AEM 611.Agricultural Extension, Administration and Supervision

8/13/2019 AEM 611.Agricultural Extension, Administration and Supervision

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Course Title Agricultural Extension, Administration and

Supervision

Course Code AEM 611

Course Developer/Writer Mr.Aolumate Samuel

!ational "pen #niversit$ o% !igeria, !igeria.

Sc&ool "% Science and Tec&nolog$

Dept. "% Agricultural Extension and Management.

e.mail' aolumatesam($a&oo.com

Course Editor Dr !. E Mundi

)rogramme *eader Dr. ! .E Mundi

Course Coordinator Mr. E .A Adams


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Course Guide

Contents:

+ntroduction

W&at $ou ill learn in t&is Course

Course Aims

Course "-ectives

Woring t&roug& t&is Course

T&e Course Material

Stud$ #nits

)resentation Sc&edule

Assessment

TutorMared Assignment

0inal Examination and rading

Course Maring Sc&eme

Summar$

i


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Introduction

Agricultural extension is taing a ne dimension ecause o% a gloal movement %or re%orming

t&e national extension s$stems in developing countries t&at started late in t&e tentiet& centur$.

Agricultural extension, administration and supervision is a special %ield o% general agricultural

extension o% agricultural t&at ill &elp $ou situate t&e su-ect among ot&er developmental e%%orts

and to appreciate t&e educational and scienti%ic nature o% t&e discipline. 0or extension practice to

e e%%ective and goaloriented, extension practitioners must ala$s eep in mind certain

underl$ing principles o% administration, supervision t&at must e carried out %or e%%ective

extension or. Agricultural extension, administration and supervision is a to 234 unit credit

degree course in t&e %irst semester course. +t is availale to all students o%%ering post graduate

diploma in Agricultural Extension and Management 2AEM4.

+n Agricultural extension, administration and supervision, e stud$ t&e concepts, principles and

p&ilosop&$ o% Agricultural Extension, )lanning Extension )rograms and Tec&nolog$ Trans%er in

Agricultural Extension are also taug&t. T&ere are also studies o% t&e concept o% monitoring o%

agricultural extension programmes5 principles, guidelines and t&eories o% extension organiation

and asic principle and guidelines o% extension organisation.

+t is in agricultural extension, administration and supervision t&at e learn aout )ersonnel

Management, guidelines o% extension organiation and management, criteria %or

departmentaliation in extension organiation, uses o% extension organiation structure and

models o% agricultural extension organiation. #sing t&e noledge ac7uired in t&is course ill

lead to improved e%%ective extension or, s$stematic administration and supervision t&at leads

to ac&ievement o% organiational goals

What you will learn in this course

T&e course consists o% units and a course guide. T&is course guide tells $ou rie%l$ &at t&e

course is aout, &at course materials $ou ill e using and &o $ou can or it& t&ese

materials. +n addition, it advocates some general guidelines %or t&e amount o% time $ou are liel$

to spend on eac& unit o% t&e course in order to complete it success%ull$.


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ii

+t gives $ou guidance in respect o% $our TutorMared Assignment &ic& ill e made availale

in t&e assignment %ile. T&ere ill e regular tutorial classes t&at are related to t&e course. +t is

advisale %or $ou to attend t&ese tutorial sessions. T&e course ill prepare $ou %or t&e c&allenges

$ou ill meet in t&e %ield o% agricultural extension, administration and supervision

Course Aims

T&e aim o% t&is course is not complex. T&e course aims to provide $ou it& an understanding o%

agricultural extension, administration and supervision. +t also aims to provide $ou extension and

administrative principle personnel management t&at aids in accomplis&ments o% agricultural

extension organiational o-ectives.

Course Objectives

To ac&ieve t&e aims set out, t&e course &as a lot o% o-ectives. Eac& unit &as speci%ic o-ectives

&ic& are included at t&e eginning o% t&e unit. 8ou s&ould read t&ese o-ectives e%ore $ou

stud$ t&e unit. 8ou ma$ is& to re%er to t&em during $our stud$ to c&ec on $our progress. 8ou

s&ould ala$s loo at t&e unit o-ectives a%ter completion o% eac& unit. 9$ doing so, $ou ould

&ave %olloed t&e instructions in t&e unit.

9elo are t&e compre&ensive o-ectives o% t&e course as a &ole. 9$ meeting t&ese o-ectives,

$ou s&ould &ave ac&ieved t&e aims o% t&e course as a &ole. +n addition to t&e aims aove, t&is

course sets to ac&ieve some o-ectives. T&us, a%ter going t&roug& t&e course, $ou s&ould e ale

to'

i. *ist %ive principles o% agricultural extension, pointing out t&eir implications and

applications %or e%%ective extension or.

ii. State t&e policies t&at can e adopted to resolve t&e various constraints %or extension

organisations.

iii. Explain t&e various steps t&e ma-or steps in )lanning Extension )rogramme:

iv. Explain t&e concept o% recruitment o% extension personnel:


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v. Explain t&e meaning o% extension training and development:

vi. Explain t&e concept o% recruitment o% extension personnel:

vii. Explain t&e meaning o% training and development:

viii. Enumerate t&e t&ree asic elements o% s$stem approac& o% modern understandings o%

t&e organiation:

ix. De%ine t&e concept o% "rganiational structure and t&e role o% t&e sus$stems o%

organisational structure

x. W&at are t&e guidelines %or designing "rganiational structure:

Working through the Course

To complete t&is course $ou are re7uired to read eac& stud$ unit, read t&e textoos and read

ot&er materials &ic& ma$ e provided $ t&e !ational "pen #niversit$ o% !igeria.

Eac& unit contains sel%assessment exercise2s4 and at certain points in t&e course $ou ould e

re7uired to sumit assignments %or assessment purposes. At t&e end o% t&e course t&ere is a %inal

examination. T&e course s&ould tae $ou aout a total o% 1; ees to complete. 9elo $ou ill

%ind listed all t&e components o% t&e course, &at $ou &ave to do and &o $ou s&ould allocate

$our time to eac& unit in order to complete t&e course on time and success%ull$.

T&is course entails t&at $ou spend a lot o% time to read. + ould advise t&at $ou avail $oursel% t&e

opportunit$ o% attending t&e tutorial sessions &ere $ou &ave t&e opportunit$ o% comparing $our

noledge it& t&at o% ot&er people.

The Study nit

T&e stud$ units in t&is course are as %ollos

!O"#$ % &ASIC CO'C$(TS O) AG*IC#T*A# $+T$'SIO'

#nit 1 Concepts, )rinciples and )&ilosop&$ o% Agricultural Extension

#nit 3 Extension )rogrammes )lanning

#nit < Concept o% Monitoring o% Agricultural Extension )rogrammes


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!O"#$ , (*I'CI(#$ O) A"!I'IST*ATIO' A'" S($*-ISIO'

#nit 1 Concept o% Administration

#nit 3 Tass and *evels o% Agricultural Administration

#nit < Sta%% Supervision in Agricultural Extension

!O"#$ . (*I'CI(#$S/ GI"$#I'$S A'" T0$O*I$S O) $+T$'SIO'

O*GA'I1ATIO'

#nit 1 9asic principle and guidelines o% extension organisation

#nit 3 "rganisational Structure

#nit < T&eories o% Agricultural Extension "rganisation

!O"#$ 2 ($*SO''$# !A'AG$!$'T I' AG*IC#T*A# $+T$'SIO'

#nit 1 Extension )ersonnel =ecruitment, Training, and Development

#nit 3 Sta%% Supervision in Agricultural Extension

#nit < Sta%% )er%ormance Appraisals and )romotion

(resentation Schedule

8our course materials &ave important dates %or t&e earl$ and timel$ completion and sumission

o% $our TutorMared Assignments and attending tutorials. 8ou s&ould rememer t&at $ou are

re7uired to sumit all $our assignments $ t&e stipulated time and date. 8ou s&ould guard

against %alling e&ind in $our or.

Assessment

T&ere are t&ree aspects to t&e assessment o% t&e course. 0irst is made up o% sel%assessment

exercises, second consists o% t&e tutormared assignments and t&ird is t&e ritten

examination/end o% course examination.


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8ou are advised to do t&e exercises. +n tacling t&e assignments, $ou are expected to appl$

in%ormation, noledge and tec&ni7ues $ou gat&ered during t&e course.

T&e assignments must e sumitted to $our %acilitator %or %ormal assessment in accordance it&

t&e deadlines stated in t&e presentation sc&edule and t&e assignment %ile.

T&e or $ou sumit to $our tutor %or assessment ill count %or ? o% $our total course or.

At t&e end o% t&e course $ou ill need to sit %or a %inal or end o% course examination o% aout

t&ree &ours duration. T&is examination ill count %or ;>? o% $our total course mar.

