AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT ASSOCIATED WITH CROSSFIT EXERCISE Reed J. Kaus A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF EDUCATION May 2014 Committee: David Tobar, Advisor Bonnie Berger Vikki Krane
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AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT ASSOCIATED WITH CROSSFIT EXERCISE
Reed J. Kaus
A Thesis
Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of
than those who exercised at 60% VO2max throughout measurements recorded at 30, 60, and 90
minutes post-exercise. Observing an interaction of fitness levels and intensity, Blachard,
Rodgers, Spence, and Courneya (2001) found those individuals who were more fit did not
receive the same psychological detriments at high intensity exercise as their unfit counterparts as
measured by the Exercise-Induced Feeling Index (EFI; Gauvin & Rejeski, 1993). Despite
contemporary findings regarding the benefits of high intensity exercise on mood, individuals
typically engage in exercises and intensities that make them happy and avoid those that make
them feel bad (Ekkekakis, Backhouse, Gray, & Lind, 2008; Ekkekakis, Parfitt, & Petruzzello,
2011).
CrossFit
CrossFit is a workout protocol that was developed by Greg Glassman at his gym in Santa
Cruz, CA in the early 2000s (CrossFit, Inc., 2013c). In 2003 the organization created a blog
(www.crossfit.com) to not only post a daily workout, but to spark what the CrossFit, Inc. (2013c)
founders called a “revolution in the fitness industry” (para. 4). The blog made accessing pre-
made workouts easy, and posted videos that provided demonstrations of the exercises so that
new exercisers could have a basic understanding of the body movements involved. The public’s
attraction to this new protocol spawned the inaugural CrossFit Games, which was sponsored by
Reebok in 2007. Following their mantra of “Forging Elite Fitness,” the CrossFit Games winner is
awarded the title of World’s Fittest Man/Woman for the upcoming year (CrossFit, Inc., 2013b,
2013c).
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 4 The organization has continued to grow following the start of the Games. Currently there
are over 5,500 affiliated gyms, and more than 35,000 CrossFit Level 1 trainers (CrossFit, Inc.,
2013c). To become a Level 1 trainer, an individual must attend a class accredited by the
American National Standards Institute, and become trained in the concepts, movements,
programming, and nutrition strategies of CrossFit (CrossFit, Inc., 2013a). Following the class,
attendees must pass a closed-book, 50 question multiple-choice exam. The organization fails to
declare what qualifies as passing, but has an 80% pass rate (CrossFit, Inc., 2011a). Additionally,
if an attendee fails the first test, there is an option to take the test as many times as needed until a
passing score is achieved, and certifications must be renewed every five years.
The interest in CrossFit has resulted in countless blogs, web pages, and even a periodical
for individuals to keep updated on recent news in the CrossFit community. The development of
CrossFit as a community has allowed it to spread by word-of-mouth and it continues to become
part of an increasing number of individuals’ lifestyles. This trend has shown not only in the
United States, but in other parts of the world as well, evidenced by the list of affiliated gyms
worldwide on the organization’s blog (CrossFit, Inc., 2011b) and the registration of athletes from
118 different countries in the 2013 CrossFit games (CrossFit, Inc., 2014).
With time being the primary barrier to exercise for individuals (Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, 2011; Canadian Fitness and Lifestyle Research Institute, 1996;
Korkiakangas, Alahuhta, & Laitinen, 2009), it is easy to understand why CrossFit has become
popular. Most workouts of the day (WODs) last between 20 and 30 minutes, depending on the
requirements of the workout and the fitness level of the individual, making it an effective option
for exercisers who are pressed for time. The program relies largely on functional lifts (e.g.,
squats and pull ups) in combination with aerobic work (e.g., running and rowing). Despite a
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 5 thorough search of scholarly databases including Ebsco, Web of Science, PubMed, and Google
Scholar on March 9th, 2013, no research was identified that has examined psychological topics
within CrossFit.
The popularity of CrossFit may be beneficial in getting more individuals participating in
exercise, which is an important consideration as the obesity rate increases. In the U.S., 37.5% of
adults are obese (Ogden, Carroll, Kit, & Flegal, 2012), and the worldwide obesity rate has
doubled since 1980 (World Health Organization, 2013). Comorbid with inactivity, this obesity
epidemic persists when 48.6 to 68.5% of those who start an exercise program drop out within
one year (Annesi & Unruh, 2007). A possible contributory factor to the lack of exercise
adherence may be that obese (Ekkekakis & Lind, 2006) and inactive individuals (Hoffman &
Hoffman, 2008) might emotionally respond differently to exercise than those who are at a
healthy weight. Therefore, investigators should consider the variables they are examining, and
carefully control their sample to eliminate possible confounds between groups which is why the
current study examined active, normal-weight, adults.
Additionally, it is possible that CrossFit adheres to the exercise characteristics in the
tentative taxonomy for enhancing the psychological benefits of exercise, originally designed by
Berger (1983/1984), and further developed by Berger (1994, 1996, 2004) and by Berger and
colleagues (Berger & Owen, 1988; Berger et al., 2007; Berger & Tobar, 2007, 2011). In regards
to mode requirements, CrossFit encourages cardiovascular fitness and may produce abdominal,
rhythmical breathing while focusing on personal improvement and reducing interpersonal
competition. The exercises are laid out ahead of time so they become closed, predictable, and
rhythmical, and participants repeat the sequence of exercises until they complete the workout.
The practice requirements may differ between individuals, but individuals may modify exercises
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 6 if incapable of completing them (e.g., use of bands attached to a bar while performing pull ups),
and if performed at a self-selected pace, it is possible the exercise bout is of moderate intensity.
Typical time-based CrossFit workouts are a minimum of 20 minutes in duration, and individuals
are encouraged to exercise three consecutive days, with a single rest day between the three-day
cycles. This standard implies individuals exercise five to six days each week. If all of these
requirements are met, then it would be logical, following the taxonomy, that individuals would
experience desirable mood alterations.
Hypotheses
Current research has focused on the mood changes associated with an acute bout of
exercise. CrossFit, though increasing in popularity for exercisers, has yet to be a focus of
psychological research. The ability to discover how CrossFit impacts affective states of
experienced and novice participants would be beneficial to exercise scientists and practitioners.
The purpose of the study was to examine whether regular participation in a high intensity
CrossFit workout had an influence on acute affect and mood changes, while controlling for
participant weight status and activity level. That is, exclusion criteria removed any potential
participants (a) with a BMI greater than or equal to 30.0; (b) who had been participating in
exercise for less than six months; and (c) who reported exercising less than two times per week
on average. It was hypothesized that experienced CrossFit individuals, when compared to novice
CrossFit individuals, would report (a) greater affect states, measured by the Physical Activity
Affect Scale and Feeling Scale, during and 30, 60, and 120 minutes after exercise; (b) lower
ratings of perceived exertion; and (c) higher levels of state enjoyment, but equal trait enjoyment,
measured by the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale.
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 7 CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW
A Tentative Taxonomy for Enhancing the Psychological Benefits of Exercise
Mood, as defined by Lane and Terry (2000), “is a set of feelings, ephemeral in nature,
varying in intensity and duration, and usually involving more than one emotion” (p. 16).
Alternatively, affect provides a wider sense of all valenced responses experienced by an
individual, and offers a general insight into the way a person is feeling (Ekkekakis & Petruzzello,
2000). Though the two terms have been used synonymously in the past, it is pivotal to
distinguish between the two, and recognize exercise has the ability to benefit both (Ekkekakis &
Petruzzello, 2000). Notably, these desirable changes occur following a variety of activities, and
are different for each individual. Two forms of exercise may appear completely different in such
a way that similarities between the two are hidden. However, even if unclear, there are
characteristics that exercises share that may lead to mood and affective benefits.
Berger and Tobar (2011) have developed a taxonomy attempting to identify the
characteristics of exercise that maximize psychological benefits (see Figure 1). The premise of
the model is if an individual engages in a personally enjoyable activity the likelihood of having
desirable mood changes will increase compared to performing exercise the individual does not
enjoy. This ability of one to enjoy activity is a subjective measure, and requires the recognition
of individual differences and preferences. However, this taxonomy contains two essential
components, referred to as mode and practice requirements, which should be considered when
developing exercise programs.
Mode requirements. The mode requirements of exercise are defined by the type of
activity that is being performed. One can analyze and find many differences between any two
modes of exercise. For example, there are many exercisers who enjoy running, but there are
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 8 some individuals who do not. This weight bearing activity might cause pain in joints or simple
displeasure, which may influence mood alteration. These individuals may achieve greater
psychological benefits with a non-weight bearing activity, such as cycling or swimming.
