to
protect the public from harm from the professions it regulates, or that the HPCSA ensures
that the professions it regulates practises within their respective scopes of practice, an
inclusive code was formulated to retain the meaning of both statements. The inclusive code
in this instance was: “HPCSA‟s role is regulatory.” In other cases, where these were
adequately succinct and poignant, the participant‟s words were used literally for the code.
The nuanced meanings of the participants were recorded in my diary for reflection and
inclusion in first-order theme descriptions. Following open coding, categories of data were
collapsed, based on shared meanings, to form themes (cf. Corbin & Strauss, 1998). Refining
the themes in relation to the whole of the data set and extracting pertinent portions of the data
56
set that related specifically to the research questions were necessary (cf. Braun & Clarke,
2006).
3.1.12 Personal journal
I reflected during data collection and data analysis in order to make the distinction
between personal and participant meanings (cf. Grbich, 2007). As discussed, the credibility
of findings made in a qualitative study depends on the extent to which the results reflect the
participants‟ points of view (Schurink, 2009). In the current study, I reflected on each in-
depth, semi-structured interview and each focus group session. I also kept a personal journal
for reflection during the data analysis phase.
The topics reflected on for each in-depth semi-structured interview and focus group
included methodological notes, field notes, personal notes, and insights obtained from the
interview. The purpose of reflecting on the method of the interviews was to ensure that
problems identified during the interview process would be averted in the next interview or
focus group session. The methodical notes also served the purpose of reflecting upon the
impact that my behaviour had had on the participants‟ answers. Additionally, the reflections
on the interviews and the focus groups served the purpose of making a distinction between
personal interpretations and judgements and the participants‟ meanings.
A personal journal was kept during analysis of the data. The purpose of utilising a
personal journal was to ensure that personal interpretations and evaluations were kept from
contaminating the data. The data needed to closely reflect the participants‟ narratives, and for
this reason personal judgements and interpretations were recorded separately in the journal.
A personal journal was kept during the analysis to ensure that important insights and nuance
differences in the meanings between participants were also recorded.
57
3.1.13 Verification survey
As highlighted within this chapter, the trustworthines of a qualitative study is
determined by the extent to which the results of a study reflect the participants‟ perspectives
(Schurink, 2009). Once the data in the current study had been gathered and analysed, first-
order and second-order/main themes were identified. The themes3 identified were used to
formulate a survey. The survey was constructed around the main themes found, and the
participants were able to rate the extent to which they strongly agreed with, agreed with,
neither agreed or disagreed with, disagreed with, or strongly disagreed with the main
themes. The first-order themes were included in the survey, but served only to describe their
respective nine main themes. Participants were not able to rate the first-order themes in the
survey. Participants were also provided with a comment box per main theme to raise
concerns where they saw necessary.
The survey was constructed electronically via a programme called "polldaddy" by my
supervisor, and was tested before the link was sent to each participant. The link was sent by
electronic mail. Once the participants clicked with their computer mouse on the link
provided in the electronic mail, another screen featuring the survey opened automatically.
The survey could only be completed once the participant was connected to the Internet. Once
each participant had completed the survey, an automatic response with each respondent‟s
responses to the main themes was sent to my electronic mail box for review of the results.
The results of the survey were then interpreted and integrated in the discussion, as
demonstrated in Chapter Five.
3 A detailed account of the main themes identified resulting from data analysis is discussed in chapter four.
58
3.1.14 Ethical considerations
Scientists need to adhere to strict ethical principles when conducting research. The
ethical principles identified and consequently accounted for within the current study included
transparency, informed consent, respect, confidentiality, anonymity, and authenticity of the
data (cf. Myers, 2009). In terms of transparency and informed consent, I ensured that the
participants were informed of the purpose of the research study before they agreed to
participate in the study. Permission to audio record the interviews and focus group sessions
was also obtained from participants. Participants were required to sign an informed consent
form in confirmation of being informed of the purpose of the study and the use of audio
recorders.
In terms of the principle of respect, I exercised sensitivity due to the nature of the
questions posed. It was important from the commencement of the process to ensure that the
participants had clarity regarding the purpose of the inquiry. It was made clear that the
research question was to establish how psychology could be utilised in the predominant
human resource management domains, and not to criticise what they were or were not doing.
Importantly, I remained focussed on the purpose of the study and avoided making
comparisons between the fields of human resource management and industrial psychology
when reporting on the results and the findings.
In addition to the abovementioned ethical considerations, confidentiality and
anonymity of participants' narratives and identity were observed. During the in-depth semi-
structured interviews, the participants remained anonymous. Participant names were not
mentioned during the interviews in order to avoid identification from the audio recordings.
In the event that participant names were mentioned in the focus groups audio recordings,
their names were deleted from the transcripts. The members who participated in the focus
group sessions were also required to sign a confidentiality agreement to safeguard the
59
anonymity of all the group members who had participated in the particular focus group.
Participants who had completed the verification survey were not identified, and remained
anonymous as a result. The participants‟ personal computer ID, the location, and the time that
the survey was completed were the only information that featured in the automatic electronic
mail response sent to my electronic mail box. I did not have information with which to
identify the participants who had completed the survey.
To assure the authenticity of data, I needed to ensure that the participants'
perspectives were reported on with little interpretation and judgement from myself. This
principle was exercised in the data collection and analysis stages. Clarification questions and
topical questions were the only types of questions posed to the participants during data
collection. As discussed, a personal journal was kept during data analysis to ensure that the
results generated were an authentic representation of the participants‟ meanings.
Since I am studying to become an industrial psychologist, it was also important for
me not to make any unfounded or inflated interpretations relating to industrial psychologists
or the research question. I also had to guard against becoming emotionally involved in the
data collected. Participants occasionally compared industrial psychologists and human
resource managers. I therefore had to ensure that I remained focussed on the fact that data
was required on the behavioural approach of industrial psychologists to the human resource
management domains as opposed to the difference between industrial psychology and human
resource management.
3.1.15 Strategies for ensuring quality research
Guba and Lincoln (1985) provide four criteria to evaluate the quality of a research
design, which are: credibility, confirmability, transferability, and dependability. The four
60
criteria can be achieved by prolonged engagement, persistent observation, and triangulation
(Guba & Lincoln, 1985). In terms of the current research study, triangulation was used to
ensure that the findings were credible. As indicated earlier in this chapter, different and
multiple data collection modes were used, namely in-depth, semi-structured interviews and
focus groups. Credibility is regarded as the most important quality criteria, while
confirmability, transferability, and dependability add to the quality and trustworthiness of a
qualitative study (Guba & Lincoln, 1985). These criteria replace the traditional positivist,
quantitative criteria for determining the quality of good research, namely internal validity,
external validity, reliability, and objectivity (Schurink, 2009).
Credibility refers to the integrity of the research study, which is attained by ensuring
that the researcher constructs the outcomes as close to the participants' views as possible
(Schurink, 2009). Confirmability refers to whether the study can be confirmed through the
evidence provided (Schurink, 2009). Transferability refers to the extent to which the study is
transferable to another context (Schurink, 2009). Finally, dependability refers to the degree
to which the study was comprehensive, logical, well documented, and reviewed (Schurink,
2009). The strategies employed in the current study to meet the four criteria listed are
addressed hereunder.
During data collection, I evaluated my understanding of the participant's meanings
with the participant by summarising or highlighting key points of the participant's responses
to the questions posed. Where aspects of the participant's message were not clear, I requested
further clarification from the participant. In addition, a verification survey was constructed
and sent to participants for response in order to improve the credibility of the study. The
purpose of constructing and inviting participants to take part in the survey was to evaluate the
extent to which the main themes identified resulting from the data analysis reflected the
61
participants‟ points of view. Another strategy employed to improve the credibility of the
findings was reflecting and recording notes in a personal diary during data analysis. The
purpose of recording reflections was to ensure that the participants‟ meanings were accurately
represented in this study.
As discussed, the data collected from the seven in-depth, semi-structured interviews
and the three focus groups were transcribed into text. During data analysis, the codes
allocated to the participants‟ words and phrases were recorded on the transcribed documents.
Once each focus group or interview had been analysed, a table was formulated, which
included all the codes created from the respective interviews. The coded data and the tables
created are evidence of data collection and analysis and, as a result, the quality criterion of
confirmability was met.
Lastly, my supervisors were engaged throughout the research process, from
conceptualisation to reporting on the findings of the results. The supervisors provided
guidance on the formulation of the research question, during data collection and during data
analysis. Consequent to my supervisors‟ guidance, rigour was reinforced and completeness
of the study was assured. I also reflected on the information obtained from the data
collection and during data analysis.
3.2 Integration
An overview of the research design was provided in this chapter. Ontology and
epistemology were, firstly, theoretically defined and, subsequently, described in terms of my
own personal beliefs. I related my own ontological and epistemic beliefs in terms of this
study to account for the impact that my beliefs had on this study. Secondly, the theoretical
underpinnings of the interpretive paradigm, the qualitative approach, and phenomenology
were discussed. The relevance of the research paradigm, the research approach, and the
62
research strategy used in this study were also elucidated. Thirdly, a purposive sampling
strategy was used in this study, and the criteria for participation were presented.