Tutor3!arked Assignment

T&e TMA is a continuous assessment component o% $our course. +t accounts %or ? o% t&e total

score. 8ou ill e given %our 2@4 TMAs to anser. T&ree o% t&ese must e ansered e%ore $ou

are alloed to sit %or t&e end o% course examination. T&e TMAs ould e given to $ou $ $our

%acilitator and returned a%ter $ou &ave done t&e assignment. Assignment 7uestions %or t&e units in

t&is course are contained in t&e assignment %ile. 8ou ill e ale to complete $our assignment

%rom t&e in%ormation and material contained in $our reading, re%erences and stud$ units.

oever, it is desirale in all degree level o% education to demonstrate t&at $ou &ave read and

researc&ed more into $our re%erences, &ic& ill give $ou a ider vie point and ma$ provide

$ou it& a deeper understanding o% t&e su-ect.

Mae sure t&at eac& assignment reac&es $our %acilitator on or e%ore t&e deadline given in t&e

presentation sc&edule and assignment %ile. +% %or an$ reason $ou can not complete $our or on

time, contact $our %acilitator e%ore t&e assignment is due to discuss t&e possiilit$ o% an

extension. Extension ill not e granted a%ter t&e due date unless t&ere are exceptional

circumstances.

)inal $4amination and Grading

T&e end o% course examination %or Agricultural extension administration and supervision ill e

%or aout < &ours and it &as a value o% ;>? o% t&e total course or. T&e examination ill

consist o% 7uestions, &ic& ill re%lect t&e t$pe o% sel%testing, practice exercise and tutor

mared assignment prolems $ou &ave previousl$ encountered. All areas o% t&e course ill e

assessed.


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#se t&e time eteen %inis&ing t&e last unit and sitting %or t&e examination to revise t&e &ole

course. 8ou mig&t %ind it use%ul to revie $our sel%test, TMAs and comments on t&em e%ore

t&e examination. T&e end o% course examination covers in%ormation %rom all parts o% t&e course.

Course !arking Scheme

Assignment !arks

Assignments 1 B @ 0our assignments, est t&ree mars o% t&e %our count

at 1>? eac& B ? o% course mars

End o% course examination ;>? o% overall course mars.

Total 1>>? o% course materials

)acilitators5Tutors and Tutorials

T&ere are 16 &ours o% tutorials provided in support o% t&is course. 8ou ill e noti%ied o% t&e

dates, times and location o% t&ese tutorials as ell as t&e name and p&one numer o% $our

%acilitator, as soon as $ou are allocated a tutorial group.

8our %acilitator ill mar and comment on $our assignments, eep a close atc& on $our

progress and an$ di%%iculties $ou mig&t %ace and provide assistance to $ou during t&e course.

8ou are expected to mail $our Tutor Mared Assignment to $our %acilitator e%ore t&e sc&edule

date 2at least to oring da$s are re7uired4. T&e$ ill e mared $ $our tutor and returned to

$ou as soon as possile.

Do not dela$ to contact $our %acilitator $ telep&one or email i% $ou need assistance.

T&e %olloing mig&t e circumstances in &ic& $ou ould %ind assistance necessar$, &ence $ouould &ave to contact $our %acilitator i%'

8ou do not understand an$ part o% t&e stud$ or t&e assigned readings.

8ou &ave di%%icult$ it& t&e sel%tests.

8ou &ave a 7uestion or prolem it& an assignment or it& t&e grading o% an assignment


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8ou s&ould endeavor to attend t&e tutorials. T&is is t&e onl$ c&ance to &ave %ace to %ace contact

it& $our course %acilitator and to as 7uestions &ic& ma$ e ansered instantl$. 8ou can raise

an$ prolem encountered in t&e course o% $our stud$. To gain muc& ene%it %rom course tutorials

prepare a 7uestion list e%ore attending t&em. 8ou ill learn a lot %rom participating activel$ in

discussions.

Summary

Agricultural extension, administration and supervision is a course t&at intends to expose $ou to

underl$ing principles o% administration, supervision t&at must e carried out %or e%%ective

extension or. T&ese expose $ou to t&e use o% administrative and personnel management

principles t&at are needed in da$ to da$ running o% an agricultural enterprises.

#pon completion o% t&is course, $ou ill e ale to anser 7uestions suc& as

k De%ine t&e concept and principle o% Agricultural extension and administration

k *ist %ive principles o% agricultural extension, pointing out t&eir implications and

applications %or e%%ective extension or.

k State t&e policies t&at can e adopted to resolve t&e various constraints %or extension

organisations.

k Explain t&e various steps t&e ma-or steps in )lanning Extension )rogramme:

k Explain t&e concept o% recruitment o% extension personnel:

k Explain t&e meaning o% extension training and development:

k Explain t&e concept o% recruitment o% extension personnel:

k Explain t&e meaning o% training and development:

k Enumerate t&e t&ree asic elements o% s$stem approac& o% modern understandings o% t&e

organiation:

k De%ine t&e concept o% "rganiational structure and t&e role o% t&e sus$stems o%

organisational structure

k W&at are t&e guidelines %or designing "rganiational structure:

"% course, t&e 7uestions $ou ill e ale to anser are not limited to t&e aove list.

Wis&ing $ou t&e ver$ est luc.


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CO'T$'T

!odule % &asic Conce6ts o7 Agricultural $4tension


#nit 3 )lanning Extension )rogrammes


#nit @ Agricultural Extension )olic$ 0ormulation

!odule , (rinci6le o7 Administration and Su6ervision




!odule . (rinci6les/ Guidelines and Theories o7 $4tension Organi8ation

#nit 1 9asic principle and guidelines o% extension organisation

#nit 3 "rganisational Structure o% Extension

#nit < T&eories o% Agricultural Extension "rganisation

!odule 2 (ersonnel !anagement in Agricultural $4tension

#nit 1 Extension )ersonnel =ecruitment, Training, and Development

#nit 3 Sta%% Supervision in Agricultural Extension

#nit < Sta%% )er%ormance Appraisals and )romotion


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!odule % &asic Conce6ts o7 Agricultural $4tension


#nit 3 )lanning Extension )rogrammes


#nit @ Agricultural Extension )olic$ 0ormulation

'IT % CO'C$(TS/ (*I'CI(#$S A'" (0I#OSO(09 O) AG*IC#T*A#

$+T$'SIO'

CO'T$'TS

1.> +ntroduction

3.> "-ectives

Main content


;.> =e%erences/0urt&er =eading


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%; I'T*O"CTIO'

T&e concept o% agricultural extension ill &elp $ou situate t&e su-ect among ot&er

developmental e%%orts and to appreciate t&e educational and scienti%ic nature o% t&e discipline.

0or extension practice to e e%%ective and goaloriented, extension practitioners must ala$s

eep in mind certain underl$ing principles %or e%%ective extension or.

T&is unit is also devoted to issues on t&e concept o% tec&nolog$ trans%er and t&e various

constraints %or extension organisations

,; O&


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T&e %unction o% extension ma$ e applied to several su-ects, ot& agricultural and non

agricultural, suc& as &ealt&. W&en it is applied to agriculture, it is called agricultural extension.

Adams 21F34 de%ined Agricultural Extension as assistance to %armers to &elp t&em identi%$ and

anal$se t&eir production prolems and ecome aare o% t&e opportunities %or improvement.

Agricultural extension is primaril$ concerned it& t&e %olloing main aims'

i. t&e dissemination o% use%ul and practical in%ormation relating to agriculture, including

improved seeds, %ertiliers , implements, pesticides, improved cultural practices, dair$ing,

poultr$, nutrition, etc.5

ii. t&e practical application o% use%ul noledge to %arm and &ome5 and

iii. ultimatel$ to improve all aspects o% t&e li%e o% t&e rural people it&in t&e %rameor o% t&e

national, economic and social policies involving t&e population as a &ole.

S$#) ASS$SS!$'T $+$*CIS$

i. De%ine agricultural extension:

ii. State t&e main aims o% Agricultural Extension:

., &asic Agricultural $4tension (rinci6les

T&e extension or is ased upon some oring principles and t&e noledge o% t&ese

principles is necessar$ %or an extension orer. T&e$ s&ould ad&ere to certain procedures t&at

experience and empirical studies &ave s&on to liel$ $ield result. T&ese are principles

underl$ing e%%ective extension or and t&e$ serve as pointer to &et&er a developmental e%%ort

is an extension programme or not. Some o% t&ese principles, as related to agricultural extension,

are mentioned elo.

i (rinci6le o7 interest and need

Extension or must e ased on t&e needs and interests o% t&e people. T&ese needs and interests

di%%er %rom individual to individual, %rom village to village, %rom loc to loc, and %rom state

to state and t&ere%ore, t&ere cannot e one programme %or all people.

ii (rinci6le o7 cultural di77erence.

Extension or is ased on t&e cultural acground o% t&e people it& &om t&e or is done.

+mprovement can onl$ egin %rom t&e level o% t&e people &ere t&e$ are. T&is means t&at t&e

extension orer &as to no t&e level o% t&eir noledge, t&e sills o% t&e people, t&e met&ods


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and tools used $ t&em, t&eir customs, traditions, elie%s, values, etc. e%ore starting t&e

extension programme.

iii (rinci6le o7 6artici6ation

Extension &elps people to &elp t&emselves. ood extension or is directed toards assisting

rural %amilies to or out t&eir on prolems rat&er t&an giving t&em read$made solutions.