Although there are many different modes of exercise, Berger and Tobar (2011) list four
important characteristics that may be correlated with mood benefits: (a) abdominal and
rhythmical breathing, (b) relative absence of interpersonal competition, (c) closed or predictable
activities, and (d) repetitive and rhythmical movements. Berger and Motl (2000) suggest some of
the requirements have not been studied extensively (e.g., repetitive and rhythmical movements),
but through the analysis of activities that have produced mood benefits (e.g., swimming, running,
bicycling) it is logical that these movements do not require much thought, and allow the
exerciser to simply move.
EXERCISE CONSIDERATIONS
SUBJECTIVE WELL-BEING AND MEANING
Figure 1. Exercise taxonomy for maximizing the psychological benefits of exercise. Adapted from “Exercise and Quality of Life,” by B. G. Berger, & D. A. Tobar, 2011, The New Sport and Exercise Psychology Companion, p. 494.
MODE REQUIREMENTS
• Abdominal, rhythmical breathing, • Absence of interpersonal competition,
and • Closed, predictable, rhythmical, and
repetitive movements.
PRACTICE REQUIREMENTS
• Moderate exercise intensity, • 20 to 30 minutes in duration, and • At least 3 times a week
ENJOYABLE ACTIVITY
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 9 Practice/training requirements. Practice and training requirements refer to the quality
and quantity of exercise in which an individual engages. The practice and training requirements
describe aspects of exercise that influence the manner in which individuals engage in activity.
Berger and Tobar (2011) describe three main concepts for achieving optimal mood benefits:
frequency, intensity, and duration. According to the frequency portion of the model, individuals
should exercise a minimum of three times a week, and make it an integral part of their schedule.
Though moderate intensity exercise may not increase fitness and athleticism as much as high
intensity training, it regularly has been found to optimize desirable mood changes. Finally,
though desirable mood changes can be seen following short-duration exercise (Barr-Anderson,
AuYoung, Whitt-Glover, Glenn, & Yancey, 2011), one should participate in physical activity for
20 to 30 continuous minutes for optimal psychological benefits.
Berger and Tobar (2011) suggest that it is within the practice and training requirements
that individual differences may play a role. One of the main areas that individual differences are
seen is within the area of exercise intensity. Individuals who perceive major time constraints may
elect to engage in high-intensity exercise for a shorter period to burn the same amount of calories
that moderate exercise would burn over a longer duration. These perceived time constraints may
also influence the number of days each week the individual can find time to exercise.
In summary, the tentative taxonomy is a categorization of characteristics that may
enhance the likelihood of an individual experiencing mood benefits. These characteristics
include mode requirements of abdominal breathing, absence of interpersonal competition,
predictable activity, and repetitive movements. The second set of requirements is training
considerations, and includes frequency (minimum of three times per week), intensity (moderate
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 10 intensity), and duration (20 to 30 minutes). By enhancing the enjoyment of an activity, it may be
possible to increase psychological benefits from exercise.
Hypothesized Mechanisms for Mood Enhancement Through Exercise
It is unclear what is the exact mechanism through which exercise enhances mood. Some
plausible mechanisms have a physiological basis, while others are more psychological in nature.
It is difficult to fully support any one hypothesis, and it is likely that a combination of factors
may help to explain this relationship.
Physiological mechanisms. There are many physiological hypotheses that may explain
why people feel better after exercise. These include the endorphin, serotonin, norepinephrine,
and thermogenic hypotheses (see reviews in Morgan, 1997). Through the measurement of β-
endorphins in blood plasma, Scheef et al. (2012) speculate there may be opioidergic mechanisms
that occur in the brain following exercise, though the blood-brain barrier makes it difficult to
confirm this process. That is, there may be chemical binding on sites in the brain that results in
psychological changes, however measurements of these chemicals in the blood cannot always be
an accurate depiction of what is happening in the brain due to the blood being filtered to prevent
toxins from entering the brain. Though it is problematic to assume brain and plasma β-endorphin
levels are identical, blood measurements have been used in nonpsychotic depression studies
(Kubryak et al., 2012), and their findings are supported by the concept of endorphin release from
exercise, where an increase in endorphins in the blood was seen as individuals reported increases
in mood (see Hoffman, 1997 for a review).
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that may regulate mood by creating positive feelings, and
regardless of the availability within the blood one cannot imply that it is binding to receptors in
the brain (Wipfli, Landers, Nagoshi, Ringenbach, 2011). In their study, Wipfli et al. (2011)
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 11 found that serum serotonin levels significantly decreased in the blood following a 30-minute
bout of exercise on a bicycle ergometer at 70% heart rate max, possibly due to transportation to
and absorption by the brain. As the authors explain, this means that exercise may cause similar
decreases in serum serotonin as ingesting selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, and thus,
serotonin partially moderates the link between exercise and depression symptoms. That is, more
serotonin is made available for the brain after ingesting selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors,
and exercise may produce similar mechanisms as this medication. This research supports the
serotonin hypothesis, and is consistent with other findings in the field (see Chaouloff, 1997 for a
review).
The norepinephrine hypothesis proposes that it is the production of norepinephrine in the
body that results in psychological benefits following exercise. The norepinephrine hypothesis is
grounded in research on depressed and anxious patients, who were found to have reduced levels
of norepinephrine, similar to what has been observed in individuals with chronic stress (see
Dishman, 1997; Goddard et al., 2010; for reviews). Thus, exercise may increase norepinephrine
levels resulting in reduced levels of anxiety, which could explain why physical activity is often
cited for its ability to ease stress (Berger et al., 2007).
The final physiological consideration is the thermogenic hypothesis. It has been
hypothesized that the increase in core body temperature that is observed with physical activity
may be associated with the mood benefits of exercise. Koltyn (1997) reviewed literature on the
thermogenic hypothesis, including a series of studies observing mood following a session in a
sauna or warm shower that support the thermogenic hypothesis. It is theorized a similar increase
in body temperature and the temperature of specific brain structures (e.g., the brain stem) occurs
with physical activity, and through this mechanism anxiety and depression may be reduced.
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 12 Psychological mechanisms. Similar to the physiological mechanisms that may play a
role in mood benefits following a bout of exercise, the psychological mechanisms that may
influence mood state have not been extensively studied. The hypothesized psychological
mechanisms are thought to be a result of either distraction, self-efficacy increases, or social
effects of the exercise environment. According to the Berger and Tobar (2011) taxonomy of
enjoyable exercise, having a predictable, rhythmic activity, may assist one in “tuning out” their
environment, and psychologically engaging in their activity. Exercise allows for one’s focus to
turn inward and, in normal populations, simply perform exercise without the interference of the
outside world (Netz & Lidor, 2003). Exercise may distract the mind from psychological issues,
such as depression (Craft, 2005).
Through physical activity, individuals may gain a better understanding of their body, and
increase their self-efficacy, or the confidence one has in their ability to perform a specific task
(i.e., self-efficacy or mastery hypothesis). Petruzzello, Landers, Hatfield, Kubitz, and Salazar
(1991) observed that increases in fitness and skills are related to feelings of accomplishment and
are associated with control and self-confidence. Additionally, in a review, Stathopoulou, Powers,
Berry, Smits, and Otto (2006) noted that women who exercise, compared to women non-
exercisers, have higher levels of coping self-efficacy, or the ability to remain optimistic about
one’s resources when dealing with barriers to success (Schwarzer & Renner, 2000), a trait which
was inversely related to depression. Though causality cannot be claimed, it is possible that
individuals who exercise may have more belief in their abilities, thus are more confident, and
feel better in daily life compared to individuals who are inactive.
Finally, social effects may interact with mood, especially in exercise settings where other
exercisers are present. For example, Turner, Rejeski, and Brawley (1997) noted that women in a
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 13 ballet class reported higher exercise-related mood benefits and self-efficacy when they received
instruction, feedback, and support compared to a control group that received vague, general,
neutral feedback. Alternatively, Focht and Hausenblas (2004) observed that women with high
social physique anxiety reported higher levels of state anxiety, compared to their peers who
reported lower social physique anxiety, in an environment that presented itself as a high
physique-evaluative atmosphere (i.e., the environment was believed to criticize physical
appearance). The differences in these two studies emphasize how social groups may impact
mood in either direction.
In summary, there are multiple hypotheses that might explain why people report feeling
better after exercise, and receive positive mood and affective benefits. These hypotheses include
both physiological, which can be difficult to measure because of the blood-brain barrier and
other constraints, and psychological responses, which can be difficult to isolate in studies.
Though it is difficult to conclude one hypothesis explains the process more than another, it may
be best to accept that it is an interaction of these hypotheses that causes state mood changes in
exercisers.