Triangulation was used to improve the quality of the findings, and was discussed in this
chapter. The data-gathering techniques used were also described in terms of theory, and
confirmed appropriate to the purposes of the study and the research paradigm utilised. The
logistics and technicalities of the research setting were briefly discussed. Content analysis
was described and discussed in terms of the practical analysis of the data gathered. The
structure and purpose of reflecting on the data gathering techniques and keeping a personal
journal were discussed. The construction of the verification survey was discussed, the details
of how the survey was sent to the participants, and received from the participants once the
survey was completed was also addressed. Lastly, the ethics of the research were considered
and reported on, and the strategies employed to ensure that the research was conducted to
meet the criteria of quality research were discussed.
In Chapter Four, the results of the study are provided. The process adopted to distil
first- and second-order themes from the vast amount of information obtained is discussed in
detail. Descriptions of the first- and second-order themes are also presented. The results of
the verification survey are discussed and presented in tabular format.
63
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
4.1 Introduction
The results of this study are presented in two main sections, namely first-order themes
and second-order themes. Before addressing the first- and second-order themes, the analytic
process of open coding is described in order to explain how the transcribed data were
analysed and subsequently condensed into codes. Then the process of further condensing the
codes to first-order themes is described and depicted in Table 9. The-first order themes are
listed and described in Table 10, where supporting quotations from the participants are
provided as evidence of the themes identified. I included excerpts from my journal that
describe personal insights gained from the data analysis. A higher level of conceptualisation
was required to progress from first-order themes to second-order themes in order to capture
the meanings of the participants concisely. The process of conceptualising the second-order
themes and categorising the first-order themes is discussed. Finally the results of the survey
conducted to determine the extent to which the results of this study reflect the participants‟
perspectives is discussed and presented in Table 12.
4.2 Open coding
The audio recordings of the seven in-depth, semi-structured interviews and the three
focus groups sessions were transcribed verbatim into text. The total number of words of the
transcribed text amounted to 131 813 for the interviews and the focus groups. Each interview
and focus group transcript was read through twice before coding the data, and each interview
or focus group session was analysed completely before reading and analysing the next
transcript.
64
Data was coded each time the concept or idea was discussed by the participant(s).
The initial round of coding generated 328 codes in total for the interviews and focus groups.
It is also important to note that some information in the data was not coded due to the
irrelevance thereof to the research question. Once the data had been coded, a table was
formulated per interview or focus group. The table was structured around four fields namely,
codes identified, the number of times the code was noted in the data set, supporting
quotations, and important key words for the description of first-order themes. The table was
populated around the four fields identified per in-depth, semi-structured interview and focus
group.
4.3 First-order themes
First-order themes were identified by grouping the codes produced by the open coding
process. The 328 initial themes produced by open coding were reduced to 48. Codes were
categorised based on shared meanings to form first-order themes (cf. Corbin & Strauss,
1998). More specifically, codes were grouped to form themes based on the literal meanings
of the participants, inclusive concepts, and the essence of the participant‟s message. For
instance, where participants indicated that "the human resource management function is
determined by the organisational context," the phrases or examples provided by the
participants were coded and grouped together to form a theme based on the literal meanings
of the participants.
In terms of creating themes based on inclusive concepts, participants may have, for
instance, mentioned many different factors that restrict the use of psychology in the human
resource management domains. These themes were grouped together to formulate an
inclusive theme, and labelled "factors that inhibit the use of psychology in the human
resource management domains". Many of the different factors listed were often mentioned
65
less than five times in the transcripts, and for this reason an inclusive concept was formed to
retain the data. The inclusive concept "factors that inhibit the use of psychology within the
human resource management domains" retains the meaning of all the different examples that
were mentioned as inhibiting factors.
Lastly, in terms of creating themes from the essence of the participants' meanings,
participants provided examples of psychological theories that may underpin the human
resource management domains. As a result of the many theories identified, these were
grouped together to form the theme labelled "psychological component underpins the human
resource management domains." Table 9 demonstrates how each first-order theme was
formulated from the 328 codes generated in terms of the three criteria discussed within this
section. It is important to note that, in some cases, codes were generated using the literal
meanings of some participants, and the same codes were generated based on the essence of
another participant‟s meaning. Both participants were conveying the same meaning and, as a
result, the same code was used. Reference is made within the text and tables to follow to IP,
HR practitioner or manager and IPHR practitioner which represent industrial psychologists,
human resource management practitioner or manager and industrial psychologist human
resource management practitioner respectively.
66
Table 9
Conversion of 328 codes to first-order themes
First-order themes Themes grouped together based on their literal meaning
Themes grouped together based on inclusive concepts
Themes grouped together based on the essence of the participants’ meaning
1. HPCSA‟s role is regulatory X X
2. HPCSA lacks understanding of industrial psychology
X
3. HPCSA‟s educational role X
4. HPCSA‟s and SIOPSA‟s roles in educating stakeholders
X
5. Internship programme inadequate X
6. Universities differ in terms of the prescribed curricula for the training of prospective IPs
X
7. IPs' training is inadequate in ensuring that IPs are able to apply psychological principles, theories, and models to the business context
X X
8. Experienced IPHR practitioners require more opportunities for professional development
X
9. Psychometrics distinguishes IPHR practitioners from HR practitioners
X
10. Application of psychological principles in human resource management domains tends to distinguish IPHR practitioners from HR practitioners
X X
11. IPs tend to question the behavioural impact of business practices
X
12. IPs tend to think eclectically and integrate information when determining an appropriate solution for business problem
X X
13. IPs have unique training X
14. IPs' scientific orientation is a distinguishing factor
X
67
First-order themes Themes grouped together based on their literal meaning
Themes grouped together based on inclusive concepts
Themes grouped together based on the essence of the participants’ meaning
15. IPs are inclined to protect the interests of people in the workplace
X
16. IPs are inclined to have a systems perspective
X
17. IPs tend to fulfil specialist roles in organisations
X
18. HR practitioners tend to focus on maintenance and survival issues; IPHR practitioners are inclined to focus on strategic and growth issues
X X
19. Factors that tend to distinguish an IPHR practitioner from an HR practitioner
X
20. IPs' professional identity in question X
21. IPs' direct reporting line as a inhibiting factor in the use of psychology within organisations
X
22. Little understanding of industrial psychology profession in organisations and society
X
23. IPs have limited scope to practise psychology within organisations
X X
24. IPs' potential contribution to organisations is limited by the perception that IPs' value-add is limited to psychometrics
X
25. HR practitioners are sometimes just as or even more effective than IPHR practitioners
X
26. Factors that inhibit the use of psychological principles, theories, and models when working within an human resource management function
X
27. Human resource management function determined by organisational context
X
28. Organisations providing the IPHR practitioner with resources enables the use of psychological principles, theories, and models
X
29. Organisational culture as an enabler for the use of psychological principles, theories, and models
X
68
First-order themes Themes grouped together based on their literal meaning
Themes grouped together based on inclusive concepts
Themes grouped together based on the essence of the participants’ meaning
30. Leaders play a critical role in the use of psychological principles, theories, and models
X
31. Complimentary relationship between IP and HR practitioners
X X
32. IPs establish credibility through various means
X X
33. Human resource management as a function can make a strategic contribution
X
34. Psychological component underpins human resource management domains
X X
35. IPHR practitioners need to base their practice on evidence
X
36. IPs need to use current, valid, and reliable tools
X
37. IPs need to distinguish between fad and science
X
38. IPs need to continuously update their knowledge base
X
39. IPs need to have a strong personal stance X X
40. IPs need to challenge their own processes
X X
41. IP‟s need to play the role of a constructive critic in organisations
X X
42. IPs need more counselling skills X
43. HR practitioners should have business acumen in order to be effective in their roles
X
44. IPs need to translate psychological principles, theories, and methods to the business context
X
45. IPs need to demonstrate their contribution
X
46. IPs are responsible for creating a context in which psychology is used within the human resource management domains
X X
69
First-order themes Themes grouped together based on their literal meaning
Themes grouped together based on inclusive concepts
Themes grouped together based on the essence of the participants’ meaning
47. IPs need to enhance the credibility of the HRM profession
X
48. IPs should form a common professional identity
X
Themes that were coded fewer than five times in the transcripts were excluded from
the first-order themes. Due to the vastness of the data obtained and considering the
importance of retaining the meaning of the participants, excluding themes that were coded
less than five times in the transcripts was deemed acceptable. However, some themes that
were coded less than five times in the transcripts were indeed included in the study due to the
significance of the theme to the study. The first-order themes that were included in the 48
themes are: Organisations providing the IPHR practitioner with resources enables the use of
psychological principles, theories, and models; IPs need to distinguish between fad and
science; IPs' scientific orientation is a distinguishing factor; IPs tend to fulfil specialist roles
in organisations; and HR practitioners should have business acumen in order to be effective
in their roles.