Actual participation and experience o% people in t&ese programmes create sel%con%idence in

t&em.

iv (rinci6le o7 ada6tability

)eople di%%er %rom eac& ot&er, one group di%%ers %rom anot&er group and conditions also di%%er

%rom place to place. An extension programme s&ould e %lexile, so t&at necessar$ c&anges can

e made &enever needed, to meet t&e var$ing conditions.

v The grass roots 6rinci6le o7 organisation

A group o% rural people in local communit$ s&ould sponsor extension or. T&e programme

s&ould %it in it& t&e local conditions. T&e aim o% organising t&e local group is to demonstrate

t&e value o% t&e ne practices or programmes so t&at more and more people ould participate.

vi The leadershi6 6rinci6le

Extension or is ased on t&e %ull utilisation o% local leaders&ip. T&e selection and training o%

local leaders to enale t&em &elp to carr$ out extension or is essential to t&e success o% t&e

programme. )eople &ave more %ait& in local leaders and t&e$ s&ould e used to put across a neidea so t&at it is accepted it& t&e least resistance.

vii The whole37amily 6rinci6le

Extension or ill &ave a etter c&ance o% success i% t&e extension orers &ave a &ole

%amil$ approac& instead o% a piecemeal approac&. Extension or is, t&ere%ore, %or t&e &ole

%amil$ i.e. %or male, %emale and t&e $out&.

viii (rinci6le o7 co3o6eration.

Extension is a cooperative venture. +t is a -oint democratic enterprise in &ic& rural people co

operate it& t&eir village, loc and state o%%icials to pursue a common cause.

i4 (rinci6le o7 satis7action.

T&e endproduct o% t&e e%%ort o% extension teac&ing is t&e satis%action t&at comes to t&e %armer,

&is i%e or $ounger ones as t&e result o% solving a prolem, meeting a need, ac7uiring a ne sill

or some ot&er c&anges in e&aviour. Satis%action is t&e e$ to success in extension or. GA


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satis%ied customer is t&e est advertisement.G

x. The evaluation 6rinci6le.

Extension is ased upon t&e met&ods o% science and it needs constant evaluation. T&e

e%%ectiveness o% t&e or is measured in terms o% t&e c&anges roug&t aout in t&e noledge,

sill, and attitude and adoption e&aviour o% t&e people ut not merel$ in terms o% ac&ievement

o% p&$sical targets.

SE*0 ASSESSME!T EHE=C+SE

Descrie %ive asic agricultural extension principles

.. Technology Trans7er in Agricultural $4tension

T&e noledge o% agricultural s$stem consists o% %our components' T&e tec&nolog$ generation,

tec&nolog$ trans%er 2noledge and input trans%er4, tec&nolog$ utilisation, and agricultural

polic$ 2Sanson, Sands, I )eterson, 1>4.

T&e organisations t&at constitute t&e components, as ell as ot&ers in t&e s$stem environment

in%luence eac& ot&er in complex a$s. Suc& pulicl$ %unded s$stems are estalis&ed $

governments to improve t&e conditions o% li%e and elleing o% rural and uran populations and

to increase agricultural productivit$.

i. Technology generation consists o% planning, administration, and implementation o%

researc& activities t&at develop, assess, adapt, and test improved agricultural tec&nolog$

%or %armers and ot&er users. +n t&e pulic sector, t&ese tass, as ell as some

dissemination ors, are carried out $ agricultural researc& organisations.

ii. Technology trans7er %urt&er evaluates and adapts researc& outputs %or users and t&en

idel$ disseminates t&e noledge and inputs to di%%erent target %armers o% di%%erent

categories, private companies, and so on. +n man$ countries, government extension does

ot& t$pes o% trans%er, alt&oug& t&e emp&asis is on noledge. )rivate organisations are

also involved in ot& t$pes o% trans%er, alt&oug& %armer coverage is more limited and

input trans%er ma$ pla$ a igger role.


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iii. T&e technology utilisation component encompasses t&e users o% t&e agricultural

tec&nolog$, mainl$ %armers. #sers aareness, adaptation, and adoption o% improved

tec&nolog$ %rom various sources a%%ect %armlevel productivit$ and pro%itailit$ and

ultimatel$, economic grot& at t&e national level. +nteraction and %eedac eteen users

and researc& and trans%er organisations improve cooperation and t&e relevance o%

tec&nolog$.

iv. T&epolicy component relates to government development goals and strategies, maret

and price policies, and t&e levels o% resource investments in t&e s$stem. +t descries a set

o% las relating to domestic agriculture and imports o% %oreign agricultural products.

overnments usuall$ implement agricultural policies it& t&e goal o% ac&ieving a

speci%ic outcome in t&e domestic agricultural product marets. "utcomes can involve, %or

example, a guaranteed suppl$ level, price stailit$, product 7ualit$, product selection,

land use or emplo$ment.Jarious government odies pla$ a role in setting development

polic$. Tec&nolog$ development and trans%er organiations are a%%ected $ t&e polic$ in

%undamental a$s. T&e division o% generation and trans%er tass organiations and sectors

di%%ers %rom countr$ to countr$, as does t&e nature o% t&e polic$ and utiliation

components. oever, t&e %lo o% tec&nolog$ can e mapped as it moves eteen or is

in%luenced $ organiations constituting t&e agricultural tec&nolog$ s$stem.

Agricultural extension, &et&er pulic or private, operates in a context or an environment t&at

in%luences t&e organisation, %orm, and content o% trans%er activities 2Morris, 114. T&e

agricultural tec&nolog$ s$stem context, in &ic& government extension organisations operate,

can e descried under to &eadings' T&e macrocontext %actors and institutional %actors.

A. The macro3conte4t 7actors:

i Agro ecological:!atural environment strongl$ in%luences extension planning and operations,

Extension s&ould respond to t&e tec&nological needs o% %armers in di%%erent agroecologicalones. T&e variation represented $ agroecological ones in a given countr$ can e sustantial.

Di%%erences in temperatures, rain%all, soil t$pes, evapotranspiration, and so %ort& are re%lected in

t&e diversit$ o% %arming conditions and production s$stems. Extension planners %ace some

di%%icult c&oices ecause o% t&e need to respond to t&e diverse tec&nolog$ and in%ormation needs

o% %armers %rom man$ di%%erent ones and, at t&e same time, to satis%$ a re7uirement %or


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t&at %ocuses on cultural practices and a%%ordale tec&nologies ma$ e more appropriate in

countries it& large numers o% resourcepoor %armers.

iv (olicy: T&e polic$ component o% an agricultural tec&nolog$ s$stem can enale or limit

extension in a$s e$ond t&e reac& o% extension managers. T&e principal areas o% in%luence areprice signals to %armers and decisions $ government t&at a%%ect pulic agricultural development

organisations.

Agricultural "evelo6ment: )olic$maing odies o% government set development goals

and o-ectives suc& as ac&ieving %ood securit$ or surplus agricultural production to

stimulate economic grot&, or providing &ealt& care and education %or rural

development. +t is t&e tas o% government extension organisations to &elp meet t&ese

goals $ %ormulating suordinate o-ectives and strategies to ac&ieve t&em.

!arket Intervention: overnments set policies on consumer and producer commodit$

prices, susidies %or inputs, credit availailit$, import sustitution, export earnings, %ood

sel%su%%icienc$, and natural resource management. T&ese send direct and indirect price

signals to %armers and in%luence t&eir production decisions. ig& %ertilier prices, %or

example, cause %armers to use less o% t&is input. Extension organisations s&ould e aare

o% maret signals to ensure t&at t&e$ are recommending tec&nologies t&at meet %armersK

current needs. T&e$ also re7uire %eedac %rom %armers to ensure t&e continued relevance

o% t&eir activities.

v In7rastructure' +n%rastructure, particularl$ transportation, communication, and maret

%acilities, a%%ects ot& %armers and extension. T&e capacit$ to move people, inputs, and produce

and to send and receive in%ormation in%luences extension activities and capacit$. Maret

in%rastructure itsel% can e lacing or inade7uate.

Trans6ortation. T&ere ma$ e man$ areas t&at cannot e reac&ed $ road, or transport

ve&icles ma$ e in s&ort suppl$. +n eit&er case, %armers under t&ese conditions are

di%%icult to reac& it& improved tec&nolog$, and t&e$ ill &ave prolems transporting

inputs and %arm produce. 0or example, input suppl$ outlets can e %ar apart, and

excessive transport distances can mae it di%%icult or impossile %or traditional %armers to

adopt improved tec&nolog$.


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Communication. Communication in%rastructure can impose additional constraints %or

extension organisations. 0armer access to mass media suc& as pulications, radios, or

television ma$ e limited, t&us reducing t&e options availale to extension %or

communicating its messages. At t&e same time, extension itsel% ma$ &ave little or no

access to telep&one and radio services %or longrange communications. T&is can severel$

&amper its ailit$ to organise and carr$ out %ield operations.

To aspects o% a countr$Ks media organisations, ot& print and audiovisual, a%%ect t&e %lo o%

extension messages to %armers 2Mat&ur I Sin&a, 114. "ne is t&e attitudes and su-ect interests

o% media managers responsile %or programming %or rural audiences. T&e ot&er is t&e

organisational climate, especiall$ morale. +t is crucial t&at extension orers consider t&e

capacit$ o% mass media organisations 2nespapers, magaines, radio, and television4 as part o%

t&eir strategies and plans %or communicating it& %armers.