Measures for Assessing Subjective Well-being
When subjective well-being is measured, it is pivotal to define the construct of interest
within a study. As previously mentioned, mood is most often considered a set of feelings which
involve various emotions (Lane & Terry, 2000), while affect is a broader view of all mood and
emotional responses within an individual (Ekkekakis & Petruzzello, 2000). Various measures
have been developed to assess mood and affect within research studies. Originally, many of the
methods employed in the field of exercise psychology were adopted from general psychology
(Ekkekakis & Petruzzello, 2000).
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 14 The Profile of Mood States (POMS; McNair, Lorr, & Droppleman, 1992) has been one of
the most extensively utilized measures in physical activity and exercise research (Berger & Motl,
2000; Petruzzello et al., 1991). The POMS is a 65-item scale that measures specific mood states
(McNair et al., 1992). Together the items assess six distinct subscales: tension-anxiety,
depression-dejection, anger-hostility, vigor-activity, fatigue-inertia, and confusion-bewilderment.
Although the POMS is a valid, sensitive instrument that can detect disturbances in mood, only a
single subscale assess a positive mood state, vigor, and the verbosity of the scale may be
intrusive in repeated-measure designs (Berger & Motl, 2000).
Shorter than the POMS, the 40-item STAI was prevalent in early research as an increase
in self-report measures in general psychology became popular (Ekkekakis & Petruzzello, 2000),
and has been a popular tool to measure anxiety (Petruzzello et al., 1991). The STAI is used to
assess both state and trait anxiety, with 20 items scored on a 4-point Likert scale used to assesses
both subscales (Spielberger et al., 1983). Researchers investigating acute bouts of exercise
typically utilize the state portion of the scale, as trait anxiety levels are considered to be
persistent through short periods of time (e.g., an acute bout of exercise). However, the STAI is
only able to give insight into participants’ levels of anxiety, and does not provide any other
measures of affect or mood.
Alternative to measuring specific mood states, such as anxiety or vigor, the Positive
Note. Values listed as M ± 1 s, df = 27. a Data presented are from 19 participants who responded to the “how long have you been exercising” item with a numerical value, df = 17. Instruments
Demographic data sheet. A demographic questionnaire gathered information on
participants’ age, sex, height, and weight. Participants also were requested to list their usual
exercise mode, current exercise patterns, the number of months they had been exercising
consistently, and months of experience with CrossFit, if applicable. This sheet was coded with a
number that tied each participant to his or her completed informed consent document.
This document included the ACSM Risk Stratification (2010), which prompted
individuals to respond to various health-related items. In order to assess their cardiovascular
disease risk, participants provided a history of blood relatives’ heart disease, sudden death,
coronary revascularization, and other exercise-related health issues. Another portion of the
questionnaire requested a personal health history, where participants provided insight to their
current health behaviors, including tobacco use, sedentary lifestyle, blood pressure, cholesterol,
levels of blood lipoproteins, and diabetes. Participants also were asked if they had ever had heart
attacks, angina, depression, or any surgeries to ensure the safety of the individual. See Appendix
A for the full document.
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 53 Exertion. The Rating of Perceived Exertion scale (RPE; Borg, 1982) is a subjective
measure of effort used to assess physical strain. The scale ranges in values from 6 (very, very
light) to 20 (very, very hard). RPE is considered a gestalt measure, as participants provide a
value that represents how they feel overall, allowing muscle fatigue, heart rate, and respiratory
rate to all influence a response. Due to the ecological nature of the study, heart rate was the only
measure of physiological intensity in this study, and was observed using telemetered heart rate
monitors (Polar Inc., Port Washington, New York, USA) placed around participants’ torsos.
Participants’ HRmax was calculated using the age-prediction equation (HRmax = 220 – age), and
%HRmax was determined by dividing HR by HRmax.
Since heart rate is one of many variables considered in perception, Borg developed the
scale to be associated with heart rate. Thus, the scale was developed to coincide with heart rates,
such that an individual’s reported value is multiplied by ten to estimate heart rate (e.g., 6 on the
RPE scale corresponds to a heart rate of 60 bpm, 7 with 70 bpm, etc.). Furthermore, RPE has a
positive, linear relationship with exercise intensity (Borg, 1982). In a meta-analysis, Chen, Fan,
and Moe (2002) reported a correlation between heart rate and RPE for adults of r = .64 ± .016,
and observed that 25 of 31 (81%) studies reported coefficients of correlation of r ≥ .50 for RPE
and VO2max. The scale has been found to be reliable in monitoring and evaluating exercise
tolerance in healthy adults and other populations (see Faulkner & Eston, 2008 for a review), and
its use within resistance training research has been validated (Lagally & Amorose, 2007). See
Appendix B for the full scale.
Affect. The Physical Activity Affect Scale (PAAS; Lox et al., 2000) is a 12-item
inventory that is divided into four subscales of positive affect, negative affect, fatigue, and
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 54 tranquility. The items are ranked on a 5-point scale anchored at 0 (Do not feel) and 4 (Feel very
strongly), and the scales are used to measure feelings in that moment.
Though it has not been used extensively in research, the scale lends insight into two
positive states (positive affect, tranquility) and two negative states (negative affect, fatigue),
making it an evenly balanced scale. It was designed for use in exercising populations and has
been found to be reliable in other studies (Kwan & Bryan, 2010; Lox et al., 2000).
Original research on the PAAS demonstrated Cronbach alpha coefficients of .94, .86, .91,
and .84 for the subscales of positive affect, negative affect, fatigue, and tranquility, respectively
(Lox et al., 2000). These findings are consistent with current research using the PAAS to
measure intra- and post-exercise affect, and yields subscale α’s ≥ .84 (e.g., Kwan & Bryan,
2010). The full scale can be viewed in Appendix C.
Exercise enjoyment. The Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES; Kendzierski &
DeCarlo, 1991) contains 18 bipolar items that reflect how individuals feel about activity. These
items, such as “I feel bored/I feel interested” and “I dislike it/I like it” are placed on opposite
ends of a continuum ranging from 1 to 7, and participants subjectively select which feeling is
more associated with the activity. The scale can be presented in either the state or trait form,
depending on the instructions given to the participant (e.g., “rate the activity you just did” or
“how you feel about physical activity in general, most of the time”).
Certain items of the scale are reversed (e.g., “I enjoy it/I hate it”) and are scored as such,
and overall scores are calculated by summing the scores of all the items, with higher scores
indicating greater levels of enjoyment. The PACES has effectively measured enjoyment in
7 External 60 minutes after exercise PAAS Phone FS
8 External 120 minutes after exercise PAAS
Phone FS
Analysis
The purpose of the study was to discover differences in the dependent variables of affect
(positive affect, negative affect, tranquility, and fatigue), RPE, and enjoyment (trait and state)
based on the independent variable of experience (novice and experienced). Statistical Package
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 60 for the Social Sciences (IMB SPSS Statistics, Chicago, IL, USA) version 19.0 was used to run a
two-way (2 x 6) doubly multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) with repeated measures
on the impact of CrossFit experience on affect, feeling, and enjoyment. To test the hypothesis
that the experienced group would report higher affect at all time points, the dependent variables
included the PAAS scales (positive affect, negative affect, tranquility, and fatigue). The between-
subjects effect was CrossFit experience (novice and experienced), and the within-subjects effect
was time (pre-, during, and post-exercise at 0, 30, 60, and 120 minutes after exercise). Any
significant main or interaction effects were followed-up with univariate or repeated measures
analyses of variance (ANOVAs), and follow-up Bonferroni corrections applied to planned
contrasts. Correlations were run to examine the relationship between FS and PAAS. A repeated-
measures design was used to analyze any differences between groups in RPE over time. To
further analyze exercise intensity, independent t-tests were used to analyze differences in mean
HR and %HRmax between the groups. Independent t-tests were utilized to test the hypothesis that
those with experience in CrossFit would report higher state (but equal levels of trait) exercise
enjoyment. All preliminary analyses were performed with α = .05, set a priori. Post-hoc analyses
on the PAAS and FS were performed with Bonferroni corrections (α = .006 and α = .004,
respectively)
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 61 CHAPTER IV: RESULTS
The following results will include F- and t-statistics, with main and interaction effects
being reported, as well as means ± 1 s for follow-up tests.
Affective States
To analyze differences in the subscales of the PAAS between experience levels and
assessment times, a 2 (group) x 6 (time) doubly MANOVA with repeated measures was utilized.
The MANOVA revealed a within-subjects effect for time (p = .008, η2 = .936), and no
interaction effect for time by group (p = .783), using Wilks’ Lamda corrections for both analyses.