The reason for the inclusion of the first order theme: Organisations providing the
IPHR practitioner with resources enables the use of psychological principles, theories, and
models, is due to the fact that this theme highlights the role that organisations can fulfil in the
use of psychology in the human resource management domains. In addition, the reason for
including the theme: IPs need to distinguish between fad and science, is due to the fact that
the theme relates to the importance of industrial psychologists relying on their scientific
knowledge to stay true to the scientific practice of psychology in the human resource
management domains. The scientist-practitioner model encapsulates the dual nature of
70
industrial psychology (Britt & Jex, 2008) and the theme: IPs' scientific orientation is a
distinguishing factor highlights how important the scientist-practitioner model may be for
practitioner industrial psychologists. The purpose of including the theme: IPs tend to fulfil
specialist roles in organisations; was to demonstrate that although industrial psychologists
may at times fulfil generalist human resource management positions within organisations,
industrial psychologists tend to fulfil specialist roles within organisations. Lastly, the reason
for including the last theme: HR practitioners should have business acumen in order to be
effective in their roles, was due to the fact that it raised the importance of acknowledging the
business aspect to successfully fulfilling the role of a human resource management
practitioner. By including this theme, the data would be enriched as industrial psychologists
fulfilling the role of HR practitioners would need to understand how the requirement for
business acumen would impact upon the application of psychology in the human resource
management domains.
Table 10 is presented to provide a list of the first-order themes formulated. Table 10
includes the first-order themes identified, the descriptions of each first-order theme, the
number of times the theme was identified in text, and supporting quotations as evidence of
the first-order theme. The descriptions of the first-order themes incorporate the nuanced
meanings of the participants. The quotations included in Table 10 illustrate the exact
meanings of various participants in relation to the first-order theme.
71
Table 10
First-order themes
First-order themes Description of first-order themes No.of times in text
Quotations
1 HPCSA‟s role is regulatory
The HPCSA‟s role is to delineate and regulate the scope of practice of IPs and to protect the interests of the public.
12 P7: “…So, that is, for me, the two major roles. So, protecting the public and then making sure that whoever the public is exposed to would be competent in fulfilling their duties.” p.13 P1: “I think they are a regulatory body that should make sure that we practise within our scope of practice and that others do not overstep the scope...” p.20
2 HPCSA lacks understanding of industrial psychology
HPCSA does not understand the field of industrial psychology and fails to recognise the psychological components that underpin human resource management domains. As a result, the HPCSA cannot protect the public from harm caused within organisations. The HPCSA also fails to differentiate between industrial psychology and the medical model used for the other professions that fall within its jurisdiction.
21 P3: “I would say the Board needs to think beyond psychometrics... You are not necessarily held accountable to the psychological aspects of human resources development.” p.32 P7: “They (HPCSA) are not very good at protecting the public on the organisation side of what industrial psychologists do and what other charlatans do, like doing an organisational diagnosis and advising top management around the decisions they have to take over the next five years in terms of people in the organisation. So, you are affecting far more people...” p.14 P4: “…within that, it is so broad that, I feel, a lot of the times, that industrial psychology gets very lost within the sort of clinical psychology stuff.” p.14
3 HPCSA‟s educational role
The HPCSA should standardise the industrial psychology curricula across universities in South Africa as well as internship programmes. The HPCSA should regulate the continued education of IPs such that behavioural knowledge underpinning the human resource management domains is reaffirmed in the profession.
13 P3: “…where the Board can play a role is to consistently create either checks and/or development opportunities for people to begin to explore the behavioural components of what is normally considered to be… an HR domain.” p. 26 FG1 P3: “…but I would have liked the HPCSA to have been present there or to take that further and to say, 'okay let us call a national meeting for Head of Academic Departments of Industrial Psychology Departments, and let us talk about these things'. I know it is competition and cutting edge… but what is the common denominator in terms of psychology in HR?” p. 45 FG1 P3: “They just prescribe percentage this and percentage that. I need more bureaucracy from HPCSA to say: 'This is what the basic (internship) programme should be like.' ” p.47 P6: “And this is where I think the internship comes in, because I think it is critical that the HPCSA does set the right standards firstly at internship level…” p.19
72
First-order themes Description of first-order themes No.of times in text
Quotations
4 HPCSA‟s and SIOPSA‟s roles in educating stakeholders
The HPCSA and SIOPSA should play an informative role to corporate South Africa on the role of the IP in organisations.
10 P5: “And again, I do not only think it is the industrial psychologists; I also think it is the Council that needs to play that informative role… and also to tell Corporate South Africa and other stakeholders what it is that we should not be doing so that they can look out also for the opposite." p.22 P2: “I think they should also have a better role or a more proactive role in educating all stakeholders, and that includes the end user, which is often corporates, you know, as to what the value is of an industrial psychologist and how is their contribution different to maybe the HR practitioner.” p.14
5 Internship programme inadequate
The current internship programme fails to ensure that graduates are sufficiently competent in practising within the main fields of industrial psychology.
8 P5: “You have also got a problem with internships happening in some companies or in some consulting companies, where the internship just focuses on a particular niche.” p.27 P6: “How they structure and agree on internships… I think what they currently have as guidelines and are approving, in my view, is hopelessly inadequate to truly equip a person who comes out of - let us assume the person does not have much working experience… then we give them one year internship and then we launch them out there and say they are now competent at all those fields.” p.20
6 Universities differ in terms of the prescribed curricula for the training of prospective IPs
Universities across South Africa prescribe different curricula for the training of prospective IPs.
8 P5: “…universities, they do not even agree exactly what - should there be a difference between human resources management and industrial psychology?. I am under the impression some of the universities has [sic] got a certain school of thought on it, and other universities differ, and this has been historically so.” p.8 FG1 P5: “Because, I think, in the past, as you have mentioned, I think some universities had more of a flavour of psychology in their training, where others have more of an HR management kind of focus… and I think it is important that that is sorted out on quite a high level in terms of what will be the role of psychology then in industrial psychology.” p.45
7 IPs' training is inadequate in ensuring that IPs are able to apply psychological principles, theories, and models to the business context
IPs' training fails to ensure that they are able to apply psychological theories, principles, and models within the business context.
19 P2: “…when I was trained as an industrial psychologist - say you did some, like, psychology and some social behaviour and some sort of very basic psychology one-on-one type stuff, but after that, if I look at it, you know, if you had to do a Master's in human resource management, you almost learn almost the same things, apart from perhaps the psychometric testing side of things again.” p.5 P4: “…but then, for me, there was also never a practical applied psychology - you know, taking it to the next step.” p.20 P5: “hold a view about B.A. and B.Com. qualifications, and I believe (I am not sure if it is true) B.Sc. Industrial Psychology type of qualifications - if you say you are an expert in employee behaviour at work and you walk into a company as a work psychologist and your other majors are, for argument's sake, philosophy… you are not equipped in the world of business to be a work psychologist.” p.28
73
First-order themes Description of first-order themes No.of times in text
Quotations
8 Experienced IPHR practitioners require more opportunities for professional development
More development opportunities need to be made available for experienced IPHR practitioners to reaffirm psychology within industrial psychology when working within human resource management domains.
9
P3: “…so, if you train people in CPD, that you make sure that they do keep up with the profession. Are the training interventions designed in such a way that it does help people to reflect now, as a professional, on what are the psychological elements that you are talking about in a practice context?” p.50 P5: “So, you can do a year certificate or you can do a doctorate or a Master's degree, but where is that one week, two week programme for the businessman or woman that has been now out of university for ten or 15 years…?” p.32 P3: “In our last conference, I did not see anything around leadership. I saw a lot of psychometrics as to how do you best measure this or that thing… in the workplace that psychometrics is a small piece that sits there in this vast array of things that you expect a psychologist to go and play in. It is that small little speck there somewhere in the darkness.” p.29 FG2 P1: “I think, if you look at the bulk of the sessions, I think, probably 70% is aimed at assessments and, I think, something like the SIOPSA conference (should) maybe give a more HR function flavour to it, but with a strong theoretical underbolt.” p.30
9 Psychometrics distinguishes IPHR practitioners from HR practitioners
Psychometrics is a tool used by IPs which distinguishes IPHR practitioners from HR practitioners.
6 FG2 P4: “…And I also believe that my coaching sessions are made richer by the fact that I am able to interpret psychometric tools.” p.31 P7: “...the advantage that he/she would have is, firstly, of course, there is a legal advantage that they will be able to oversee the actions that are protected under the Act of 56 of 1974. Otherwise, an HR manager that is not a registered industrial psychologist will not be able to do that.” p.3
10 Application of psychological principles in human resource management domains tends to distinguish IPHR practitioners from HR practitioners
The IP has a deeper understanding of behaviour within the work context, which tends to distinguish the IPHR practitioner from the HR practitioner.