& Institutional 7actors'

T&e institutional context i.e. ot&er institutional %actors involved in activities related to

agricultural extension are researc& and trans%er, education and training, input suppl$, and credit.

)ulic agricultural extension organisations in most countries &ave t&e tas o% providing a to

a$ %lo o% improved tec&nolog$ and in%ormation eteen researc& and users, primaril$

%armers. T&e$ operate in an institutional environment t&at includes ot&er pulic and private

organisations active in agriculture. +n particular, t&ose ot&er actors involved in generating and

trans%erring agricultural tec&nolog$ must e examined and understood to improve extensionKs

e%%ectiveness and e%%icienc$.

i *esearch' Agricultural researc& organisations are extensionKs closest institutional partners in

tec&nolog$ generation and trans%er. W&ile t&ese %unctions are also undertaen $ private

organisations, pulic sector organisations &ave t&e tas o% generating tec&nolog$ relevant %or all

categories o% producers and agro ecological ones. T&e a$ researc& is structured and organised,

and t&e planning and management o% researc&extension linages, can limit or en&ance

extensionKs e%%ectiveness.

Agricultural researc& organisations in developing countries con%ront man$ prolems 2"ram I

9indlis&, 1F@5 +dac&aa, 1F;4. T&ese include lac o% %inancial resources, acute s&ortages o%

elltrained scientists, lac o% %armer %eedac to ensure relevance o% researc& results, lac o%


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access to external sources o% noledge, inade7uate researc& %acilities and e7uipment, lo sta%%

morale, and inade7uate operating udgets, sta%% incentives, and remuneration. 0e o% t&ese can

e addressed $ extension managers, ut t&e$ can impede t&e generation o% tec&nolog$, resulting

in %eer researc& outputs %or extension to trans%er. An understanding o% researc&Ks prolems is an

important step in planning extension activities and coordinating t&em it& researc&.

)oor linages eteen researc& and extension are ma-or constraints in tec&nolog$ %lo in man$

countries 2Laimoit, Sn$der, I Engel, 1>5 Eponou, 1


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operations. T&e additional step o% coordinating training needs it& t&e educational organisations

is needed.

iii In6ut Su66ly' 0armers need inputs to increase production, ut access to t&ese is o%ten poor in

less developed countries. W&ile inade7uate transport and mareting in%rastructure are o%ten at t&eroot o% t&e prolem, t&ere are certain aspects t&at can e addressed $ extension.

Genetic Technology: Among t&e ma-or outputs o% t&e tec&nolog$ generation sus$stem

is improved genetic material. !e plant and animal varieties it& &ig&er $ields or

resistance to pests or diseases ecome availale. oever, %armers need to no &en

t&e variet$ is released, &o it per%orms under %arm conditions, and &ere to otain seeds

or reeding materials. Extension is responsile %or disseminating t&is in%ormation t&roug&

appropriate mass media and contact met&ods. 9ut a common constraint on t&e %lo o%

tec&nolog$ is t&e non availailit$ o% genetic materials. +n some countries, extension is

also involved in t&e multiplication and distriution o% seeds. Estalis&ing e%%ective

linages it& ot&ers involved in t&e process can also &elp ensure t&at genetic materials

are availale to %armers.

Agrochemicals and Other In6uts' T&e per%ormance o% ne varieties is o%ten improved

$, or even dependent on, t&e availailit$ o% agroc&emical and ot&er inputs at t&e %arm

level. =ecommendations %or %ertilier t$pes and amounts suited to local soil conditions,

%or animal %eed mixtures and practices, and %or t&e control o% plant and animal pests and

diseases constitute an indispensale part o% extension messages. *ac o% access to t&is

in%ormation and materials prevents $ield maximisation, so extension organisations need

to ensure t&at %armers are in%ormed on availailit$ and use. +% access is limited ecause o%

external %actors, extension s&ould plan its campaigns accordingl$, it& attention given to

loinput recommendations.

)rivate companies and nonpro%it organisations also provide advice to %armers on agroc&emical

and ot&er input use. Extension organisations need to develop communication and coordination

linages it& t&ese actors ecause excessive use o% agroc&emicals can &arm &uman &ealt& and

t&e environment. Conservative recommendations and alternative approac&es, suc& as integrated

pest management, are in t&e interests o% t&e pulic and can e promoted $ extension t&roug& its

%armer contacts and ot&er linages.


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ivCredit00JJ W= 0#*W *J =N ODP W= *)S#=8 +D#)#JQ D00JJ W= NO S#=H0W0LN="=RP

and increase productivit$. 0armersK ailit$ to purc&ase inputs suc& as improved seed and

%ertilier is particularl$ important. +% appropriate tec&nolog$ is availale ut not eing used $

%armers, t&en t&e a$ credit is &andled $ government ma$ e part o% t&e prolem.

#nderstanding t&e credit context government and an policies, availailit$ o% credit, and t&e

institutional relations&ips involved in its deliver$ is important %or extension. At a minimum, t&e

existing credit situation s&ould e examined so t&at %actors a%%ecting t&e adoption and use o%

tec&nolog$ can e identi%ied. T&ese include ine7uitale access to credit, insu%%icient amounts o%

it, and overlap o% trans%er activities due to credit institution involvement in extension or. T&e

noledge is use%ul %or extension managers in targeting %armers and in coordinating extension

o-ectives it& credit institutions.

2; CO'C#SIO'

+n t&is unit, $ou &ave een exposed to t&e concepts and t&e principles o% agricultural extension,

as ell as t&e concept o% tec&nolog$ trans%er and t&e various constraints %or extension

organisations

=; S!!A*9

+n t&is unit, $ou &ave learnt t&at in t&e context o% agriculture, extension is t&e dissemination o%

use%ul and practical in%ormation relating to agriculture to improve all aspects o% t&e li%e o% t&e

rural people it&in t&e %rameor o% t&e national, economic and social policies involving t&e

population as a &ole. Extension organisation must ad&ere to certain underl$ing principles %or

e%%ective extension or. T&e understanding o% t&e components o% tec&nolog$ trans%er, t&e

principles o% agricultural extension and t&e various constraints %or extension organisations are

important %or t&e extension orers to collaorate it& agricultural researc& organisations and

government to provide policies %or tec&nolog$ generation, trans%er o% noledge, and utilisation


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>; TTO*3!A*?$" ASSIG'!$'T

1. *ist %ive principles o% agricultural extension, pointing out t&eir implications and applications

%or e%%ective extension or.

3. Enumerate t&e %our components o% tec&nolog$ trans%er

4.A Conceptual Frameor! for "tudying the #in!s

beteen Agricultural Research and $echnology $ransfer in Developing Countries. +n

Laimoit, D., Sn$der, M., I Engel, ). 21>4. A conceptual %rameor %or stud$ing t&e lins

eteen agricultural researc& and tec&nolog$ trans%er in developing countries. +n D. Laimoit

2Ed.4,%a!ing the lin!: Agricultural research and technology transfer in developing countries.

*ondon' Westvie )ress

Mat&ur, ). !., I Sin&a, 9. ). 2114. Extension and Communication Strategies %or =ain%ed

Agriculture +ndian experience. +n C. )rasad I ). Das 2Eds.4,Extension "trategies for Rainfed

Agriculture.!e Del&i' +ndian Societ$ o% Extension Education

Maunder, A.. 21;


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Sanson, 9. E., I )eterson, W. E. 2114. Strengt&ening researc&extension linages to address

t&e needs o% resourcepoor %armers in rain%ed agriculture. +n C. )rasad I ). Das 2Eds.4,

Extension strategies for rainfed agriculture.!e Del&i' +ndian Societ$ o% Extension Education.

'IT , $+T$'SIO' (*OG*A!!$S (#A''I'G

CO'T$'TS

1.> +ntroduction

3.> "-ectives

Main content

Summar$

6.> TutorMared Assignment

;.> =e%erences/0urt&er =eadings

%; Introduction

An extension programme is a ritten, annual oring plan it& speci%ic o-ectives to e

ac&ieved %or improved activities o% a communit$ it&in a speci%ied time and place. Evaluation

o% t&e programme is carried out periodicall$ t&roug&out t&e period o% its development, as ell as

convenient times &en results can e assessed 2monitoring4, progress toard attaining

programme o-ectives measured, and an appraised made o% t&e e%%orts o% extension orers,

%armers and local leaders.


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,; Objectives

At t&e end o% t&is unit $ou s&ould e ale to'

explain t&e Concept o% )lanning in Extension

Explain t&e ma-or steps in )lanning Extension )rogramme

.; !ain content

.% The Conce6t o7 6lanning $4tension (rogramme

According to Williams et al 21F@4, )lainning is a statement o% situation, needs, prolems,

solutions 2o-ectives4, priorities and &o is to do &at, &ere and &o t&e programme is

developed $ putting t&e or plan into e%%ect.