Follow-up ANOVAs revealed a main effect for time on all PAAS subscales. Lastly, no between-
subject effects were apparent (p = .483), and full analyses can be seen in Table 3. The following
planned contrasts are reported with Bonferroni corrections (α ≤ .006)
The main effect for time was significant for PA (p = 0.019; η2 = .105). The planned
contrasts with corrected alpha levels did not indicate statistically significant differences between
time points for PA (see Table 4). However, Figure 2 illustrates that the means for PA tended to
be higher post-exercise compared to pre-exercise (d’s = 0.41-0.46).
Figure 2. Main effect of time on positive affect during and after CrossFit exercise.
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
Pre During 0 Post 30 Post 60 Post 120 Post
Posi%v
e Aff
ect (PA
AS)
Time
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 62 A significant main effect for time was also observed for NA (p = .001; η2 = .172), as
illustrated in Figure 3. Participants reported a significant increase from baseline to ten minutes
into activity (0.1 ± 0.3 vs 0.6 ± 0.7; t28 = -3.153; p = .004), and post-hoc effect sizes demonstrate
moderate increases in the measure (d = 0.63). No differences were observed at any other
assessment points, indicated in Table 5.
Figure 3. Main effect of time on negative affect during and after CrossFit exercise. * indicates significantly higher value compared to baseline, p < .001.
The main effect for time was significant for fatigue (p < .001; η2 = .237), displayed in
Figure 4. Post-hoc planned contrasts identified the variable to be significantly higher compared
to baseline at two time points: during activity (0.9 ± 0.7 vs 1.9 ± 0.9; t28 = -5.185; p < .001; d =
1.27) and immediately after exercise (0.9 ± 0.7 vs 2.0 ± 1.1; t28 = -4.314; p < .001; d = 1.15). All
other contrasts can be viewed in Table 6.
*
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Pre During 0 Post 30 Post 60 Post 120 Post
Nega%
ve Affe
ct (P
AAS)
Time
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 63
Figure 4. Main effect of time on fatigue during and after CrossFit exercise. * indicates significantly higher value than baseline, p < .001.
The final subscale of tranquility also showed a significant main effect for time (p = .001;
baseline were reported at 60 minutes (2.6 ± 1.0 vs 3.2 ± 0.8; t28 = -4.514; p < .001; d = 0.77) and
120 minutes (2.6 ± 1.0 vs 3.2 ± 0.8; t28 = -4.960; p < .001; d = 0.76) post-exercise. Additionally,
tranquility was significantly higher 30 minutes post-exercise compared to immediately after
exercise (3.0 ± 1.0 vs 2.4 ± 1.1; t28 = 5.360; p < .001; d = 0.64), with all other contrasts compared
in Table 7.
* *
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
Pre During 0 Post 30 Post 60 Post 120 Post
Fa%g
ue (P
AAS)
Time
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 64
Figure 5. Main effect of time on tranquility during and after CrossFit exercise. * indicates significantly higher value than 0 post, p < .001. ** indicates value significantly higher than baseline p < .001. Feeling
For the FS, a repeated-measures ANOVA examined differences between the experience
levels and assessment times. Due to violations of sphericity following Mauchly’s test (p < .001),
Greenhouse-Geisser corrections were used in the analyses. There was a main effect for time,
(F3.524, 95.151 = 21.179, p < .001, η2 = .440), which is highlighted in Figure 6, but no interaction
(F3.524, 95.151 = 1.421, p < .237) or between-subject effects (F1, 27 = .021, p < .885). Post-hoc
planned contrasts with Bonferroni corrections (α = .004) indicated reported scores were
significantly higher at baseline than at 5 minutes (3.6 ± 1.2 vs 2.4 ± 1.6; t28 = 4.172; p < .001), 10
minutes (3.6 ± 1.2 vs 1.9 ± 1.7; t28 = 5.255; p < .001), and 15 minutes (3.6 ± 1.2 vs 1.5 ± 1.9; t28
= 5.605; p < .001) into exercise. There was also a significant increase in the FS from 15 minutes
to immediately after exercise (1.5 ± 1.9 vs 3.6 ± 1.5; t28 = -5.431; p < .001). All planned contrasts
can be viewed in Table 8.
* ** **
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
Pre During 0 Post 30 Post 60 Post 120 Post
Tran
quility (P
AAS)
Time
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 65
Figure 6. Changes in pleasure during and after CrossFit exercise. * indicates value significantly lower than baseline, p < .001 ** indicates value significantly higher than 15 minutes into activity, p < .001
Exertion
A repeated measures ANOVA was used to analyze differences in RPE between
experience levels and assessment points, and revealed there was a significant main effect for
time on RPE, F1.515, 40.917 = 20.926; p < .001; η2 = .437, but no interaction effect between CrossFit
experience and time on RPE, F1.515, 40.917 = 0.488; p = .566, with Greenhouse-Geisser corrections.
A Bonferroni post-hoc planned contrast indicated RPE reported at 5 minutes was significantly
lower than at 10 minutes (p < .001; d = -0.44) and 15 minutes (p < .001; d = 1.02), while
reported RPE at 10 minutes was significantly lower than RPE reported at 15 minutes (p = .003; d
= 0.53), as reported in Figure 7. It was also noted the novice group did not differ from the
experienced group in regards to HR (144.2 ± 12.1 vs 149.8 ± 10.9; t27 = -1.306; p = .202) or
%HRmax (77.9 ± 7.6% vs 79.8 ± 4.4%; t27 = -0.859; p = .398). A significant (p = .012), albeit,
small (r2 = .071) correlation existed between HR and RPE. Finally, the experienced group
**
* * *
-‐5
-‐4
-‐3
-‐2
-‐1
0
1
2
3
4
5
Pre 5 During 10 During 15 During 0 Post 30 Post 60 Post 120 Post
Feeling Scale
Time
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 66 completed more rounds than the novice group (18.6 ± 2.6 vs 15.6 ± 4.2; t27 = 2.338; p = .027; d =
0.82).
Figure 7. Increase in RPE during CrossFit exercise. Time points with the same notations (a, b, or c) are significantly different from each other. a, b: p < .001; c: p = .003 State and Trait Exercise Enjoyment
Independent t-tests were used to analyze differences in state exercise enjoyment between
the two experience levels. Results from the independent t-tests showed that the experienced
group had significantly greater levels of state enjoyment, as measured by the PACES (111.31 ±
9.03 vs 99.08 ± 16.18; t27 = 2.576; p = .016). Similarly, differences between the groups in
regards to trait exercise enjoyment were examined using an independent t-test. The results of the
analysis indicated the novice and experience groups did not significantly differ in reported trait
exercise enjoyment (112.25 ± 11.31 vs 103.23 ± 20.67; t27 = -1.495; p = .146). Post-hoc effect
sizes indicated the difference in state enjoyment between CrossFitters and Non-CrossFitters was
large (d = 0.96), suggesting meaningful differences between groups, as seen in Figure 8.
a,b a,c b,c
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
5 minutes 10 minutes 15 minutes
RPE
Time
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 67
Figure 8. State enjoyment of CrossFit exercise by group. * indicates significantly higher enjoyment than non-CrossFit group, p = .016
Correlations of Affect and Feeling
Correlation coefficients were calculated to examine the relationship between the FS and
each subscale of the PAAS at each time point. PA was positively correlated with the FS at
baseline (p = .001), during exercise (p < .001), immediately after exercise (p = .001), 60 minutes
post-exercise (p <.001), and 120 minutes post-exercise (p <.001). NA was negatively correlated
with the FS at 120 minutes post-exercise (p = .005). The subscale of fatigue was negatively
correlated with the FS at baseline (p = .014), during exercise (p = .006), 30 minutes post-exercise
(p = .003), 60 minutes post exercise (p = .005), and 120 minutes post-exercise (p = .009).
Finally, tranquility was positively correlated with the FS during exercise (p = .001), immediately
after exercise (p = .023), 60 minutes post-exercise (p <.001), and 120 minutes post-exercise (p =
.005). The full correlation matrix can be viewed in Table 9.
*
18
38
58
78
98
118
Novice Experienced
State En
joym
ent (PA
CES)
Group
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 68 CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION
The primary purpose of the study was to examine affective changes over time during and
after a bout of CrossFit exercise, and to determine if experience with the exercise protocol
resulted in different patterns of affect change. The results of the study indicated that novice and
experienced participants did not differ in patterns of affective change during and after the
CrossFit exercise. However, the sample reported increases in fatigue and negative affect that
dissipated quickly after activity, and tranquility showed a delayed increase 60 minutes after
exercise. The secondary purposes were to determine if there were any differences in exercise
enjoyment between those new to CrossFit and those who use it as their primary source of
exercise. Results suggested that novice and experienced CrossFit participants did not differ
significantly in reported trait exercise enjoyment, but the experienced group enjoyed the bout of
CrossFit exercise more than the novices. Finally, exercise intensity was examined in order to
obtain psychological and physiological data either supporting or refuting CrossFit as high
intensity exercise. It was determined that the novice and experienced groups reported did not
report significant differences in RPE or mean %HRmax.