43 P1: “It would really only be us, because we understand group behaviours in organisations and we have the insight and the ability to deal with larger numbers.” p.12 P3: “But, I believe, fundamentally, when the industrial psychologist steps into any one of those practices within the organisation, it [sic] brings a deeper behavioural understanding of human behaviour within the workplace.” P2: “Ultimately, on a visible level, we do not do anything different than what the HR professional will do in organisations… But I believe what should be informing the design of the interventions, the methods, the processes, the strategies, is an understanding… of human behaviour within the context of organisations, of psychological theory then, if you want, so that your intervention is richer. So, there is a science you bring to it. There is an understanding, but the end product is still going to be a process or an intervention that would not look like a psychological intervention.” p12
74
First-order themes Description of first-order themes No.of times in text
Quotations
11 IPs tend to question the behavioural impact of business practices
IPs are inclined to question beyond the obvious to determine the impact of business practices on behaviour.
14 FG1 P3: “But the industrial psychologist will sit back and say: 'What motivational impact is there on a bonus system?' ” pp12 FG1 P3: “…we go and look for anchors - why did this happen? We do not just solve the conflict. We go back and say: 'Why?' ” p.28 P1: “I think, if we have one question as a criterion, 'What does this imply in terms of human behaviour?' (If) I put this system on the table - 'What does it imply in terms of behaviour?' ” p.25 P1: “ -'If I do this, what will be the behavioural outcome? If I write this letter about the retrenchments, what will be the behaviour that follows upon this? Will there be acceptance? Will there be rejection? Will there be shock?…' ” p. 26
12 IPs tend to think eclectically and integrate information when determining an appropriate solution for business problems
IPs are inclined to identify appropriate psychological theories, models, and tools, and then choose what is best suited to solve the business problem. IPs tend to integrate different information to form a complete business solution.
7 P6: I would be drawing on a lot of my psychology theories, background, models, and there is not one that I use - I like to use them eclectically.” p.7 FG2 P3: “I think, that is when you sit in front of that person, it is not only the policy, or can you or can‟t you do it; it is all your theories - leadership theories, organisational theories, theories of behaviour, self confidence, self image - all of it runs through your head while you are listening to that person, and I think that is the difference” p.23 FG1 P4: “The industrial psychologist has more training and more exposure than the others, and it is being able to integrate whatever you think is needed to put a solution for business on the table.” p.14
13 IPs have unique training
The training provided to IPs is unique and equips IPs to deal with information uniquely within the workplace.
6 FG2 P4: “I think it is part of our training as industrial psychologists, and this is where I think I have seen the difference. Part of your training is a lot of introspection, a lot of self-review…” p.12 FG1 P5: “…I am sure it is experience, but I think it is also your academic kind of background that brings you to that level. Because, I know, at one point we had to write reports. We had to integrate psychometric information and whatever, and I think those kinds of things teach you to look at different things and bring it to something and come to a conclusion and a recommendation” p.17
14 IPs' scientific orientation is a distinguishing factor
IPs are inclined to base their decisions upon science. IPs' scientific orientation is a distinguishing factor.
4 P4: “It is about the validity and the reliability of what you are doing, and that you are not really necessarily going to plug into if you are not coming from the psychological perspective.” p.9 P4: “…if you go from an administrative perspective, you just want to put a process in place, where if it comes to performance management, for example, you really need to understand, 'Well, if you do it this way versus that way, which way is going to be most reliable and which way is going to be most valid?' ” p.8
75
First-order themes Description of first-order themes No.of times in text
Quotations
15 IPs are inclined to protect the interests of people in the workplace
IPs have a professional responsibility and are inclined to protect the interests of the human element within organisations.
15 P5: “So, I am talking about ethics. I am talking about detrimental effect on employees and their behaviour.” p.20 FG3 P1: “I do not know for the rest of you, but the more and more I work with senior leaders in corporate organisations, the more I realise that they also make poor decisions because they do not have people checking them. They do not have somebody saying, 'But hang on a minute - what about the human element?' ” p.21 FG3 P3: But just by asking a few questions to this particular executive that was dealing with the transaction, you could see that they were not thinking about… the due diligence for them means it is a paper-based exercise. 'What is in the numbers? What is the payroll value? What is the head count? What is that…?' Not, 'How is the psyche going to affect, or psychology going to affect this whole process?' And if we do not tell them that - guess what? - they are not going to think about it.” p.45
16 IPs are inclined to have a systems perspective
IPs are able to identify different components of a situation and recognise how these components interact and relate to one another. IPs will then try to understand issues in context in order to practise holistically.
20 FG 1 P5: “…introduce performance management within a company. There are a lot of other things that you have to consider, and then you are pulling from all that information that you have in terms of how you are going to do change management. 'What will be the fears of people when they see this thing? ... What is the administrative nightmare if they are going to have to fill this thing in?' You are going to look at all those kinds of things…” p.16 FG1 P5: “…when you give advice to line managers. They can see, they can hear that, when you are talking, you can integrate all of these things - you are not only coming here with one little thing and say, 'Okay, I think the best thing is to do this.' It is a well-thought argument that you put on the table with all the information that you have…” p.16
17 IPs tend to fulfil specialist roles in organisations
IPs often fulfil specialist roles in human resource management departments within organisations.
3 FG2 P4: “The other thing that sprung to mind, you know - two words that will distinguish: HR practitioners generalists/industrial psychologist specialists.” p.16 FG3 P1: “...they had specialist industrial psychologists working in, what I would call, roles of centres of excellence. So, they would either be a talent management expert or they would be a strategic people resourcing expert, as opposed to a generalist HR role.” p.10
18 HR practitioners tend to focus on maintenance and survival issues; IPHR practitioners are inclined to focus on strategic and growth issues
The IPHR practitioner would tend to focus on the strategic and growth issues of the organisation, and the HR practitioner would be inclined to focus on maintaining current systems and procedures.
23 Fg1 P2: “if you are looking at traditional HR, it is more operational (to do the work) and then industrial psychology, it is not completely strategic but leaning more towards future and thinking of things like that, rather than just the immediate…” p.18 FG2 P3: “…often when we are driving or want to initiate certain things in the firm… one of our HR managers would need to do it - boom, boom, boom, boom, boom. And then you would get someone around the table… who is an organisational psychologist. She would say, 'But sit back… and just look at the context of what we are trying to do… Where is the firm at? What is happening at the leadership level? Where are we in terms of the financial year? How does it look in terms of the budget? Is this now the right time to be doing this?' ” p.12
76
First-order themes Description of first-order themes No.of times in text
Quotations
19 Factors that tend to distinguish an IPHR practitioner from an HR practitioner
Factors that distinguish an IP HR practitioner from an HR practitioner include: IPs have the skills to influence, IPs can be an advisor and facilitator within organisations, IPs are able to recognise the need for psychological intervention, IPs have knowledge and skills within consumer behaviour and ergonomics.
6 FG3 P5: “I had an intern who did her M on consumer behaviour, and that was excellent. The contribution she has made was a measurable contribution.” p.15 FG1 P1: “I think, where you come in as an industrial psychologist, and that is what I have seen over the years, that industrial psychologists have got the skills to influence an advisory.” p.8 FG3 P3: “We can add value which the HR practitioner cannot do in terms of facilitation, understanding people, advice to the line managers in terms of how to treat people, how to behave, which, if you have not got that industrial psychology background, I think, you are going to battle to do that.” p.14
20 IPs' professional identity in question
An IP‟s professional identity may become blurred when employed as a generalist HR practitioner in an organisation.
16 FG2 P1: “That is why, when they talk about the identity crisis of the industrial psychologist, I am thinking I can understand that, because I have seen both. I have seen good industrial psychologists that are good HR people, and I have seen people that are not industrial psychologists that are also good (human resource managers).” p.11 P3: “…as I said, it could be the identity, but it is also the way we think about ourselves as professionals within that context. Because, often, we lose that… people get caught up with having the title general manager, and the other thing (professional qualification) is a by-product. It is a title that I have professionally, but I do not really play in that space any longer.” p.55 P7: “We turn ourselves into quasi human resource practitioners. So, in a sense, we forfeit a whole calling as psychologists… But that says that, in the first place, we have to be secure in our own identity...” p.26
21 IP‟s direct reporting line as an inhibiting factor in the use of psychology within organisations
IPHR practitioners reporting to leaders who are non-human resource management or IP professionals inhibits the use of psychological principles, theories, and models within the human resource management domains.
13 P1: “So, you are a lone voice, very much, because the CEO will probably come from either a legal or a technical or a financial background… and you will fall in somewhere, two, three, or four, and you will be a lone voice against many others that are far more objective domains.” p.24 FG2 P4: “…we report in to MBAs and CAs most of the time, and that is a different animal on its own… numbers, figures, facts, and that sort of thing. And it is a hard sell-back to those guys, and it is hard to get resources out of them. And, again, that boils back to: 'Are my guys paid correctly? Are [sic] the transactional stuff in place? Are we compliant?' and that sort of thing” p.7
22 Little understanding of IP profession in organisations and society
There is little understanding of the IP profession.
11 P4: “I do not think that a lot of people necessarily see industrial psychology. I think there is a lot of ignorance around psychology and industrial psychology still.” p.24 FG2 P1: I think, the understanding also. I never tell people I am an industrial psychologist because now you must explain what it is. If people just hear the psychologist part… then they want to refer their husband that is schizophrenic…” p.43
77
First-order themes Description of first-order themes No.of times in text
Quotations
23 IPs have limited scope to practise psychology within organisations
IPHR practitioners have limited scope to practise psychology, due to economic factors, lack of time, needs of the business, fulfilling a generalist role as opposed to a specialist role, perception of the role of the HR function, prescriptive and rigid business practices, lack of resources, and being employed on a lower job level.