)lanning &elps extension orers to determine priorities o% t&e various tass i.e. to put t&e %irst

t&ings %irst. +t ecomes eas$ to evaluate progress &en as a result o% planning5 t&ere is a de%inite

statement o% extension aims and intentions. )lanning %urt&er encourages ade7uate preparation o%

extension activities/or. )roper planning enales t&e extension orer to determine &is needs

it& respect to ade7uate sta%% e7uipment and %unds to carr$ out its tass. T&e planning o% an

extension programme is done on t&e asis o% certain ell recognied principles &ic& s&ould e

clearl$ understood I %olloed $ extension orers.

T&e main principles are'

i. T&e programmeplanning s&ould e ased upon a care%ul anal$sis o% a %actual situation.

ii. +n a good programmeplanning, prolems %or action are selected on t&e asis o%

recognied needs.

iii. A good programmeplanning determines o-ectives I solutions &ic& are %easile I

o%%er satis%action.

iv. T&e programme s&ould e permanent I %lexile to meet a longterm situation, s&orttime

c&anges, I emergencies.

v. A sound programme s&ould &ave ot& alance I emp&asis.

vi. A good programme &as a de%inite plan o% or.

vii. )rogrammeplanning is a continuous process.


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27/149


28/149

extension service to e o% greater ene%it to t&em. 0or t&e in%ormation to e a value it must e

trut&%ull$ and accuratel$ reported and personal opinions s&ould not in%luence o-ective reporting.

Speculations and guess or s&ould not e a sustitute %or s$stematic surve$s.

Sel73Assessment $4ercise

1. Enumerate t&e %acts needed $ extension orer at t&e stage o% %act collection:

3. Analyse )acts and "e7ine the (roblem'

T&e next stage in t&e programme planning process a%ter collecting %acts is to properl$ anal$se t&e

%acts collected. 9$ anal$sing t&e %acts collected, t&e prolems could t&en e easil$ identi%ied.An

important a$ o% determining prolems is to consider national aims in production in relation to

state and local government o-ectives and identi%$ t&e arriers to attaining t&e aims and

o-ectives. )olicies goals and o-ectives roadl$ put at t&e national level s&ould address

improved 7ualit$ o% li%e, improved economic and income levels, improved literac$ rates,

improvement in attitudes, sills and noledge and sel% improvement %or t&e %armers. All t&ese

s&ould e considered in relation to communit$ values and goals. T&is implies citien

involvement and participation in prolem identi%ication so t&at planned programmes could &ave

desired e%%ects on t&e people.

+n summar$, at t&is stage, programme s&ould meet t&ree re7uirements'

!ational aims, usuall$ expressed in terms o% increased productivit$.

0armer needs social and economic advancement t&roug& more e%%icient and

productive activities and %or improved &ealt& and elleing o% t&e orers.

Tec&nical support &ic& s&ould e looed at as t&e ise utiliation o% resources

in t&e area and appropriateness o% t&e tec&ni7ues involved must e re%lected in

%ul%illing t&e needs o% t&e people.

% (ro6ose Solution:

T&e t&ird stage in programme planning %or e%%icient s$stem is to propose solutions to identi%ied

prolems. T&is implies carr$ing out orale %easiilit$ stud$ $ care%ull$ anal$ing t&e

situation arising %rom prolems identi%ied. T&e activities at t&is stage s&ould include'


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=esource and inventor$ studies

+n%ormation on production ase

+nput suppl$, credit and mareting services

E%%ectiveness o% Extension service and training

Socioeconomic %actors

=esearc&, in%rastructures, organiational and management issues

Evaluation o% economic and %inancial resources.

At t&is stage, considering t&e aove points, t&e extension programme planner s&ould'

i. Consider all possile solutions to t&e prolem it&out sticing to onl$ t&e solution &e

alread$ &as in mind.

ii. Discard solutions &ic& are outside t&e capacit$ or sp&ere o% operations o% extension

orers e.g. susides, credit operations or ma-or land reorganiation and development

sc&emes. +% t&ere is een local demand %or action e$ond t&e scope o% t&e extension

orer, t&is %act s&ould e reported to superior o%%icers.

iii. Determine t&e proale result o% alternatives. Eac& solution and its proale results

s&ould e considered and t&e most desirale course c&osen earing in mind t&e

%olloing'

2a4 Complexit$ o% t&e solution' Simple solutions are liel$ accepted more readil$ t&an

complex advice.

24 eneral acceptailit$' Tec&nicall$ s&ould solutions ut &ic& are not liel$ to e

accepted s&ould e discarded.

2c4 )racticailit$' +t is necessar$ to consider'

Cost o% t&e solution in terms o% mone$ and time.

)ersonnel and supervision %acilities availale. Solutions t&at

re7uire specialists s&ould e care%ull$ considered e%ore eing put

%orard.

Availailit$ o% e7uipment and materials.

Capacit$ and noledge o% t&e %armers' Solutions to prolems

mHJW E EDJ =N +D#)#JQ DE*"*WP DN !N=O"RJ )N DN


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omen do not &ave unlimited resources o% laour, time and

mone$. Solution must e suggested &ic& %all it&in t&eir

resources. Extension programmes must t&ere%ore start &ere t&e

people are. +t s&ould e noted t&at it ma$ not e possile to %ind

solutions to all prolems. T&e most urgent prolems t&at are liel$

to e solved success%ull$ s&ould t&ere%ore e given priorit$.

@. (lan (rogramme5(roject: A%ter selecting t&e most desirale solutions, t&e next stage

involves planning sc&edule o% or and developing suitale programme/programme. "-ectives

s&ould e stated in order o% priorit$. T&e o-ectives s&ould e ritten in clear, concise and direct

language suc& t&at ever$od$ concerned it& t&e proposed programme can understand and

appl$.

T&e general o-ective ma$ e %olloed $ several speci%ic oring o-ectives. T&is

involves reaing don t&e general steps &ic& all concerned it& t&e programme can easil$

compre&end.

)lans at t&is stage s&ould e toards'

9road %arming and rural development

+ntegrated development

Sound land use plans

Sound plans

Service administration

+n%rastructure development and manpoer training

"rganiation and supervision

*ocal participation

E%%ective extension strategies

Mareting

Monitoring and evaluation.

+n t&e process o% stating t&e o-ectives, t&e extension orers could also give a ver$ s&ort outline

o% &o it is proposed to or toard ac&ieving stated o-ectives.


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. (lan o7 work/ work calendar Developing programme at t&e implementation stage4

+t is necessar$ at t&is stage to plan in detail &o to or toards determined o-ectives. T&e

annual plan o% or states t&e o-ectives and t&en s&os t&e means o% attaining t&em. +t is usual

to prepare an outline plan o% or %or t&e $ear %olloed up it& a or calendar prepared

mont&l$.

Wor plans and calendars s&ould e prepared $ t&e extension orer in cooperation it&

superior extension sta%%, specialists, local leaders and ot&er relevant agencies, and ministries

2Williams et al 1F@, 9rad%ield, 1;;4. T&is consultation &elps to gain support, necessar$

assistance and cooperation.

At t&is stage activities s&ould e ell sc&eduled it& speci%ic division o% responsiilities.

T&e annual pan o% or s&ould e %lexile and s&ould give room %or unexpected activities suc&

as control o% pests and diseases and environmental &aards. T&e extension orer s&ould also

plan %or unexpected success arising %rom adoption o% innovation. Activities to e planned %or at

t&is stage include'

Sta%% recruitment and development

+n%rastructure coordination and development

Movement o% inputs

Contact and training

)ulic enlig&tenment and general in%ormation s$stem

eneral coordination and supervision

"ver all administrative management and accountailit$.

All t&ese activities re7uire -udicious use o% time and e%%orts. Jaluale time and e%%orts s&ould

not e asted unnecessaril$.


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2; Conclusion

+n t&is unit $ou &ave een introduced to t&e concept o% planning in Extension progrmme.

8ou also no t&e %orms and met&ods o% collecting %acts during planning process. 8ou &ave

also learnt t&e ma-or steps in Extension )rogramme )lanning.

=; Summary

+n t&is unit, $ou &ave learnt t&at proper planning enales t&e extension orer to determine &is

needs it& respect to ade7uate sta%% e7uipment and %unds to carr$ out its tass. 8ou also learnt

t&at t&e noledge o% t&e steps in planning viale extension programme is t&ere%ore important

%or an extension orer. T&e ma-or steps are %acts collection, anal$e %acts and de%ine prolems,

propose situation and plan programme/pro-ect.

>; Tutor !arked Assignment

Explain t&e various steps t&e ma-or steps in )lanning Extension )rogramme:

Enumerate t&e %orms and met&ods o% collecting %acts during planning process:

State t&e activities re7uired at t&e di%%erent stage Extension planning:

@; *e7erences5)urther *eadings

9rad%ield, D.R. 21;;4. &uide to Extension $raining FA' Economic and "ocial Development

"ervices.!o.6. =ome' 0A".