Affective States
The primary hypothesis in this study was that the experienced CrossFit group would
experience more desirable affective states (i.e., higher positive affect and/or lower negative
affect) during and after exercise when compared to those who lacked experience in CrossFit.
Similar to Focht and Koltyn (1999) who found individuals with varying experience in weight
lifting did not respond differently in mood states following exercise, there was no evidence that
experience influenced affective changes following CrossFit exercise. That is, the two groups did
not experience significantly different patterns of affective change during and after exercise, thus
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 69 the specific patterns of affective change experienced by each group were not examined. Contrary
to the first hypothesis, the insignificant differences in these groups may have been the result of
their shared characteristics. While previous investigations (Dunn & McAuley, 2000; Hoffman &
Hoffman, 2008; Lochbaum et al., 2004) have concluded that trained individuals experience
greater positive states, it is plausible that these results were due to the activity levels of the
groups (i.e., trained vs untrained participants). It may be that activity-specific experience does
not regulate changes in mood and affect; rather general activity status may influence affective
states during and following an acute bout of exercise.
Though there were no differences between the two groups, participants reported
significant changes in affect over time. The two negative states measured by the Physical
Activity Affect Scale (PAAS), negative affect and fatigue, followed similar trends. It was clear
that halfway into the CrossFit activity participants were experiencing a significant increase in
these negative feelings, as both increased from the baseline measure. At the end of activity,
negative affect returned to baseline levels while fatigue remained elevated until 30 minutes post-
exercise. Studies employing high-intensity exercise protocols have shown participants report
elevations in various perceptual measures of fatigue during and after activity (Schneider et al.,
2009; Treasure & Newberry, 1998), as well as increases in negative feeling states during the
exercise bout (Arent et al., 2005; Blanchard et al., 2002; Oliveira, Slama, Deslandes, Furtado, &
Santos, 2013). Though these individuals may not feel good while performing at a high intensity,
they may continue to partake in the activity if they enjoy it and recognize it as a method of goal
attainment.
Additionally, previous research (Arent et al., 2007; Cox et al., 2004; Dunn & McAuley,
2000; Raglin & Morgan, 1987; Raglin et al., 1993) has indicated participants report delayed
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 70 improvements in negative states (e.g., anxiety, tension, psychological distress). That is,
improvements from baseline are not observed immediately, but are experienced 20 minutes or
later after activity. The absence of delayed improvements in NA in the current study is likely due
to the floor effect, as mean scores were very low at baseline. This floor effect may have
concealed any desirable changes in NA following activity, though the quick return to baseline is
encouraging, as it indicates participants were not experiencing prolonged increases in NA.
Alternatively, positive affect showed no significant increases during or after activity, and
but moderate effect sizes suggested slightly meaningful differences. This improvement in affect
following exercise supports previous the observations of both high-intensity resistance (Bibeau
et al., 2010; Focht & Koltyn, 1999) and cardiovascular (Cox et al., 2006; Dunn & McAuley,
2000). This sustained improvement in PA may help explain the increasing popularity of CrossFit
exercise. As Bibeau et al. (2010) suggested, it might not be the absolute score reported that
predicts future intentions for exercise, rather the relative mood or affective improvement from
baseline. That is, participants who report low levels of PA at baseline then experience large
increases in PA during and after activity will be more likely to continue with an exercise
program than an individual who reports high levels of PA at baseline with little, if any, change in
PA following exercise.
Additional desirable changes occurred within the subscale of tranquility. There were no
major changes in tranquility until 30 minutes after activity, at which point it was above levels
reported immediately post-exercise. This finding is similar to the results for fatigue. As
participants recovered from the CrossFit exercise, a decrease in fatigue levels coincided with
increases in tranquil states, which were higher 30 minutes after exercise than at baseline. That is,
this improvement in tranquility appears to follow a delayed trend, similar to what has been
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 71 observed with decreases in negative states following high-intensity exercise (Arent et al., 2007;
Cox et al., 2004; Dunn & McAuley, 2000; Raglin & Morgan, 1987; Raglin et al., 1993).
In addition to the PAAS, the participants provided responses to the Feeling Scale (FS) to
corroborate any changes in affect. The scale is a single-item, bipolar scale, and is considered a
more overall measure of how individuals are feeling without requiring insight into specific mood
states. Due to the brevity of the scale, it is less intrusive to request participants’ responses during
exercise, allowing for scores to be collected at additional time points. On the pleasure-
displeasure continuum, participants began to report decreases in pleasure 5 minutes into activity;
a trend that continued through the 15-minute mark. However, pleasure returned to baseline
immediately following exercise, and remained stable for the remainder of the study, but no
additional or delayed benefits were observed.
In regards to its relationship with the PAAS, the FS was most strongly correlated with the
subscales of PA and tranquility, though NA and fatigue were correlated with the FS at various
assessment points. The transformation in the FS supports the observed changes in the PAAS.
That is, in a general sense, participants reported feeling more NA and fatigue (i.e., states of
displeasure) during exercise, and reported a delayed increase in PA and tranquility (i.e.,
pleasurable states). This finding is reinforced by previous research, which examined detriments
in affect within single bouts of high-intensity resistance (Arent et al., 2005) and aerobic training
(Blanchard et al., 2002; Oliveira et al., 2013). In these studies (Blanchard et al., 2002; Oliveira et
al., 2013), those where affective measurements during exercise were obtained, an increase in
negative affect was reported during exercise, with little changes in positive affect. Each of these
studies (Arent et al., 2005; Blanchard et al., 2002; Oliveira et al., 2013) examined affect
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 72 following exercise, and reported negative affect returning to baseline, while there was a delayed
increase in positive affect.
It is interesting to note, however, that in this sample reported changes in affect also are
consistent with previous studies observing prescribed versus self-selected intensities (Ekkekakis
& Lind, 2006), where participants responded more desirably when allowed to self-select exercise
intensity. The nature of the current study allowed participants to self-select the exercise intensity,
and resulted in an average of 79% HRmax indicative of high intensity exercise, albeit, on the low
end of the range suggested by the ACSM (2011), which will be discussed in the next section.
The findings of this study support CrossFit as a high-intensity training protocol, but with
participants self-selecting intensity that still corresponds with high levels of state enjoyment.
Thus, the current growth of this exercise protocol and community is not surprising, and this may
lead to increased adherence to the program provided participants continue to have the ability to
self-select intensity (Williams, 2008) and enjoy the activity (Kuroda, Sato, Ishizaka, Yamakado,
& Yamaguchi, 2012).
Exertion
The fact that the experienced and inexperienced groups did not report different ratings of
perceived exertion is not surprising after noting that HR and %HRmax were similar between these
groups. Additionally, though the individuals in the inexperienced CrossFit group were new to
this mode of exercise, both groups were experienced exercisers, and could have interpreted the
signals from their body in a similar manner.
Again, while the groups did not differ in perceived exertion, there was a reported increase
in exertion over time. This is typical for both resistance and aerobic training (Sweet, Foster,
McGuigan, & Brice, 2004), as exercise typically becomes more difficult and demands more from
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 73 the body as duration increases. In fact, though RPE was only reported at three points during
activity, it appeared to be increasing in a linear fashion. Within the first five minutes into
activity, reported mean RPE was approximately 14, or between “somewhat hard” and “hard,”
suggesting participants were engaged in a high-intensity, or vigorous, activity (ACSM, 2011),
and by the end of activity the mean was elevated just above 16, which lies between the anchors
“hard” and “very hard” (Borg, 1982). Furthermore, participants exercised at 79% of their age-
predicted HRmax, which supports the high-intensity nature of CrossFit, though this mean is on
low end of the ranges determined for vigorous activity by the ACSM (2011). These two variables
indicated that the participants were exercising at a high-intensity, though these results should be
interpreted with caution as the means of the intensity variables indicate some participants were
exercising below this level, while others were exercising above it.
Although participants in both groups were exercising at the same relative intensity, the
groups did not perform the same amount of absolute work. On average, the experienced group
completed three more rounds during the session than the novice group. This may indicate a
tolerance, both physically and psychologically, for higher rates of work for the experienced
group while experiencing similar levels of exertion due to a specificity of training effect, where
novice participants had to utilize a greater percentage of their total performance capacity to
maintain a high intensity (Ekkekakis & Lind, 2006), which in turn may have limited the amount
of work they could do over time.