29 P6: “What makes it really hard going to [sic] apply psychology and get [sic] it in, is when the business is tight and it is difficult. Because, like we are in now at the moment, there is a double-dip, which is probably upon us, and then everybody just buttons down and tries to bring the revenue in and, 'Do not come and talk to me about this fancy stuff.' ” p.35 P1: “I am not 100% convinced that when they get into those positions, that they actually have the space to exercise industrial psychology… So I really doubt whether you have much space to be what you are actually supposed to be if you land up in an HR position.” p. 2 P4: “You know, I see it in myself. When you get so swallowed up in the day to day practicalities and pragmatic kind of concerns, you do not always think about 'Is this a right thing to do or is it just the thing that I am doing?' ” p. 34
24 IPs potential contribution to organisations is limited by the perception that IPs' value-add is limited to psychometrics
The perception that the value-add of industrial psychology is limited to psychometric assessment detracts from the value IPs can add in other areas.
14 P3: “And so our psychological content is restricted to psychometrics, and the more we restrict ourselves, there the further removed we are really getting away from the reality that we are trying to serve, which is an organisational context to a large extent.” p.37 FG3 P3: “You know, I sometimes just worry. The word industrial psychology equals assessment. That is the perception that exists currently. If you are an industrial psychologist, you assess. I think, me, as an industrial psychologist, can add a lot more value, not just doing assessment, and that is up to us to show the business that you can add that value.” p.13
25 HR practitioners are sometimes just as or even more effective than IPHR practitioners
HR practitioners who are not IPs may, at times, be just as effective or may even be more effective than IPHR practitioners in dealing with behaviour within the workplace.
7 FG1 P5: “…I think there are also HR practitioners out there that are very good in that (human behaviour), and they have that skill, but I just think we are actually supposed to be able to do that very well because we have the training...” p.24 P2: “I have seen very good HR practitioners who probably know more about psychology than many industrial psychologists might know.” p.15
78
First-order themes Description of first-order themes No.of times in text
Quotations
26 Factors that inhibit the use of psychological principles, theories, and models when working within an HRM function
Factors that inhibit the use of psychology when working as an IPHR practitioner include the South African employment legislation, organisations' politics, professional competition between HR practitioners and IP, fast-paced work environment, no demand for IP professionals in the employment market, career progression in human resource management roles, underlying agendas at the workplace, not being recognised as a psychologist, scope of practice not clearly defined, and the inability to explain what we do as professionals in organisations.
13 P2: “I am just saying, I suppose the environment has also become so fast-paced and continuously changing that people are often running around fighting fires more than actually sitting down and thinking about what they are doing or thinking about how they are going to apply psychological practice.” p.24 FG3 P1: “And I do also think that the generalist/specialist argument is underlying in that process. I think that HR generalists are trying to protect their territory, and I think that they consider industrial psychologists to be specialists as opposed to generalists. So, I also think that there is a professional competition going on.” p.14 FG1 P1: “We (HR) are quite a regulated profession/function in South Africa. And I think, what then happens, what the lack is and where I see the gap, is we do not really get to what we have to do from the ideal point of view where you must look at people as the differentiator in a company.” p.5
27 Human resource management function is determined by organisational context
The size and nature of the organisation are likely to determine the extent to which the IPHR practitioner is able to practise psychology within the human resource management domains.
19 FG3 P4: “But I also think the nature and size of the company plays a huge role… big companies can afford to have these dedicated functions that look after leadership and talent development… Smaller companies do not have that luxury. So, you have generalists running around there trying to do everything, and most of the attention then gets focused on the transactional side of the business and you tend to drift away from the… more psychology side of people management.” p.6 P4: “So, that kind of company is more likely to put more pressure on HR to be using psychological principles as opposed to a company that is more like a law firm… where their HR is probably going to be more focused on actually if we get paid in time.” p.27
28 Organisations providing the IPHR practitioner with resources enables the use of psychological principles, theories, and models
Organisations that make resources available to the IPHR practitioner enable the use of psychological principles, theories, and models within the human resource management domains.
4 FG2 P4: “Sometimes it is as simple as actually throwing money at the problem. So, allowing me to go to training - both the time to go to it and also the costs, are sometimes quite exorbitant. So, for example, the SIOPSA conference - none of us attended this year because times are tough in the organisation. So, that is another year where we are not getting that fellowship…” p.32 FG3 P4: “I spent a few years in Defence, and there is also lots of money to spare there and they also had dedicated areas looking at specifics. Now that I am in the corporate world, that is a luxury. Affordability is probably one of the biggest arguments in cost in terms of what should and should not be provided.” p.7
79
First-order themes Description of first-order themes No.of times in text
Quotations
29 Organisational culture as an enabler for the use of psychological principles, theories, and models
An organisational culture that values its employees is development-orientated and flexible enables the IPHR practitioner to use psychological principles, theories, and methods.
10 P6: “If you were in a company that was very rigid and had very rule-bound ways of doing these things, it would be more challenging, I think, to bring psychology in, because, inevitably, you would want to make changes.” pp.36 FG2 P3: “…but generally speaking, there is a culture towards development, which makes our roles, our lives, a lot easier, and guys are more receptive and more open to hearing what we have to say.” p.45 P2: “And, I suppose, by creating a culture and instilling values in an organisation where things like collaboration and listening are part of the daily behaviour of the organisation, it would become easier...” p18
30 Leaders play a critical role in the use of psychological principles, theories, and models
The leaders of an organisation play a critical role in enabling the IPHR practitioner to use psychological principles, theories, and models.
10 FG3 P1: “But it helps if exco and leadership place priority on the psychology of the workplace and their people. And if they really, genuinely do value people as their most important asset and not that is just a by-line for selling our organisation, you know, I think it depends a lot on the leadership framework.” pp29 FG3 P4: “…you can make yourself heard but, ultimately, the decision-making, the powers of the people make that decision - eventually the guys, maybe they will see from a productivity point of view and a cost point of view everything is going down the tubes, and then they will listen” p.35
31 Complimentary relationship between IP and HR practitioners
The relationship between the human resource manager and the IP should be complimentary where HR practitioners provides the wherewithal in managing people and IP provides the behavioural knowledge. An IPHR practitioner should adopt both roles in fulfilling their function within the organisation.
21 P7: “that is why human resource management and industrial psychology are on two sides of the same coin… The one is the wherewithal - how to manage them - and the other one is the psychology of people in the workplace...” p.6 FG1 P5: “IO psychologists are in HR-typical positions, and sometimes, as an industrial psychologist, you are fulfilling typical HR roles. So, it is very interlinked.” p.54 P5: “There are people that walk in there with a very strong academic view in saying human resources management and industrial psychology are two separate circles. Unfortunately, they cannot be separated - not in the world of work as we know it.” p.26 FG1 P1: “industrial psychologists cannot go without HR, and HR cannot go without industrial psychologists. We should not be too exclusive because then you have got a problem...” p.19
32 IPs establish credibility through various means
IPs may establish their credibility in various ways which includes professional integrity, evidence based practice, changing behaviour and demonstrating rand value of contribution.
19 P1: “…and you will be a lone voice against many others that are far more objective domains. Yours is a subjective, fluffy domain in their eyes. So, unless you present yourself as a scientist professional, much the way they do - I think that is where the catch lies” p.25 FG2 P2: “…but that you have to then have such an impact that you maintain consistency and demand that everyone then should be handled under the same benchmark, and not some without doing the selection and psychometric and some do… That gives you the credibility.” p.39 P3: “I believe the effectiveness lies insofar as you can change some of those behavioural aspects of these various practices, that if they (IPs) can play in that space the credibility will increase dramatically in organisations.” p.6
80
First-order themes Description of first-order themes No.of times in text
Quotations
33 Human resource management as a function can make a strategic contribution
The purpose of the human resource management function is to ensure that the strategic objectives of the organisation are met through managing talent.
12 P2: “It is to help the organisation achieve its vision through perhaps then also focusing on aligning the people management practices in achieving that.” p.2 FG1 P1: “HR should be a strategic partner from the beginning.” p.5 F2 P1: “So, what we are there to do is to translate the business strategy into a people strategy, so that it enables Line to make money and to do business, and that then obviously entails a lot of detailed stuff.” p.3
34 Psychological component underpins human resource management domains
There is a psychological component that underpins each human resource management domain.
69 P7: “Underlying each of those HR value chain aspects are psychological aspects.” p.6 P4: “You know, even if you look at things that seem quite black and white, like employee relations or pay, it is not really, because there is always a psychological dynamic behind pay, and there is always a psychological dynamic behind how you manage a disciplinary enquiry, or how you handle a case at the CCMA.” p. 4
35 IPHR practitioners need to base their practice on evidence
IPHR practitioners need to rely on science to guide their practice within organisations.