Taio, S. L. T.5 0enle$ and Williams, E. E. [email protected] %anual for Agricultural Extension

(or!ers in )igeria* *es S&$rader, +adan, !igeria


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'IT . CO'C$(T O) AG*IC#T*A# $+T$'SIO' !O'ITO*I'G

CO'T$'TS

1.> +ntroduction

3.> "-ectives

Main content



%; I'T*O"CTIO'

T&e loal Consultation on Agricultural Extension oserved t&at monitoring and evaluation are

important $et %re7uentl$ neglected %unctions in most organiations 20A", 1>4.+t is oserved

t&at in man$ cases t&e Monitoring and Evaluation units are ea and are limited to ad &oc

studies. 0re7uentl$, t&ese Monitoring and Evaluation units are aandoned &en pro-ect %unding

terminates. Also, and evaluation o%ten concentrate on prolems, exposing eanesses and

%ailures o% organiations rat&er een used in a positive manner to improve extensionKs

per%ormance and increase its e%%icienc$. T&ere%ore, it is o%ten recommended t&at national

extension s$stems s&ould e strongl$ encouraged to estalis& and use monitoring procedures and


34/149

evaluation studies ot& to improve extension per%ormance and to communicate t&e results o%

extension programmes to polic$ maers and clientele eing served. )rogramme monitoring

e%%orts comined it& in%ormation %rom t&e accounting s$stem ill provide in%ormation aout

e%%icienc$.

,; O&


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also e evaluated in terms o% people reac&ed, in terms o% numer and adoption level. According

to Macdonald and earle 21F@4, evaluation s&ould e carried out in t&ree stages'

)reevaluation' T&is is done e%ore t&e programme starts in ot&er to provide aseline data

and guide t&e programme. T&e extension orer must consider &at t&e programme is to

ac&ieve and &at its o-ectives are.

"ngoing evaluation' At t&e planning stage, t&e extension orer consider &o regular

t&e ongoing evaluation. T&e aseline data is compared it& t&e result to see &et&er t&e

programme is succeeding or %ailing. )rogramme s&ould e %lexile %or ease o%

amendment o% plans i% certain aspects are not oring.

)ostevaluation' T&is is carried out at t&e end o% t&e programme. Evaluation at t&is stage

is o% greater dept& t&an t&e ongoing evaluation. Rudgements o% t&e e%%ect on t&e people

materiall$ and in t&eir e&aviour are evaluated. Also at t&is stage, t&e overall

e%%ectiveness o% t&e personnel involved, met&od used and t&e programme as a &ole is

evaluated. T&is ensures proper planning o% %uture extension programme.

)undamentals conce6ts o7 monitoring and evaluation

T&ere are %our concepts t&at are asic to monitoring and evaluation namel$' Capailit$,

e%%ectiveness, e%%icienc$, and impact. T&e$ correspond, respectivel$, to operational investment

2e.g., investment in agricultural extension per %arm %amil$4, operational e%%icienc$ 2e.g., t&e

numer o% visits, meetings, demonstrations, and trials, per extension orer4, tec&nical

e%%icienc$ 2e.g., t&e numer o% adopters, &ectorage, output, and value added4, and extension

induced c&anges 2e.g., production, productivit$, income, and income distriution4 2=ut&enurg,

1F4.

Capailit$, e%%ectiveness, and e%%icienc$ %all in t&e monitoring domain. +mpact %alls in t&e

evaluation domain.

Capailit$ is t&e command t&at extension &as over p&$sical, %inancial, and &uman

resources, enaling it to serve its clients 2t&e %armers4. +t is re%lected $ extensionKs

outreac&, intensit$, tec&nical competence, and p&$sical and %inancial resources.

Extension per%ormance depends directl$ upon its capailit$.


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E%%ectiveness is de%ined $ a &andoo on productivit$ management as Gt&e degree to

&ic& goals are attainedG 2)roopeno, 1F;4. Agricultural extension &as man$ goals

suc& as social goals 2e.g., %armer el%are4 and economic goals 2e.g., increased income4.

E%%icienc$ in extension is usuall$ measured $ t&e rates at &ic& %armers adopt

recommended practices. Adoption rates o% var$ing degrees o% complexit$ can e

conceived 2Casle$ I *ur$, 1F34.

+mpact in extension can e measured $ a simple indicator, lie $ield o% a crop per

&ectare or $ constructing simple productivit$ indices. Suc& indicators provide ultimate

tests %or t&e success o% extension programmes.


de%ine t&e concepts o% monitoring and evaluation in Agricultural extension:

explain t&e t&ree levels o% evaluation according to Macdonald and earle 21F@4.

., &asic Agricultural $4tension !onitoring (rinci6les

T&ere are some principles spelt out $ Misra 21;4 necessar$ %or proper monitoring o%

extension programmes. T&ese principles include'

Simplicit$' Monitoring must e simple. A multi%aceted or complicated monitoring s$stem

is sel%de%eating. T&e asic tas o% monitoring is to simpli%$ t&e %ieldlevel complexit$,

si%ting t&e more important concerns %rom t&e less signi%icant.

Timeliness' Monitoring must e elltimed. Timeliness is t&e %undamental nature in

monitoring. Management re7uires input %rom t&e monitoring s$stem so t&at timel$ action

ma$ e taen. Also, timeliness is closel$ related to t&e reliailit$ o% monitoring itsel%.

=elevance: Monitoring must e appropriate. +t must concern itsel% onl$ it& parameters

&ic& are relevant to programme o-ectives. T&is also ensures t&at monitoring does not

generate in%ormation t&at is not used or is not usale $ management.

=eliailit$' +n%ormation provided t&roug& monitoring s&ould e dependale.

Management ill rel$ on monitoring %indings onl$ i% t&e in%ormation is elieved to e

reasonal$ accurate.


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)articipator$ E%%ort' Monitoring e%%orts s&ould e contriutor$. E%%ort s&ould e made to

ensure participation $ all concerned it& extension, e t&e$ %ieldlevel personnel,

su-ectmatter specialists, or extensionKs clients 2t&e %armers4.

0lexiilit$' Monitoring must e endale. +t is reoccurrence in nature and gets &aitual

it& t&e passage o% time. T&ese to c&aracteristics s&ould not, &oever, lead to rigidit$.

Action 'riented: Monitoring s&ould e action oriented. Monitoring o%ten leads to

action. Conse7uentl$, it s&ould %ollo pragmatic approac&es, eeping t&e re7uirements o%

extensionKs clients uppermost in vie. enerating in%ormation %or &ic& t&ere is no

intended use s&ould e diligentl$ avoided.

Coste%%ectiveness' Monitoring must e coste%%ective. Monitoring e%%orts cost mone$ and

time. +t is t&ere%ore essential to mae it coste%%ective. W&ile principles o% simplicit$,

timelines, relevance, and accurac$ ill lead to coste%%ectiveness, computeriation also

can &elp to mae monitoring more coste%%ective $ reducing sta%% &ours in data

processing.

Top management oriented' Monitoring units s&ould eep in mind t&e re7uisites o% top

management &en designing and operating a monitoring s$stem. 8et at t&e same time,

monitoring must tae into account t&e %act t&at t&ose &o provide in%ormation to t&e

s$stem also must ene%it or t&e 7ualit$ o% t&e in%ormation provided ill decline.

)rolemSolving "riented' Monitoring units represent %ocused activities. Monitoring isnot merel$ concerned it& t&e collection and anal$sis o% data, ut it& diagnosing

prolems and suggesting alternative practical solutions.


Descrie ten asic principles necessar$ %or proper monitoring o% extension

programmes:


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ide range o% indicators is developed on t&e asis o% t&e statistics availale. +n t&e deductive

approac&, t&e areas o% interest are %irst identi%ied, and t&en re7uisite indicators are developed.

Extension monitoring indicators can also e grouped into to categories'

214 Extension capailit$ indicators, and

234 Extension per%ormance indicators.

9ot& s&ould e generated $ t&e monitoring unit

$4tension Ca6ability Indicators

Extension capailit$ indicators must e monitored regularl$ not onl$ to no t&e status

o% extensionKs capailit$ at a certain point in time, ut also to determine c&anges in it over time.

T&ese indicators s&ould e calculated annuall$. T&e$ involve onl$ des or ecause

t&e$ are ased on in&ouse data. Example, Extension capailit$ indicators test %or example

Competence, +ntensit$, and E7uit$

$4tension (er7ormance Indicators

Extension per%ormance indicators re%lect extensionKs operational and tec&nical

e%%icienc$. T&e$ can e grouped into to categories namel$ extension e%%ectiveness indicators

and extension e%%icienc$ indicators.

T&ere are di%%erent t$pes o% indicators, %or example, development indicators, socioeconomic

indicators, agricultural development indicators, and extension indicators. T&e$ range %romgeneral to speci%ic concerns .T&e criteria %or selecting indicators depend upon t&e purpose,

resources, and time availale. T&e %olloing decisive %actor is usuall$ suggested'

Simplicit$' T&e indicator s&ould e simple enoug& to e understood $ nonspecialists

20A", 1FF4.

#namiguous de%inition' +t s&ould e clearl$ de%ined 2Casle$ I *ur$, 1F3,5 Casle$ I

Lumar, 1F;4.

=ead$ determination' T&e data can e otained it&out undue di%%icult$ 2W", 1F4.

T&is is also re%erred to as Gtimel$G 2ACC, 1F@4 and G%easileG 20A", 1FF, p. F5&a,

opins, I Mcrana&an, 1FF4.