State and Trait Exercise Enjoyment
Individuals with experience in CrossFit reported more state enjoyment from the activity
when compared to the novice group. Following the pleasure principle (Freud, trans. 1920/1962),
which has been applied to exercise by Ekkekakis et al. (2011), the individuals in the experienced
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 74 group have continued with an activity they know they enjoy, which would lead to them reporting
higher enjoyment scores. Originally, the pleasure principle was used to described the tendency of
individuals to behave in a manner that would be psychologically pleasurable, or to engage in
unpleasant behaviors if it was believed the behavior would lead to greater pleasure in the future
(Freud, trans. 1920/1962). The experienced CrossFitters in the current study may gravitate
towards CrossFit exercise because they either find it pleasurable in the moment, or they
recognize the possible increases in fitness or body image will be enjoyable in the future.
One possible explanation for this difference in state exercise enjoyment is that the novice
group may have experienced lower state exercise enjoyment after not fully anticipating the actual
work of CrossFit and its transient effect on lowering affect. After being informed they would be
asked to perform a group of exercises they felt comfortable with, they may have expected the
exercise bout to be “easier” than it was. However, both groups still enjoyed the exercise, as
PACES scores were relatively high. In the present study, novice participants reported an average
score on the PACES of 5.5, and past research by Garn et al. (2012) found that average responses
on a shortened version of the PACES between 4.0 and 4.5 increased the participants’ future
intentions to engage in physical activity. Considering both groups exercised at a high intensity,
and had high state enjoyment, both groups could have preferred moderate- to high-intensity
exercise.
There was no evidence indicating the groups differed in levels of trait exercise
enjoyment, which supported the hypothesis. This is likely due to the groups establishing similar
exercise routines prior to participating in the study. Participants, on average, reported exercising
for about four years before the study took place, meaning many had made exercise an important
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 75 part of their life. Considering the individuals made a conscious effort to engage in habitual
physical activity implies they find some level of enjoyment in exercise.
Limitations
One limitation of the present study was the recruitment of participants from a community
center in Western Nebraska. Since the sample was primarily Caucasian, the generalizability of
the findings to a broader population of all exercisers is restricted. Furthermore, participation was
limited to individuals who had already made a monetary commitment to the facility, which may
indicate a difference between this sample and others who elect to participate in activities in other
environments (e.g., at home, in the outdoors). While a strength of this study was that the sample
included women and men of a wide age range, future studies should strive to include a more
ethnically and culturally diverse sample.
Another limitation of the current investigation was that participants performed the
exercise in a community center, and the environment was not as controlled as it would be in a
laboratory. As Focht and Hausenblas (2004) concluded, participants with high social physique
anxiety do not achieve the same psychological benefits following exercise as individuals with
low social physique anxiety in an environment that presents itself as physique-evaluative.
Participants in the present study did not complete measures of social physique anxiety, and the
community center environment may present itself as a physique-evaluative climate. Similarly,
Petruzzello et al. (1999) and Stathopoulou et al. (2006) have indicated that self-confidence and
self-efficacy may influence subjective well-being in an exercise task, and neither construct was
controlled for in the current study.
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 76 Future Research
Although the current study found that an acute bout of CrossFit exercise is associated
with desirable affective changes in exercisers, the results might not be generalizable to other
populations. The study included participants who were members of a local community center,
and the average participant had been exercising for about four years. Of course, not all
individuals will be habitual exercisers prior to trying CrossFit. It is certainly possible that non-
exercisers who intend to engage in regular physical activity and become more fit will select
CrossFit due to the allure of quick results. As previous research has indicated, low-active
individuals (Dunn & McAuley, 2000) benefit greater from moderate intensity exercise than high
intensities, and obese (Ekkekakis & Lind, 2006) and inactive (Hoffman & Hoffman, 2008)
individuals do not respond as well to high- or prescribed-intensities as their normal-weight,
active counterparts. Therefore, it would be beneficial to observe the mood and affective
responses of inactive individuals participating in CrossFit exercise.
The CrossFit workout Cindy was the only exercise participants completed in this
investigation, and more research needs to be done to determine if distinctive CrossFit workouts
result in different mood and affect changes. Bearing in mind that each workout focuses on
different aspects of fitness (e.g., strength, cardiovascular endurance, speed, etc.), each workout
could lead to different changes in mood and affect. Additionally, if individuals continue to find
value in CrossFit, and non-exercisers are encouraged to explore the program as a means to
fitness, it seems more research needs to be done regarding the program as a whole. For example,
current media outlets have criticized CrossFit for resulting in more injuries than regular exercise
(Gregory, 2014), but preliminary research supports the protocol’s benefits for physical changes
(Smith, Sommer, Starkoff, & Devor, 2013). More systematic research is needed to help resolve
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 77 this conflicting information, and determine the true risk of the protocol and compare it to the
benefits.
Additionally, it may be valuable to assess affect with other measures, or look into more
specific mood states in the future. This may allow for more sensitivity when examining the
feelings individuals are experiencing following activity, and could give insight into any
differences between participants. It could also be beneficial to have participants engage in
CrossFit, resistance training, and aerobic training of similar workloads, and observe the
differences in affective changes over time amongst these different modes of exercise.
Conclusion
Though CrossFit has been criticized for its physiological impact, such as poor form and
injury (Gregory, 2014), this is a risk with all forms of exercise. Furthermore, CrossFit, when
performed correctly, can lead to both physiological (Smith et al., 2013) and psychological
benefits. However, previous literature has yet to examine subjective well-being and enjoyment of
high-intensity CrossFit exercise. Similar to past research on weightlifting (Focht & Koltyn,
1999), and contrary to the primary hypothesis, experience with a specific method of exercise did
not moderate affect during and following participation; however, the current study added to the
literature by examining a novel exercise protocol containing aspects of resistance and
cardiovascular training, and included groups who had been exercising for similar amounts of
time prior to participation. Results suggested that CrossFit might lead to delayed benefits in
feelings of tranquility, and though feelings of fatigue and negative affect increased during
activity, these feelings subside after exercise. Heart rates and RPE confirmed that this CrossFit
workout is indeed a method of high-intensity training. Though past research has indicated high-
intensity training may lead to more detriments than benefits, individuals in this study reported
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 78 desirable changes in tranquility when compared to baseline, and only transient increases in
negative affect and fatigue, meaning CrossFit may be beneficial for regular exercisers seeking an
alternative exercise that increases fitness and results in positive psychological changes,
especially if it is a mode that an individual enjoys.
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AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 93 Table 3 PAAS Subscale ANOVAs results Subscale df df(error) F p η2 Positive Affect 5 135 3.163 0.019 0.105 Negative Affecta 3.532 95.368 5.651 0.001 0.172 Tranquilitya 3.166 85.472 16.568 0.001 0.38 Fatigue 5 135 8.376 <.001 0.237 aGreenhouse-Geisser corrections for violations of sphericity. Table 4 Positive Affect Planned Contrasts Pair t-statistic p-value Cohen's d Baseline vs During 0.344 0.734 0.08 During vs 0m post -2.673 0.012 0.48 0m post vs 30m post -0.092 0.928 0.02 30m post vs 60m post -0.367 0.717 0.04 60m post vs 120m post 0.486 0.631 0.06 Baseline vs 0m post -2.054 0.049 0.41 Baseline vs 30m post -2.508 0.018 0.42 Baseline vs 60m post -2.798 0.009 0.46 Baseline vs 120m post -2.546 0.017 0.41 Table 5 Negative Affect Planned Contrasts Pair t-statistic p-value Cohen’s d Baseline vs During* -3.153 0.004 0.85 During vs 0m post 2.031 0.052 0.52 0m post vs 30m post 1.58 0.125 0.35 30m post vs 60m post 0.348 0.73 0.05 60m post vs 120m post -0.133 0.896 0.03 Baseline vs 0m post -1.745 0.092 0.71 Baseline vs 30m post -0.578 0.568 0.14 Baseline vs 60m post -0.406 0.688 0.1 Baseline vs 120m post -0.486 0.631 0.12 * p = .004.