15 P2: “…and it has been scientifically validated, we should take note of that and weave that knowledge into our interventions.” p. 13 P3: “But in order for the industrial psychologist to advise this, he/she needs to have done some work to say that, 'There is a very good theoretical base for what I am going to suggest to the organisation.' ” p.41 P1: “...we do not know what other people think, so we have to devise methods, to do proper surveys, to obtain information, to use proper statistics, to use our scientific knowledge, almost more than what we use our theory-based knowledge.” p.18
36 IPs need to use current, valid, and reliable tools
Methods used within organisations need to be scientifically reliable, valid, and appropriately suited to the needs of the organisation.
8 P7: “I think they must be reliable methods (also its methodologies)… So what I am saying in that sense is it must be researched and informed methods. Secondly it must be valid to the situation. It must be able to produce the results you want to produce and that has also been research-related… It must work. It must make a difference…” p.12 P3: “…first thing you want to know… Is there a body of knowledge there that supports this thing strongly enough? But then secondly, … Does that fit what we are trying to do in our organisation…” p.21 P4: So, it is about the latest research. It is about the validity and the reliability of what you are doing...” p.9
37 IPs need to distinguish between fad and science
IPs should differentiate between theories and methods that are trends as opposed to theories and methods that are substantiated by valid and reliable research and supported by a solid theoretical foundation.
4 P4: “You need to be able to differentiate between the trends and the pop psychology aspects as opposed to the stuff with the real depth.” p.14 P3: “You try out some ideas, some of them which are not necessarily scientifically valid but it is the latest fad that is going on. An industrial psychologist almost needs to take a critical position on that and say, 'Is it really valid, the way that we will be introducing this thing, or is it just the latest fashion that everybody is trying to wear?' ” p.20
81
First-order themes Description of first-order themes No.of times in text
Quotations
38 IPs need to continuously update their knowledge base
IPs need to continuously update their knowledge base to keep up with developments within the industrial psychology discipline and within the business world.
23 P2: “…it is our job as psychologists to stay abreast with those kinds of developments so that we can use that knowledge in what we do.” p.12 P2: “You should stay abreast with developments. You should read and understand and stay abreast with developments in your field. Secondly, you should then apply and think and reflect about how these things can be built into your work and interventions.” p.20
39 IPs need to have a strong personal stance
IPs need to have a clear professional stance in the world of work, such that they are able to influence business decisions.
24 P1: “A lot can be done by enhancing what is the level of self-appraisal of psychologists. I think if they can go out there with a stronger stance, that, 'We are psychologists; this is what we believe should happen; this is how it should be done.' ” p.3 P1: “I think industrial psychologists do not often take such a strong stance… (IPs) do not go out there like the lawyer and… say 'we are going to end up in court guys; we cannot do this.' We are far softer in our approach… it is not a stance that says: 'No ways; it is not going to work!' ” p.4 P3: “…Industrial psychologist needs courage in that space… You need courage in terms of how you deal with that particular situation because you are dealing with very powerful people in the organisation…” p.27
40 IPs need to challenge their own processes
IPs need to actively reflect, introspect and challenge their own mind-sets and practices to determine whether they are practising from a psychological knowledge base.
16 P7: “Another interesting one, of course, is to ask another industrial psychologist to review what you have done, to say 'Do you think I have built in the best psychological principles, concepts, and theories into this practice?' " p.24 P3: “...in order for us to be effective in those domains as industrial psychologists, we need to question our own frameworks by which we work within these domains…” p.20 P3: “ 'Am I asking questions that the psychologist in that situation would be asking?'... my mind tuned in to say, 'Do I look with a psychological lens to this thing that I am doing in the working environment?' ” p.54
41 IPs need to play the role of a constructive critic in organisations
IPs need to constructively question and challenge business practices.
9 P3: “If you do not keep that kind of critical perspective, you, as an industrial psychologist, lose the possibility of becoming a real professional in that regard. And that, I would say, would be applicable to any one of these.” p.20 FG2 P3: “We really probe. I think what we try and do is get them to reflect themselves, to think about what they actually are doing, what they have done… also a bit of a sanity check in saying: 'Think about this; why are you doing this?… ' ” p.35 P3: “(An) industrial psychologist has a real opportunity to stand always as a critic of what is going on - not a critic to break down, but to be constructive and say: 'What can we do differently about it?' So you always look with this critical perspective at what is going on around you.” p.24 P1: “It will have to be the psychologist in the organisation challenging the status quo…” p.16
82
First-order themes Description of first-order themes No.of times in text
Quotations
42 IPs need more counselling skills
IPs need to have more counselling skills in order to provide psychological assistance in critical situations that require immediate psychological intervention.
6 P1: “It was an HR person, an industrial psychologist, who said that I needed at that point counselling skills and crucial, crucial clinical psychologist skills.” p.13 P1: “I think we need to be well equipped to deal with sudden emergencies and even short-term interventions. I think many of the coping strategies imply two or three or four meetings. It does not imply six months of deep psychological counselling. But a lot is to be said for counselling there and then, and for a credible person on site.” p.14 P4: “How do you handle the conflict? How do you draw on your counselling…? We do not do enough counselling, or, at least, we did not.” p.20
43 HR practitioners should have business acumen in order to be effective in their roles
HR practitioners should have business acumen in order to be an effective a business partner.
4 P4: “I am not necessarily sure that being an industrial psychologist is going to make you a better partner to the business. You know, maybe having an M.B.A. or maybe having an HR practitioner who has an MBA or some kind of business qualification makes him a better partner to the business.” p.19 FG3 P1: “...you can very clearly see why business sometimes takes a decision to employ into an HR Exec role; somebody who does not have an HR Head. Because the perception is that traditional HR people do not have business acumen” p.39
44 IPs need to translate psychological principles, theories, and methods to the business context
Psychological principles, theories, and models need to be applied practically to the business context. The application of these psychological principles, theories, and models need to be applied implicitly, such that the intervention/solution does not appear to be psychological in nature.
21 FG3 P4: “The worst thing we can do, in my opinion, is labelling it. Do not go with the psychological mumbo-jumbo to line management. Do not do that. Subtly tell them. I mean, I did not say to this guy, 'Did you think about the psychological impact?' I mean, you will lose them there and then.” p.47 P3: “Is it just going to come and apply another motivational theory and then you hear people saying: 'Stop your theory - what is the action? What is the practical stuff?' you know.” p.21 P2: “So, again, it is about - the trick is by taking your knowledge and transforming it into something that is palatable to the company.” p.23 P2: “...applying their knowledge of psychology, if you like, in the corporate context without necessarily making it explicit. Because often line people just start finding that completely iffy and esoteric.” p.4
45 IPs need to demonstrate their contribution
IPs need to demonstrate the value that they add within organisations.
7 FG3 P5: “to put a rand value to the contribution that the initiatives that we have put in place could be evaluated against… hereafter, I kept on doing it, and up to now we still get an excellent bottom line on the initiatives that we do.” p.13 FG1 P5: “I think, if we have to start also living up to that and saying but what is the value that we will add in terms of that” p.63 FG3 P1: “...we can bring an element of quantifying our value-add through (asking): 'How did this intervention have an effect on the team?'… I do think that we are taught to quantify and analyse, and we should be justifying that value-add to the business in statistical ratios.” p.22
83
First-order themes Description of first-order themes No.of times in text
Quotations
46 IPs are responsible for creating a context in which psychology is used within the human resource management domains
IPs are responsible for creating the context where psychology can be used within the human resource management domains.
24 FG3 P3: “If am not going to do these things and sell these things and make it work, it is just not going to happen … many a time we look and say how are we going to create our own context to make sure that we are 'onmisbaar' you know, as industrial psychologists.” p.29 P1: “I think from an organisation point of view, we need to be proactive. Us believing that organisations will change to accommodate us is a fallacy. I do not think that will happen.” p.4 FG3 P5: “…I think we need to influence the situation to be more psychologically inclined.” p.34
47 IPs need to enhance the credibility of the human resource management profession
By enhancing the credibility of the human resource management profession, the perception of human resource management is improved, and the IPHR practitioners have more credibility within organisations.
12 FG1 P1: “Anybody can move in. The professionalisation of HR practitioners has not been pushed as far as it should be” p.49 FG1: “…we are the people who are not doing justice to our own profession by the people we employ in the HR departments.” p.51 FG3 P1: “And I am not being snooty about it, but I am saying the profession of HR is so very diluted that when we are trying to play a role as industrial psychologists in HR, you almost get drowned in a profession that has lost its integrity and credibility for a lot of reasons.” p.39
48 IPs should form a common professional identity
IPs need to form a common vision and identity. IPs then need to work together towards creating an understanding of the profession amongst stakeholders.