Accurate measurement: T&e indicator s&ould e measured accuratel$, &ic& is o%ten

di%%icult &en dealing it& %arming communities 2Casle$ I *ur$, 1F34.


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Jalidit$: T&e indicator s&ould actuall$ measure &at it is supposed to measure 2ACC,

1F@5 0A", 1FF5 see also &a et al., 1FF4.

=elevance: +t s&ould e geared to t&e speci%ic needs o% decision maers 2)etr$, 1F


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>; TTO*3!A*?$" ASSIG'!$'T

1. Enumerate t&e %our concepts t&at are asic to monitoring and evaluation.

3. W&at are t&e decisive %actors %or t&e selection indicators %or an Agriculture Extension

pro-ect:


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,; Objectives

At t&e end o% t&is unit $ou s&ould e ale to5

Explain t&e concepts o% extension polic$

state t&e scope and %orms o% extension polic$

enumerate t&e principal +ssues t&at extension polic$ s&ould address

explain &o extension polic$ s&ould e %ormulated

.; !ain Content

.%The Conce6t $4tension (olicy

T&e importance o% extension polic$ as recognied $ t&e 0A"Ks loal Consultation on

Agricultural Extension &en it recommended t&at Gall national governments s&ould develop and

periodicall$ revie t&eir agricultural extension polic$. T&is polic$ s&ould include t&e goals o%

agricultural extension, t&e responsile agencies and personnel, t&e clientele to e served, t&e

road programmatic areas to e addressed, and ot&er relevant guidelines.G T&e consultation

%urt&er recommended t&at Gt&e 0A", in cooperation it& t&e donor communit$, s&ould engage in

polic$ dialogue it& national governments to stress t&e importance o% agricultural extension in

national agricultural development and t&e need to &ave an explicit, %ormall$ enacted, agricultural

extension polic$G 2Sanson, 1>4.

)olic$ maers in man$ developing countries vie extension as a polic$ instrument to increase

agricultural production, to ac&ieve national %ood securit$, and, at t&e same time, &elp alleviate

rural povert$. +n addition, some economists vie extension as a polic$ instrument t&at ill

contriute to &uman capital development and economic grot&5 t&ere%ore, resources allocated to

extension are vieed as an economic investment &ic& must produce competitive economic

returns. To t&e practitioner, agricultural extension en&ances and accelerates t&e spread o% use%ul

no&o and tec&nologies to rural people. T&ese activities are expected to lead to increased

and sustained productivit$, increased income and elleing o% %arm people, and to t&e

promotion o% national %ood securit$ and economic grot&. T&ese o-ectives are to e ac&ieved

t&roug& non%ormal education and training programmes and toa$ tec&nolog$ trans%er and


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%eedac s$stems &ere extension &as an important contriution to mae to agricultural and

rural development.

., Sco6e and )orms o7 e4tension 6olicy

The Sco6e o7 e4tension 6olicy: Agricultural extension polic$ is a part o% national development

polic$ in general and o% agricultural and rural development polic$ in particular. ence,

agricultural extension is one o% t&e polic$ instruments &ic& governments can use to stimulate

agricultural development 2Jan Den Jan in Rones, 1F64. Extension is ver$ muc& a part o% &at

=ling re%ers to as t&e agricultural development mix. e notes t&at extension is a ea

instrument &en it stands alone, ut t&at it ecomes poer%ul &en comined it& price

incentives, input suppl$, credit, seed multiplication, and so %ort& 2=ling in Rones, 1F64. T&e

loal Consultation on Agricultural Extension concluded t&at agricultural extension polic$s&ould e consistent it& and supportive o% national agricultural development polic$ and goals

2Sanson, 1>4.

Eac& countr$ s&ould &ave a compre&ensive agricultural extension polic$ &ic& provides %or

coordination it& researc&, education, input suppl$, and credit and mareting s$stems, as ell as

some %lexiilit$ to re%lect t&e d$namic nature o% t&e agricultural sector. T&e polic$ s&ould

include t&e mission and goals %or agricultural extension, t&e responsile agencies and personnel,

t&e clientele to e served, t&e road programmatic areas to e addressed, and ot&er relevant

guidelines. +n developing national agricultural extension policies, representatives o% all ma-or

groups o% %armers s&ould e directl$ involved and ot&er relevant agricultural organiations

s&ould e consulted. G9$ pursuing a compre&ensive polic$,G t&e loal Consultation noted,

Gcountries can expect t&e extension s$stem to contriute to increasing agricultural productivit$

and %arm income, and to improving t&e 7ualit$ o% li%e o% most rural %arm &ouse&olds in pursuit o%

t&e general goal o% grot& it& e7uit$. +n addition, suc& a polic$ s&ould &elp maintain and

conserve t&e natural resource ase %or sustained agricultural development and en&ance %ood

securit$G 2Sanson, 1>4.

)orms o7 e4tension 6olicy' researc& is needed in classi%$ing extension policies ot& in

developed and developing countries, as ell as in t&ose countries in transition. T&ere are t&ree

%orms o% extension policies

(rovisional $4tension (olicies


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'atural *esources and $nvironmental )actors

)opulation pressure and t&e demand %or increasing %ood output are no commonl$ associated

it& t&e degradation, depletion, and pollution o% soil, ater, and ot&er natural resources

2Alexandratos, 14. !umerous actions are re7uired %or a societ$ to conserve, protect,re&ailitate, and manage its land, ater, and ot&er natural resources5 t&ere%ore, extension &as a

central role to pla$ in disseminating sustainale agricultural tec&nolog$.

.2 $4tension 6olicy 7ormulation

T&ere is no standard %ormula to e used in %ormulating agricultural extension policies. +t s&ould

e noted, &oever, t&at most existing las and policies on extension &ave een %ormulated $

planners and polic$ maers in t&e ministr$ o% agriculture and agriculture committees in t&e

legislative ranc& o% government. !ormall$, agricultural extension pro%essionals %rom

agricultural universities or %rom aroad are called on to provide advice and to assist in dra%ting

extension legislation. A congressional &earing is normall$ conducted e%ore extension legislation

is %inall$ enacted into la.

To e more relevant to t&e needs o% %armers and ot&er clientele, extension polic$ s&ould e

revieed and %ormulated t&roug& a participator$ approac&. T&is process could e initiated $

dedicated pro%essionals %rom t&e pulic and private sectors, it& t&e active participation o%%armers t&emselves, t&e private sector, and local government representatives. A proposed dra%t

extension polic$ t&at results %rom t&is participator$ approac& ould &ave to e legitimied $ t&e

ministr$ o% agriculture and t&en enacted into la $ t&e congress or parliament. T&e advantage o%

t&is approac& ould e greater relevance to local conditions and acceptance $ stae&olders at

t&e %ield level.

As t&e loal Consultation on Agricultural Extension noted' GT&ere are sometimes

contradictions eteen national development polic$ and t&e interests o% t&e vast ma-orit$ o% t&erural poor &o are engaged in agricultural production. =epresentatives o% all ma-or %arm groups

s&ould e involved, ot& t&roug& %ormal mec&anisms and in%ormal consultations, in t&e

%ormulation and execution o% agricultural extension polic$. 0armer involvement in polic$

%ormulation and periodic revie is t&e most e%%ective means o% creating a Kdemand drivenK


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national extension s$stemG 2Sanson, 1>4.A ell %ormulated extension polic$ s&ould address

t&e %olloing +ssues namel$5

i. $4tension !ission and Goals '

Alt&oug& extension &as a generic and universal meaning, its mission and goals ma$ need

to e ad-usted according to national o-ectives and t&e context and stage o% agricultural

and rural development in a given countr$. S&ould t&e mission o% extension e to promote

agricultural development t&roug& tec&nolog$ trans%er: S&ould it give &ig&er priorit$ to

&uman resource development in rural areas, or s&ould it promote sustainale agricultural

and rural development: T&e extension mission s&ould e re%lected in t&e name o% t&e

organiation, and t&e preamle %or extension polic$ s&ould e included in t&e la

governing t&e countr$Ks extension s$stem. T&is mission t&en s&ould e re%lected in a

statement o% goals and o-ectives t&at are agreed upon and assigned to extension in a

supporting polic$ document. T&is document s&ould e periodicall$ revieed $ polic$

maers and representatives %rom stae&older groups.

ii. $4tension A66roach and )unctions

!ational extension s$stems can pursue one o% several di%%erent extension approac&es in

implementing extension polic$. Most extension s$stems in developing countries give

primar$ attention to tec&nolog$ trans%er, given national agricultural policies t&at

emp&asie increasing %ood production and ac&ieving national %ood securit$. An example

o% a tec&nolog$ trans%er approac& ould e t&e Training and Jisit 2TIJ4 Extension

S$stem t&at &as een promoted $ t&e World 9an t&roug& its lending programme.