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 94 Table 6 Fatigue Planned Contrasts Pair t-statistic p-value Cohen’s d Baseline vs During* -5.185 < 0.001 1.27 During vs 0m post -0.283 0.78 0.06 0m post vs 30m post 2.562 0.016 0.49 30m post vs 60m post 0.00 1.00 0.00 60m post vs 120m post 1.7 0.10 0.25 Baseline vs 0m post* -4.314 < .001 1.15 Baseline vs 30m post -2.179 0.038 0.61 Baseline vs 60m post -2.284 0.03 0.62 Baseline vs 120m post -1.198 0.241 0.33 * p < .001. Table 7 Tranquility Planned Contrasts Pair t-statistic p-value Cohen's d Baseline vs During 1.847 0.075 0.31 During vs 0m post -1.279 0.212 0.16 0m post vs 30m post* -5.36 < .001 0.64 30m post vs 60m post -1.212 0.2 0.17 60m post vs 120m post 0.183 0.856 0.01 Baseline vs 0m post 0.776 0.44 0.14 Baseline vs 30m post -2.853 0.008 0.55 Baseline vs 60m post* -4.514 < .001 0.77 Baseline vs 120m post* -4.96 < .001 0.76 * p < .001.
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 95 Table 8 Feeling Scale Planned Contrasts Pair t-statistic p-value Cohen's d Baseline vs 5m* 4.172 < .001 0.85 5m vs 10m 2.461 0.02 0.3 10m vs 15m 2.491 0.019 0.21 15m vs 0m post* -5.431 < .001 1.21 0m post vs 30m post -2.191 0.037 0.39 30m post vs 60m post 0.596 0.556 0.1 60m post vs 120m post -0.378 0.708 0.07 Baseline vs 10m* 5.255 < .001 1.15 Baseline vs 15m* 5.605 < .001 1.27 Baseline vs 0m post -0.109 0.914 0.03 Baseline vs 30m post -2.196 0.036 0.47 Baseline vs 60m post -1.462 0.155 0.33 Baseline vs 120m post -1.915 0.066 0.42 * p < .001 Table 9 FS and PAAS Correlation Matrix FS Pretest FS During 10 FS 0 Post FS 30 Post FS 60 Post FS 120 Post PA r2
Note. r2 and p-values are representative of correlations between FS and the same assessment points for the PAAS subscales as indicated by the time noted in the FS column. FS = Feeling Scale; Pretest = data collected prior to exercise; During 10 = data collected 10 minutes into activity; 0 Post = data collected within 5 minutes of exercise; 30 Post = data collected 30 minutes after exercise; 60 Post = data collected 60 minutes after exercise; 120 post = data collected 120 minutes after exercise; PA = positive affect; NA = negative affect; F = fatigue; T = tranquility.
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 96 Table 10
Descriptive Statistics for Affect Stratified by Time
Group Mean Standard Deviation
Sample Size
Pretest PA Novice 2.8974 0.6990 13
Experienced 2.7291 0.6466 16
Total 2.8046 0.6638 29
During 10 PA Novice 2.7179 0.8697 13
Experienced 2.7708 0.7178 16
Total 2.7471 0.7749 29
Posttest 0 PA Novice 2.8974 0.7980 13
Experienced 3.2708 0.6112 16
Total 3.1034 0.7133 29
Posttest 30 PA Novice 2.9487 0.8972 13
Experienced 3.2500 0.7552 16
Total 3.1149 0.7932 29
Posttest 60 PA Novice 3.000 0.7817 13
Experienced 3.2708 0.8879 16
Total 3.1494 0.8384 29
Posttest 120 PA Novice 3.0256 0.7511 13
Experienced 3.1667 0.8944 16
Total 3.1034 0.7873 29
Pretest NA Novice 0.0769 0.2774 13
Experienced 0.1458 0.3436 16
Total 0.1149 0.3121 29
During 10 NA Novice 0.7436 0.8406 13
Experienced 0.3958 0.4255 16
Total 0.5517 0.6563 29
Posttest 0 NA Novice 0.4103 0.5636 13
Experienced 0.2083 0.4194 16
Total 0.2989 0.4907 29
Posttest 30 NA Novice 0.2821 0.6360 13
Experienced 0.0833 0.2582 16
Total 0.1724 0.4682 29
Posttest 60 NA Novice 0.2308 0.4979 13
Experienced 0.0833 0.2582 16
Total 0.1494 0.3841 29
Posttest 120 NA Novice 0.1026 0.2850 13
Experienced 0.2083 0.5426 16
Total 0.1609 0.4420 29
Pretest F Novice 0.5385 0.6460 13
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 97
Experienced 1.1250 0.7290 16
Total 0.8621 0.7428 29
During 10 F Novice 1.7436 0.7596 13
Experienced 2.0417 0.9954 16
Total 1.9080 0.8949 29
Posttest 0 F Novice 2.1282 1.2438 13
Experienced 1.8333 1.0750 16
Total 1.9656 1.1421 29
Posttest 30 F Novice 2.0256 1.0669 13
Experienced 0.9375 0.8185 16
Total 1.4253 1.0724 29
Posttest 60 F Novice 2.0256 1.0581 13
Experienced 0.9375 0.7426 16
Total 1.4253 1.0385 29
Posttest 120 F Novice 1.6410 1.1260 13
Experienced 0.7708 0.8230 16
Total 1.1609 1.0489 29
Pretest T Novice 2.6410 0.8549 13
Experienced 2.3958 1.0696 16
Total 2.5057 0.9703 29
During 10 T Novice 2.2308 1.0661 13
Experienced 2.1250 1.2931 16
Total 2.1724 1.1772 29
Posttest 0 T Novice 2.3589 0.8656 13
Experienced 2.3542 1.3579 16
Total 2.3563 1.1441 29
Posttest 30 T Novice 2.8718 0.9283 13
Experienced 3.1667 0.9963 16
Total 3.0345 0.9609 29
Posttest 60 T Novice 3.0513 0.7679 13
Experienced 3.2917 0.7722 16
Total 3.1839 0.7694 29
Posttest 120 T Novice 3.1538 0.7890 13
Experienced 3.1875 0.7885 16
Total 3.1724 0.7747 29
Pretest FS Novice 3.69 1.109 13
Experienced 3.44 1.209 16
Total 3.55 1.152 29
During 5 FS Novice 2.38 1.267 13
Experienced 2.38 1.821 16
Total 2.38 1.268 29
During 10 FS Novice 2.23 1.301 13
Experienced 1.62 1.628 16
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 98
Total 1.90 1.676 29
During 15 FS Novice 2.00 1.414 13
Experienced 1.13 2.247 16
Total 1.52 1.939 29
Posttest 0 FS Novice 3.54 1.450 13
Experienced 3.63 1.500 16
Total 3.59 1.452 29
Posttest 30 FS Novice 3.77 1.166 13
Experienced 4.38 1.147 16
Total 4.10 1.175 29
Posttest 60 FS Novice 3.62 1.557 13
Experienced 4.25 1.238 16
Total 3.97 1.401 29
Posttest 120 FS Novice 4.08 0.954 13
Experienced 4.06 1.611 16
Total 4.07 1.334 29 Note. Pretest = data collected prior to exercise; PA = positive affect; During 10 = data collected at 10 minutes into exercise; Posttest 0 = data collected within 5 minutes of exercise; Posttest 30 = data collected 30 minutes after exercise; Posttest 60 = data collected 60 minutes after exercise; Posttest 120 = data collected 120 minutes after exercise; NA = negative affect; F = fatigue; T = tranquility; During 5 = data collected at 5 minutes into activity; During 15 = data collected 15 minutes into activity. Table 11 Multivariate Tests for PAAS and Experience Levels
Sources of Variance Wilks' Lambda df dferror F p η2 Between
Group 0.870 4 24 0.894 0.483 0.1300 Within
Time 0.064 20 8 5.812 0.008 0.9360 Time x Group 0.376 20 8 0.376 0.783 0.3575
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 99 Table 12 Univariate Tests for PAAS Subscales Sources of Variance dfnum dferror F p η2 Time
PA 5 135 3.163 0.019 0.105 NAa 3.532 95.368 5.651 0.001 0.172 F 5 135 8.376 <.001 0.237 Ta 3.166 85.472 16.568 0.001 0.38
Note. PA = positive affect; NA = negative affect; F = fatigue; T = tranquility. a Greenhouse-Geisser corrections applied for violations of sphericity.