6 P5: “If we can get 1 000 people (IPs) to broadly think the same, broadly communicate the same, and broadly act the same, we are touching about 1 000 companies.” p.25 P5: “Pull together the psychology professionals across business South Africa more purposefully” p.33 P5: “I would get all of the people (IPs) infused, I would get them aligned, I would get a common understanding and a common framework, and then I would begin to basically get them to make a difference.” p.38
84
4.4 Insights from my personal journal
An excerpt from my personal journal reads as follows: “(Influencing) organisational
behaviour and individual behaviour (is) not exclusive to IP (as people with) MBAs or skilled
business people (have knowledge and skills to influence human behaviour in the
workplace).” P6 indicated that influencing individual and organisational behaviour is not
exclusive to industrial psychologists in the workplace, and that other professions and
occupations are able to tap into this knowledge and effectively influence behaviour in the
workplace. P6 added that, despite this, industrial psychologists are expected to work within
the domain of influencing behaviour at work, otherwise they are not practicing as industrial
psychologists. I found this an important insight to record, since understanding and
influencing behaviour in the workplace is not exclusive to industrial psychologists, but rather
industrial psychologists are expected to be the behavioural specialists in the workplace.
Another extract from my personal journal reads as follows: “Credibility of IP rests on
(the) ability to infuse and practise psychology implicitly” and “On a visible level (IPs) do not
do anything different.” P2 indicated that industrial psychologists should retain their
credibility in the workplace by ensuring that they do not make the use of psychological
principles, theories, and methods explicit. A bit later on in the interview, P2 indicated that,
on a visible level, the interventions that industrial psychologists design and develop may
seem similar to those of human resource managers. P2 explained that industrial
psychologists may weave behavioural theories into their interventions, yet the use of
behavioural knowledge may not be made explicit by the industrial psychologist. P2 indicated
that the industrial psychologist may lose credibility with fellow colleagues if an intervention
sounds psychology-based. It is suggested that, perhaps the work performed by industrial
85
psychologists may look the same as the work performed by human resource managers as
industrial psychologists may want to retain their credibility with colleagues.
4.5 Second-order themes
Second-order themes were formulated by grouping first-order themes together. There
are nine second-order themes namely: the HPCSA‟s and professional association‟s role in
affirming psychology in industrial psychology; education of prospective and experienced IPs
needs to be revised; factors that distinguish IP from other professions and disciplines; factors
that inhibit an IPHR practitioner from using psychology in the workplace; factors that enable
an IPHR practitioner to use psychology within the workplace; IPHR practitioners should
practise from a scientific base to ensure that psychology is applied in human resource
management domains; IPs should adopt an enquiring and assertive approach when fulfilling
their role as an HR practitioner to ensure that psychology is applied within organisations;
IPHR practitioners should have certain competences to ensure that psychology is applied
within the organisational context; and IPs have a responsibility to affirm psychology in
industrial psychology. The second order themes are indicated in Table 11. Included in Table
11 are the first-order themes with arrows from their respective second-order themes,
illustrating the groups of first-order themes that relate to the second-order themes.
86
Table 11
Second-order themes
First-order themes 2nd order themes Description
1 HPCSA‟s role is regulatory HPCSA‟s and professional association‟s roles in affirming psychology in industrial psychology
HPCSA and SIOPSA have roles to fulfil in ensuring that psychology is affirmed in industrial psychology.
2 HPCSA lacks understanding of IP
3 HPCSA‟s educational role
4 HPCSA‟s and SIOPSA‟s roles in educating stakeholders
5 Universities differ in terms of the prescribed curricula for the training of prospective IPs Education of prospective and experienced IPs needs to be revised
The education of prospective and experienced IPs needs to be revised to ensure that psychology is practised within the human resource management domains.
6 IPs' training is inadequate in ensuring that IPs are able to apply psychological principles, theories, and models to the business context
7 Internship programmes inadequate
8 Experienced IPHR practitioners require more opportunities for professional development
9 Psychometrics distinguishes IPHR practitioners from HR practitioners Factors that distinguish IP from other professions and disciplines
Industrial psychology is distinguished from other professions and disciplines due to certain factors.
10 Application of psychological principles in human resource management domains tends to distinguish IPHR practitioners from HR practitioners
11 IPs tend to question the behavioural impact of business practices.
12 IPs tend to think eclectically and integrate information when determining an appropriate solution for business problems.
13 IPs have unique training
14 IPs scientific orientation is a distinguishing factor
15 IPs are inclined to protect the interests of people in the workplace
16 IPs are inclined to have a systems perspective
17 IPs tend to fulfil specialist roles in organisations
18 HR practitioners tend to focus on maintenance and survival issues; IPHR practitioners are inclined to focus on strategic and growth issues
19 Miscellaneous factors that distinguish an IPHR practitioner from an HR practitioner
87
First-order themes 2nd order themes Description
20 IPs' professional identity in question Factors that inhibit an IPHR practitioner from using psychology in the workplace
There are certain inhibiting factors that restrict the use of psychology within the workplace.
21 IPs' direct reporting line is a limiting factor in the use of psychology within organisations
22 Little understanding of IP profession in organisations and society
23 IPs have limited scope to practise psychology within organisations
24 IPs' potential contribution to organisations is limited by the perception that IPs' value-add is limited to psychometrics
25 HR practitioners are sometimes just as or even more effective than IPHR practitioners
26 Miscellaneous factors that inhibit the use of psychological principles, theories, and models when working within an human resource management function
27 Human resource management function is determined by organisational context
28 Organisations providing the IPHR practitioner with resources enables the use of psychological principles, theories, and models
Factors that enable an IPHR practitioner to use psychology within the workplace.
There are certain factors that enable the use of psychology within the workplace. 29 Organisational culture as an enabler for the use of psychological principles, theories, and models
30 Leaders play a critical role in the use of psychological principles, theories, and models
31 Complimentary relationship between IP and HR practitioners
32 IPs establish credibility through various means
33 HRM as a function can make a strategic contribution
34 Psychological component underpins human resource management domains
35 IPHR practitioners need to base their practice on evidence
IPHR practitioners should practise from a scientific base to ensure that psychology is applied in human resource management.
In order to ensure that psychology is used within the human resource management domains, IPHR practitioners should practise from a scientific knowledge base.
36 IPs need to use current, valid, and reliable tools
37 IPs need to distinguish between fad and science
38 IPs need to continuously update their knowledge base
88
First-order themes 2nd order themes Description
39
IPs need to have a strong personal stance
IPs should adopt an enquiring and assertive approach when fulfilling their role as a HR practitioner to ensure that psychology is applied within organisations.
IPs should adopt an enquiring and assertive approach when fulfilling their role as a HR practitioner. This assertive and enquiring approach ensures that psychology is practised within organisations.
40 IPs need to challenge their own processes
41 IPs need to play the role of a constructive critic in organisations.
42 IPs need more counselling skills
IPHR practitioners should have certain competences to ensure that psychology is applied within the organisational context
Certain competences are required to ensure that psychology is applied by the IPHR practitioner within the organisational context.
43 HR practitioners should have business acumen in order to be effective in their roles
44 IPs need to translate psychological principles, theories, and methods to the business context.
45 IPs need to demonstrate their contribution
46 IPs are responsible for creating a context in which psychology is used within the human resource management domains
IPs have a responsibility in affirming psychology in industrial psychology.
IPs are responsible for ensuring that psychology is affirmed in industrial psychology. 47 IPs need to enhance the credibility of the HRM profession
48 IPs should form a common professional identity
89
Second-order themes were formulated by grouping together the first-order themes that
were similar in words, referred to similar broad concepts, or summarised similar concepts
into a concise theme. First-order themes that were grouped together to form a second-order
theme based on words included the words "HPCSA" and "SIOPSA." All first-order themes
that referred to the "HPCSA" or "SIOPSA" were grouped together to form a second-order
theme. Many participants referred to aspects that enabled or inhibited them from using
psychology within the predominant human resource management domains. Inhibiting and
enabling factors are examples of first-order themes that were grouped together, based on
similar broad concepts. Two second-order themes were formed as a result, namely factors
that enable and inhibit the IPHR practitioner from using psychological principles, theories,
and models within the workplace. Participants also referred to aspects that made IP
distinguishable from other disciplines and professions, and these aspects were grouped
together to form another second-order theme. This second-order theme was formed based on
the same broad concept of distinguishing factors.
The broad concepts used to capture the meaning of some of the first-order themes
include the education of prospective and experienced industrial psychologists; IPHR
practitioners should practise from a scientific base; IPHR practitioners should have certain
competences; and IPs have a responsibility in affirming psychology in industrial psychology.
In the first instance, first-order themes that relate to the training and development of
prospective and experienced industrial psychologists, curricula prescribed by universities,
and the internship programmes all relate to the education of industrial psychologists as a
broader concept. For this reason, these first-order themes were then grouped together to form
the second-order theme relating to the education of industrial psychologists. The first-order
themes describing IPHR practitioners should practise from a scientific base include industrial
psychologists distinguishing between fad and science, updating their knowledge base, using
90
valid and reliable tools, and basing their practice on science. Thirdly, being able to translate
psychology into a language or an intervention that is accepted within the business context,
being able to demonstrate your value as an industrial psychologist, and having business
acumen and counselling skills all relate to the broader concept of competence. In the last
instance, the first-order themes relate to the broader concept of responsibility. Industrial
psychologists have a responsibility to enhance the credibility of human resource
management, for creating their own context that enables the use of psychology in the human
resource management domains and, lastly, to form a common professional identity.