Alt&oug& t&e #.S. extension s$stem &as een particularl$ e%%ective in tec&nolog$ trans%er,

its main %ocus &as een on increasing t&e sills and noledge o% rural %arm %amilies,

&o &ave ecome ver$ e%%ective consumers o% agricultural tec&nolog$. T&ere%ore, t&e

extension approac& pursued $ a countr$ s&ould re%lect t&e mission o% extension, and it

ill de%ine t&e %unctions, programmes, and tass t&at ill e carried out $ t&e extension

sta%%.

iii. Subject3!atter Coverage o7 $4tension

9roadl$ speaing, t&e su-ect matter o% extension is implied in t&e mission statement and

even in t&e title o% t&e extension service. W&at di%%erentiates eteen agricultural and


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appropriate %arming practices. 0inall$, investing in resource poor %arm %amilies ma$

increase t&eir tec&nical, management, and leaders&ip sills, t&ere$ enaling t&em or

t&eir c&ildren to move into &ig&er pa$ing, non%arm -os.

v. Clientele or Target &ene7iciaries

A common criticism o% extension services in developing countries is t&eir neglect o% t&e

vast numer o% smallscale %armers in %avour o% %eer numers o% large %armers, or t&e

ver$ limited attention given to omen %armers. T&is is a polic$ issue ecause o% its

implications %or t&e mission and goals o% extension, t&e priorities %or tec&nolog$

generation $ researc&, t&e coste%%ectiveness o% extension, and t&e sociopolitical goals o%

grot& it& e7uit$ and povert$ alleviation. T&e inclusion o% omen and rural $out& in

agricultural extension programmes is generall$ recognied in terms o% t&eir numers and

contriution to %arming. Worldide, an estimated 1 per cent o% t&e active population in

agriculture are omen. +n A%rica, omenKs participation in %ood production is as &ig& as

;6 per cent 20A", 1>4 in some areas. +n 1, t&ere ere an estimated 1. illion rural

$oung people eteen 1 and 3 $ears o% age, 1.< illion o% t&em in less developed

countries. iven t&at rural $out& ma$ account %or up to 6> per cent o% t&e population in

developing countries, s&ould t&e$ e speciall$ recognied %or t&eir crucial role in

ac&ieving sustainale agricultural and rural development across t&e coming generation o%

%armers:

vi. Organi8ational Issues

T&e extension organiation emodies di%%erent aspects o% an extension s$stem, and it

provides t&e management %rameor %or t&e extension service. T&is is a polic$ issue

ecause it a%%ects t&e scope, magnitude, and structure o% t&e extension s$stem, including

%actors suc& as control, coste%%ectiveness, and t&e impact o% t&e extension service. T&ere

are %our di%%erent %orms o% extension organiation namel$'

1. Centralied organiation. Examples include t&e Department o% Agricultural Extension in

T&ailand and 9anglades&, t&e Agricultural Extension 9ureau o% Sout& Lorea, and A=+TEH in

Oimae. +n t&is %orm o% organiation, t&e national extension o%%ice manages and controls

extension programme activities and resources at t&e regional, district, sudistrict, and village

level. Clientele participation and %eedac in programme planning are generall$ limited.


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!odule , (rinci6le o7 Administration and Su6ervision




nit % Conce6t o7 Administration

CO'T$'T

%; +ntroduction

,; "-ectives

.; Main content

Summar$

6.> TutorMared Assignment


1.> +ntroduction

Administration is t&e management o% t&e a%%airs o% a usiness especiall$ t&e planning and control

o% its operation. +t is t&e guidance, leaders&ip and control o% t&e e%%orts o% groups o% people or

individuals toard some common goals. +t is asicall$ a social tec&ni7ue &ic& sill%ul

administrator in an enterprise needs to succeed. Along t&ese, t&e$ also re7uire tec&nical

noledge and capital to execute all t&e transactions, especiall$ &uman and material resources.


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0or an$ t$pe o% social s$stem to exist, viale and pro%ital$, administration &as a lot o% role to

pla$. Alt&oug& t&e structures o% di%%erent social s$stem di%%ers, ut t&e met&ods o% tacling t&eir

prolems remains t&e same.

,; Objectives

At t&e end o% t&is unit $ou s&ould e ale to,

explain t&e concept o% Agricultural Administration.

enumerate t&e c&aracteristics o% Agricultural Administration.

.; !ain Content

.% Conce6t o7 Agricultural Administration

Administration is usuall$ connected it& organiing, selecting executives or personnel,

estalis&ing plans, measuring results, coordinating, controlling and delegating activities.

"gunameru 23>>14 de%ined administration as giving direction and maing decisions,

%ormulating policies and plans, implementing t&e %ormulated policies and plans and monitoring

t&em5 maintaining inter personal relations&ips it& ot&ers suc& as suordinates, t&ose at t&e same

level or peers, in ot&er sectors, departments, organiation and superiors or superordinates using

management tec&ni7ues %or planning, executing and evaluation o% operatives5 and providing

administrative services suc& as clerical accounting, %inancial 20A", 1;4.

Administration involves t&e creation and maintenance o% an environment in &ic& individual

emplo$ees or toget&er in groups toards t&e accomplis&ment o% organiational goals.

ardaer 21;14, de%ined administration as %orming alanced -udgment, &ic& %or maing

rational decisions. A good administrator t&ere%ore implies acting it& purpose, imagination,

%oresig&t and common sense.

Administration can also e seen as t&e act and science o% getting result t&roug& emplo$ees. +t isWL )D#JLD""*NR =# ++0W*8 HW*"*UDW*=N =+ )N )=NP )DW#*D"J DN )WL=J+=H# V> =+

administrations4.

Agricultural administration is essentiall$ t&e guidance, leaders&ip and t&e control among all t&e

clients o% agriculture related activities 2Epere, 1;64. E%%icient agricultural administration


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re7uires pro%essionall$ trained and ellin%ormed people. T&e c&ie% role o% t&e programme

manager, managing director or director is to get results $ e%%ectivel$ directing t&e or o% ot&er

memers o% sta%%. To ac&ieve t&is lo%t$ role, t&e manager or administrator must ad&ere to t&e

p&ilosop&$ t&at &inges on'

1. respect %or t&e ort& and dignit$ o% t&e individual emplo$ees5

3. +D*WL *N WL )S"=PJQ DE*"*WP W= )D! #DW*=ND" 0*J*=NJ


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., Characteristics o7 Agricultural administration

C&ie% executives must constantl$ capitalie on t&e %olloing c&aracteristics o% an e%%ective and

e%%icient agricultural administration, including, among ot&ers'

1. Agricultural administration demands an e%%icient organiation o% t&e availale manpoer

and p&$sical resources it& a vie to ensure t&e greatest amount o% goods %or t&e largest

numer o% people, in t&e least possile time and it& minimum amount o% energ$.

3. A good agricultural administration ala$s endeavours to e readil$ availale and ever

illing to solve t&e prolems o% t&e people as soon as t&e$ are roug&t to t&e notice o% its

personnel. +t is also one o% t&e tass o% agricultural administration to ring aareness

among t&e people aout t&e prolems not readil$ perceived $ t&em and to sensitie t&em

to %oresee t&eir prolems and e e%%ective in resolving t&em.


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2!S# E#=D"P +*N R#*0H"WH#D" 2XWNJ*=N DJ VWL *J0*S"*N OL*0L J!8"=S

pro%essional competencies essential to t&e operation o% a s$stem o% services &ic& assist rural

people t&roug& educational programmes o% improved %arming met&ods and tec&ni7ues, increased

#=H0W*=N ++*0*N0P DN *N0=) "8" =+ "*8*NR DN D0L*8)NW =+ D )=# +H"+*"

H#D" "*+

,; Objectives

9$ t&e end o% t&is unit, $ou s&ould e ale to'

de%ine t&e strategic tas agricultural administration

state t&e di%%erent levels o% agricultural administration

.; !ain content

.% Strategic Task5*es6onsibilities o7 Agricultural Administration

T&e essential tass o% administration are t&e ma-or %unctions per%ormed $ administrators. T&us,

to aND"PU OLDW DN D)*N*JW#DW=# =J *J W= !N=O WL VOLDW DN VL=O =+D)*N*JW#DW*=N ;L*Jis involved in t&e %olloing %ive asic processes o% administration' planning, organiing,

assemling resources, supervising and control. T&e ma-or activities under eac& process are

&ig&lig&ted elo'

1. (lanning

2a4 Clari%ication o% o-ectives

24 Estalis&ment o% policies

2c4 Mapping o% programmes and campaigns

2d4 Determining speci%ic met&ods and procedures

2e4 0ixing da$toda$ sc&edules

2%4 Surve$ t&e environment2g4 0orecast %uture situation

2&4 Evaluate proposed actions

2i4 =evised and ad-ust t&e plan in t&e lig&t o% control o% results and

c&anging conditions

2-4 Communicate t&roug&out t&e planning period.


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. Controlling

2a4 Set standards at strategic points

24 Set standards %or individual responsiilit$ and note deviations.

2c4 Concentrate on important activities

2d4 #se integrated udgets.

2e4 Concentrate on exceptions

2%4 "serve personall$

2g4 Design reports %or action

2&4 Tae corrective action

2i4 9alance control structure.


ig&lig&ted t&e ma-or activities involved in t&e asic processes o% administration

., "i77erent levels o7 Agricultural Administration

+t s&ould e noted t&at agricultural administration is in t&ree &ierarc&ies or levels, namel$'

t&e top management level5

t&e middlemanagement level5 and

t&e operating loermana

AEM 611.Agricultural Extension, Administration and Supervision

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