AFFECT AND ENJOYMENT OF CROSSFIT 100 APPENDIX A: ACSM RISK STRATIFICATION AND HEALTH
QUESTIONNAIRE
All information given is personal and confidential. It will enable us to better understand you and your health and fitness habits. In addition, we will use this information to classify your health status according to the American College of Sport Medicine (ACSM) recommendations for risk stratification (ACSM, 2010). Please let us know if and when you have changed your medication (dose & type), diet, exercise or sleeping habits within the past 24 or 48 hours. It is very important for you to provide us with this information. AGE__________ DATE___________________ MALE____________ FEMALE___________
1. *FAMILY HISTORY
Check each as it applies to a blood relative:
Heart Attack yes______ no______ unsure______
If yes, age at onset____ yrs; relation to you
_____________
Sudden Death yes______ no______ unsure______
If yes, age at onset____ yrs; relation to you
_____________
Coronary Revascularization If yes, age at onset____ yrs; relation to you
_____________
Father’s Age_____ Deceased_____ Age at death_____ (*Before 55 yr. in father or first-degree male relative)
Tuberculosis yes______ no______
unsure______ Stroke yes______ no______
unsure______ Asthma yes______ no______
unsure______ High Blood Pressure yes______ no______
For Office Use Only: Sum of positive and negative *CVD risk factors* (according to Table 2-3 ACSM (2010)
NOTE: All risk factors are explained verbally to each person completing the questionnaire. Classification according to ACSM (2010) (check one): Low risk; Moderate risk; High risk
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3. EXERCISE HISTORY Do you exercise? Yes________ No________ What activity? __________________________________ How long have you been exercising?______________________________________________________ - How many days do you exercise?____________________ How many minutes per day?_______________________________ Have you participated in CrossFit? Yes____ No____ If yes, has it been consistent (i.e., 2-3 times/week)? Yes____ No____ If yes, for how long?_____________ Months Weeks Days (Circle one)
4. HEALTH HISTORY
Height _______ Weight______ Do you smoke or use tobacco products? Yes______ No______ ______________________________ ________________________________ Signature of tester Date
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APPENDIX B: RATING OF PERCEIVED EXERTION
During exercise, pay close attention to how you feel. This feeling is going to be based on many factors, including stress, effort and fatigue. Don’t let a single factor dictate your rating, but try to encompass everything when I ask you how hard you are working. Try not to underestimate or overestimate, and be as honest as possible. It is your own feeling of effort and exertion that is important, not how it compares to other people. You can equally well use even as odd numbers. Choose the number that best describes your level of exertion. 6. No exertion at all
7. Extremely light
8.
9. Very light
10.
11. Light
12.
13. Somewhat hard
14.
15. Hard (heavy)
16.
17. Very hard
18.
19. Extremely hard
20. Maximal exertion
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APPENDIX C: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AFFECT SCALE
Instructions: Please use the following scale to indicate the extent to which each word below describes how you feel at this moment in time. Record your responses by circling the appropriate number.
Please rate how you feel about most types of physical activity in general, most of the time. Circle your response to each of the following items.
1. I enjoy it 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I hate it
2. I feel bored 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I feel interested
3. I dislike it 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I like it
4. I find it pleasurable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I find it unpleasurable
5. I’m very absorbed in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I’m not at all absorbed this activity in this activity
6. It’s not fun at all 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 It’s a lot of fun
7. I find it energizing 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I find it tiring
8. It makes me depressed 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 It makes me happy
9. It’s very pleasant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 It’s unpleasant
10. I feel good physically 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I feel bad physically while doing it doing it
11. It’s very invigorating 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 It’s not at all invigorating
12. I’m very frustrated 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I’m not at all frustrated
13. It’s very gratifying 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 It’s not at all gratifying
14. It’s very exhilarating 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 It’s not at all exhilarating
15. It’s not at all stimulating 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 It’s very stimulation
16. It give me a strong 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 It does not give me any sense sense of accomplishment of accomplishment
17. It’s very refreshing 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 It’s not all at refreshing
18. I felt as though I would 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I felt as though there was rather be doing something nothing else I would rather be else doing
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APPENDIX F: FEELING SCALE
While participating in exercise, it is common to experience changes in mood. Some individuals find exercise pleasurable, whereas others find it to be unpleasant. Additionally, feeling may fluctuate across time. That is, one might feel good and bad a number of times during exercise. Scientists have developed this scale to measure such responses. + 5 Very good +4 +3 Good +2 +1 Fairly Good 0 Neutral -1 Fairly Bad -2 -3 Bad -4 -5 Very Bad
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APPENDIX G: RECRUITMENT FLYER
CROSSFIT STUDY PARTICIPANTS NEEDED
A Masters student from Bowling Green State University is in need of exercisers to serve as volunteers for a research study. Being a member of the study provides you an opportunity to test CrossFit for FREE and see if it is a program you are interested in. If you are already an experienced CrossFitter, your participation will help us better understand CrossFit. The study will take place over the next 2 months, and requires you to come in only one time to the facility. To qualify for the study: 1. You must be a member of the Community Center 2. You must regularly participate in physical activity or exercise at least 2 to 3 times each week
for the past 6 months 3. Your exercise sessions must be a MINIMUM of 20 minutes in length 4. Either:
a. Have no experience (or less than 1 month) with CrossFit or; b. Have been enrolled in a CrossFit class for over 6 months
If you are interested in learning more about this research, please contact:
APPENDIX H: RECRUITMENT SCRIPT FOR VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Hi everyone! My name is Reed Kaus, and I am a Masters Student at Bowling Green State University in Bowling Green, Ohio. You may have seen some of the flyers around the building, but I wanted to make sure I let you all know that I am doing some research on CrossFit. I need people who have been doing it for less than a month, and people who have done it for longer than six months. If you’re interested in doing this, I’m going to be sticking around and have some of my sign up papers, and the consent form that talks a little more about how the research is going to be done. If you have any questions please ask, and I’ve written my email on the board in case anyone wants it. Does anyone have any questions at this point?
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Graduate Kinesiology Program School of Human Movement, Sport, and Leisure Studies
APPENDIX I: INFORMED CONSENT
Project Title: The CrossFit Experience Primary Investigator: Reed Kaus, Graduate Student, Developmental Kinesiology Advisor: Dr. David A. Tobar, Assistant Professor, School of HMSLS Committee: Dr. Bonnie G. Berger, Professor, School of HMSLS Dr. Vikki Krane, Professor, School of HMSLS I willingly provide my consent to participate in a research study examining personality, mood, and enjoyment experiences of participants with various experience in CrossFit. My involvement in this study includes completing questionnaires measuring the factors listed above at six time points. Four of these will be completed within the hour I am within the facility, and the final two will occur over the phone after I have left the facility. Completion of the questionnaires over the six time points will last 5-10 minutes each, with total participation lasting 2 hours and 30 minutes, with exercise consisting of pull ups, push ups and body weight squats, and lasting for 20 minutes. The researchers have received permission from the trainers and the director of the facility. All data that I provide will be kept in a locked file cabinet to protect the confidentiality of my identity, and only the researchers will see the data I provide. When the study has been completed, the data will be transported to a locked file cabinet in a locked office at Bowling Green State University. It has been explained that any reference to my name or any identifying feature that could be used to identify me will be removed or coded during data analysis and in any publication of results in this study. I have been informed that there is minimal, if any, risk associated with participation in this study, and a goal of this study is to provide information on the enjoyment factors related to CrossFit, and may be used in future studies to analyze CrossFit. I also acknowledge that I will receive no incentives for participating. If I have any questions about this study, I may contact David Tobar, 419-372-6914 or [email protected]. I may also contact the Chair, Bowling Breen State University’s Human Subjects Review Board, 419-372-7716 or [email protected], with questions or concerns about my right as a research participant. My signature below indicates I have been informed:
• I must be over the age of 18 in order to participate in this study • all my information that I provide will be confidential, • my decision to participate in this study is entirely voluntary and will have no impact on
my, relationship to the community center or Bowling Green State University, • I may withdraw consent and terminate participation at any time during the project, • I have been informed of the procedures that will be requested of me, • a copy of this informed consent document will be provided to me, and • upon request, I will receive a summary of the findings of this study.
__________________________________ __________________________________ Name Date Signature Phone Number: ____________________
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APPENDIX J: POST-EXERCISE SCRIPT
Hi, _________, this is Reed Kaus from Bowling Green State University, how are you? I was just calling to ask you some questions about how you are feeling, and to answer the same questions the survey did, and just to collect your responses over the phone. Remember that I’m asking you about how you are feeling right now, so don’t let your previous responses influence your answers now. (complete the PAAS and FS) Perfect, thanks for helping me. (If this is the first call) I will call again in an hour to get your responses one more time, and make sure you don’t have any questions for me. Ok, thanks again, bye. (If this is the 2nd call) Awesome. Thank you for that. I was also wondering if you have experienced anything significant or out of the ordinary for a typical day? For instance, have you received any good or bad news? Yes_____ No_____ (If yes) Can you please explain? Thanks again, ________, I really do appreciate it. I hope you have a wonderful day, and hopefully I’ll be seeing you around. If you do have any questions that come up, please feel free to contact me, my advisor, or the BGSU Human Subjects Review Board. Take care, bye.