The second-order theme that condenses similar concepts into a concise theme is: IPs
should adopt an enquiring and assertive approach when fulfilling their role as an HR
practitioner to ensure that psychology is applied within organisations. The second-order
theme is described by the first-order themes that relate to industrial psychologists challenging
their own processes and being the constructive critic in organisations. The second-order
theme also includes the descriptor that IPs need to have a strong personal stance.
The purpose of the second-order themes is to provide a succinct account of the
participants‟ points of views. As far as possible, the second-order themes should broadly
represent most of the data obtained from the participants (Schurink, 2009). In order to test
whether the above identified second-order themes and the descriptor first-order themes
represented the participants‟ views, an online survey was sent by electronic mail to all the
participants. As discussed in section 3.2.13 of Chapter Three, the survey included the nine
second-order themes as main headings with their respective descriptor first-order themes, as
depicted in Table 11. The first-order themes served to explain what was meant by the
second-order theme, and the participants were asked to rate the extent to which they agreed
or disagreed with the nine second-order themes only. The rating scale ranged from strongly
agree, agree, neither agree or disagree, disagree, or strongly disagree with each second-
91
order theme. Participants were provided a comment box in which to share any comments on
each second-order theme they were rating. The comments shared by the participants in the
survey were not analysed for the purpose of this study. A total of 21 participants participated
in this study, and only 15 of the 21 participants completed the survey.
The results of the survey are summarised in Table 12, and the number represents the
percentage of people who either strongly agreed, agreed, neither agreed or disagreed,
disagreed, and strongly disagreed with the second-order themes. In sum, out of 135
responses received from the 15 participants who completed the survey, six participants
responded that they neither agreed nor disagreed with second-order themes numbered 2, 3, 4,
7, and 9 in Table 12. A total number of three participants disagreed with second-order
themes numbers 3 and 8 as indicated by Table 12. Where participants indicated in the
comment box what they didn‟t agree with, these comments were considered and are reported
on in the discussion section. The rest of the responses were positive, and respondents either
agreed or strongly agreed with the rest of the themes identified. This means that 126 of the
135 responses agreed or strongly agreed with the themes identified. In sum, 93% of the
responses of the participants who participated in the survey reacted positively to the themes
identified.
92
Table 12
Summary of results of the verification survey
Second-order theme Strongly agree
Agree Neither agree or disagree
Disagree Strongly disagree
1 HPCSA‟s and professional association‟s role in affirming psychology in industrial psychology
13.33%
86.66%
0 0 0
2 Education of prospective and experienced IPs needs to be revised
40.00%
53.33%
6.66%
0 0
3 Factors that distinguish IP from other professions and disciplines
13.33%
66.66%
6.66% 13.33%
0
4 Factors that inhibit an IPHR practitioner from using psychology in the workplace
20.00%
73.33%
6.66%
0 0
5 Factors that enable an IPHR practitioner to use psychology within the workplace
13.33%
86.66%
0 0 0
6 IPHR practitioners should practise from a scientific base to ensure that psychology is applied in human resource management domains.
40.00%
60.00%
0 0 0
7 IPs should adopt an enquiring and assertive approach when fulfilling their role as a HR practitioner to ensure that psychology is applied within organisations.
33.33%
60.00%
6.66%
0 0
8 IPHR practitioners should have certain competences to ensure that psychology is applied within the organisational context
40.00%
53.33%
0 6.66%
0
9 IPs have a responsibility in affirming psychology in industrial psychology.
46.66% 40.00% 13.33% 0 0
93
4.6 Integration
The results of this study were reported in this chapter. Firstly, the process and the
level of abstraction used to generate codes for the data gathered was discussed. Since the
number of codes generated as a result of the open coding analysis method amounted to 328,
the formulation of the 48 first-order themes required elucidation. Table 9 demonstrated how
each first-order theme had been formulated from the codes generated. The first-order themes
were then presented in tabular format, and each first-order theme was concisely described to
summarise the nuanced meanings of the participants. Similarly, the conceptualisation of the
nine second-order themes from the first-order themes was described, and the categorisation of
the 48 first-order themes within the nine second-order themes was illustrated with arrows in
Table 11. Insights from my personal journal were also included in this chapter. Lastly, the
results of the verification survey conducted were presented numerically in Table 12.
Although some participants disagreed with some of the themes, 93% of the responses
obtained from the participants who responded to the survey agreed with the results. The
comments provided where participants disagreed with the themes in the survey as well as the
nuanced meanings of the nine themes are addressed in Chapter Five.
94
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
5.1 Introduction
The aim of the study was to determine how psychology could be practised by
industrial psychologists within the human resource management domains. Ideally, industrial
psychologists should gain a better understanding of how to approach the human resource
management domains from a behavioural perspective as a result of this study. In response to
the research question, the results of the study will be discussed in terms of the main themes
that were elicited from the in-depth, semi-structured interviews and focus groups. The nine
main themes are: the HPCSA‟s and professional association‟s roles in affirming psychology
in industrial psychology (theme 1); education of prospective and experienced IPs needs to be
revised (theme 2); factors that distinguish IP from other professions and disciplines (theme
3); factors that inhibit an IPHR practitioner from using psychology in the workplace (theme
4); factors that enable an IPHR practitioner to use psychology within the workplace (theme
5); IPHR practitioners should practise from a scientific base to ensure that psychology is
applied in human resource management domains (theme 6); IPs should adopt an enquiring
and assertive approach when fulfilling their role as an HR practitioner to ensure that
psychology is applied within organisations (theme 7); IPHR practitioners should have certain
competences to ensure that psychology is applied within the organisational context (theme 8),
and IPs have a responsibility in affirming psychology in industrial psychology (theme 9).
Supporting quotations and literature will be used where possible to validate the links and
inferences made from the main themes identified.
95
5.2 Discussion
5.2.1 The Health Professions Council of South Africa’s and the professional
association’s roles in affirming psychology in industrial psychology
5.2.1.1 The regulatory role of the Health Professions Council of South Africa
The role of the HPCSA within the profession of industrial psychology is accepted as
being that of regulating the scope of practice and protecting the public from harm. However,
it is suggested that the HPCSA fails to recognise the psychological components that underpin
the human resource management domains, and it was indicated that the HPCSA lacks an
understanding of industrial psychology. It was also suggested by the participants that the
HPCSA fails to differentiate the profession of industrial psychology from the other
professions that fall within the HPCSA‟s regulatory scope, since the medical model is applied
to regulate the practice of industrial psychology. Therefore, the scope of practice of
industrial psychologists may not be well defined. P7 indicated that, as a result of the scope of
practice not being well defined, the HPCSA is not able to effectively protect the public from
harm in some instances by stating: “They are not very good at protecting the public on the
organisation side of what industrial psychologists do and what other charlatans do, like doing
an organisational diagnosis and advising top management around the decisions they have to
take over the next five years in terms of people in the organisation.”
5.2.1.2 The Health Professions Council of South Africa’s role in the education
and training of industrial psychologists and the role of the Society for Industrial
and Organisational Psychology for South Africa in educating organisations of
the value of industrial psychologists
In addition to the regulatory role, it was found that the HPCSA may need to influence
the education of industrial psychologists. Universities across South Africa prescribe different
96
curricula for the education of prospective industrial psychologists. As a result, the HPCSA
may need to standardise the South African curricula for students in industrial psychology to
ensure that they are schooled from similar perspectives and from the industrial psychological
knowledge base. As a result of their training, industrial psychologists should be able to
identify the behavioural components that underpin the human resource management domains.
It was also found that the HPCSA may need to standardise the internship programmes such
that prospective industrial psychologists‟ practical training is similar. P5 expressed his
concern that an internship is determined by the specialisation and type of the organisation in
which the internship programme is completed by stating: “You have also got a problem with
internships happening in some companies or in some consulting companies where the
internship just focuses on a particular niche.” In addition, it was indicated by P6 that the
internship programmes are too short and do not allow the graduate to gain sufficient
competence in human resource management and influencing behaviour within the workplace.
Some participants suggested that the HPCSA should create development opportunities
for experienced industrial psychologists to explore the psychological components
underpinning the human resource management domains. It was also found that the HPCSA
may need to regulate the training of experienced industrial psychologists to ensure that they
continuously develop in the psychological aspects underpinning the human resource
management domains. Lastly, the HPCSA as well as SIOPSA, could play an informative
role to organisations, educating them of the value that industrial psychologists can add within
the organisational context. Accordingly, it was found that the HPCSA and SIOPSA have
roles to play in ensuring that psychology is affirmed in industrial psychology.
97
5.2.2 Education of prospective and experienced industrial psychologists needs to
be revised
As indicated, the education of industrial psychologists may need revision. Besides the
suggestion that the prescribed curricula differ amongst the universities, it was also stated that,
depending on the university, the students‟ industrial psychological training would be
influenced more by either human resource management or psychology. It appears that the
disparity in the perspectives of universities may need to be addressed to prepare industrial
psychologists for practising from a psychological knowledge base in the human resource
management domains.
Industrial psychology finds practical application within the business context (Bergh,