Page 1
Electronic Warfare_28Oct2021 1 apl. Prof. Dr. Dr. K. Saalbach
LV Geopolitics and Geostrategy Department 1
49069 Osnabrueck
Advances in Electronic Warfare
28 Oct 2021
Summary
Electronic warfare (EW) is any military action involving the use of electromagnetic and directed energy to control the electromagnetic spectrum or to attack the enemy. During Cold War, electronic warfare was an important military activity; a typical attack method was jamming (disturbance) of communication frequencies and radar signals. After cold war, the focus shifted to network-centric and cyber warfare and drove attention away from traditional EW. Meanwhile, the development of directed energy (laser and high-powered microwave) weapons has made substantial progress. In particular, the US and Chinese Navy have advanced prototypes of military laser weapons and first reports of real-world attacks exist. In the United States, electronic warfare and cyber warfare are now integrated in the concept of cyber electromagnetic attacks (CEMA). Moreover, satellites and their communication lines are increasingly important, but they are vulnerable for CEMA. The concept of space resilience was developed as a technical backbone of space defense. This working paper provides a brief overview and background on EW and CEMA, followed by an overview on directed energy weapons and security issues with a particular focus on laser weapons and satellites.
Page 2
Electronic Warfare_28Oct2021 2 apl. Prof. Dr. Dr. K. Saalbach
Contents
1. Fundamentals ....................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Overview ................................................................................................................... 3 1.2 History of Electronic Warfare ................................................................................... 5 1.3. Cyber Electromagnetic Attacks (CEMA) ................................................................ 5
1.3.1 Definition and Concept ...................................................................................... 5 1.3.2 Practical Implications......................................................................................... 7
1.4 EW Programs and Capabilities ................................................................................. 8 1.4.1 United States ...................................................................................................... 8 1.4.2 Russia and China................................................................................................ 8
2. Directed Energy Weapons ................................................................................... 9
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 9
2.2 High-Energy Lasers .................................................................................................. 9
2.2.1 Overview ............................................................................................................ 9 2.2.2 United States .................................................................................................... 11
2.2.3 China ................................................................................................................ 12 2.2.4 Further Actors .................................................................................................. 12
2.2.5 Real-World Laser Attacks ................................................................................ 13 2.3 High-Powered Microwave (HPM) Weapons .......................................................... 13
3. Satellites ............................................................................................................. 14
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 14
3.2 The Strategic Role of Satellites............................................................................... 15 3.2.1 Global Coverage .............................................................................................. 15
3.2.2 Imaging Quality and Analysis ......................................................................... 16
3.2.3 Threat Detection and Response ....................................................................... 16
3.3 Attacks on Satellites ................................................................................................ 17 3.3.1 Overview .......................................................................................................... 17
3.3.2 Satellite Hacking .............................................................................................. 18 3.3.3 Electronic Warfare in Outer Space .................................................................. 19
3.4 Space Resilience ..................................................................................................... 20
4. Concluding Remarks .......................................................................................... 20
5. Literature ............................................................................................................ 22
Page 3
Electronic Warfare_28Oct2021 3 apl. Prof. Dr. Dr. K. Saalbach
1. Fundamentals
1.1 Overview
The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation from
zero to infinity. The lower the frequency, the lower the energy and the longer the
wavelength1.
All parts of the spectrum can be utilized for military purposes2. The military uses very low
frequency radio waves to communicate with submarines underwater, radio frequencies to
communicate with friendly forces; microwaves as data-links, radars, and satellite
communications including situational awareness by radar and light detection and ranging
(LIDAR) systems; infrared for intelligence and to target enemies; and lasers in the infrared
and ultraviolet ends to communicate, transmit data, to dazzle intelligence collection sensors
and potentially destroy a target3. Missiles in general, and anti-air munitions in particular,
use either infrared or radar for terminal guidance to targets4. X-rays are routinely used for
aircraft maintenance to identify cracks in airframes. Finally, gamma rays are high-energy
radiation and help identify potential nuclear events5. The following table provides a brief
overview.
Table 1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 6 Group Subgroup Comments
Extremely low frequency ELF Geomagnetic sources
Radio
spectrum
Very low frequency VLF
Low frequency LF
Medium frequency MF
High frequency HF
Very high frequency VHF
Super high frequency SHF
Extremely high frequency EHF
The radio frequency spectrum covers radio
broadcast, television and cell phones
The EHF spectrum covers microwaves,
which are also used for satellites
Light Infrared (IR)
Visible light
Ultraviolet (UV)
Emitted by sunlight
Radiation x-rays
gamma rays
cosmic x-rays
Radiation is harmful by damaging human
DNA
Source: US Army Field Manual FM 3-38, Figure 1-3
In the United States, Electronic warfare (EW) is defined as “any military action involving
the use of electromagnetic and directed energy to control the electromagnetic spectrum or
to attack the enemy”7. Electronic warfare consists of the three divisions electronic attack,
electronic protection, and electronic warfare support. Table 2 provides an overview8.
1 Field Manual 3-38, Section 1 2 Hoehn 2021a, p.1 3 Hoehn 2021a and 2021b 4 Hoehn 2021a, p.3 5 Hoehn 2021a, p.1 6 Field Manual 3-38, Figure 1-3 7 Field Manual 3-36, Section 1 8 Field Manual 3-36, Section 1-17
Page 4
Electronic Warfare_28Oct2021 4 apl. Prof. Dr. Dr. K. Saalbach
Table 2 The Electronic Warfare Divisions Divisions Purpose Activities
Electronic
attack
The use of electromagnetic
energy, directed energy, or
antiradiation weapons
Countermeasures (electro-optical-infrared and radio
frequency countermeasures to block precision guided
weapons and sensor systems)
Electromagnetic deception (to convey misleading
information to enemy)
Electromagnetic intrusion (intentional insertion of
electromagnetic energy into transmission paths to deceive
operators or to cause confusion)
Electromagnetic jamming (deliberate radiation,
reradiation, or reflection of electromagnetic energy)
Electromagnetic pulse EMP (radiation to produce
damaging current and voltage surges). An EMP could be
caused by nuclear weapons, but may also naturally occur
as an effect of strong solar storms9.
Electronic probing (intentional radiation for learning the
functions and operational capabilities of the devices or
systems)
Electronic
protection
Actions taken to protect
personnel, facilities, and
equipment
Electromagnetic hardening (protection against
undesirable effects of electromagnetic energy)
Electronic masking (controlled radiation of
electromagnetic energy on friendly frequencies)
Emission control (selective and controlled use of
electromagnetic, acoustic, or other emitters)
Electromagnetic spectrum management (planning,
coordinating, and managing joint use of the
electromagnetic spectrum)
Wartime reserve modes (deliberately held in reserve for
wartime or emergency use)
Electromagnetic compatibility (ability of systems to use
electromagnetic spectrum without degradation or
interference)
Electronic
support
Actions to search for,
intercept, identify, and locate
or localize sources of
intentional and unintentional
radiated electromagnetic
energy.
Electronic reconnaissance (detection, location,
identification, and evaluation of foreign electromagnetic
radiations)
Electronic intelligence (technical and geolocation
intelligence derived from foreign noncommunications
electromagnetic radiations other than nuclear detonations
or radioactive sources)
Electronics security (all measures designed to deny
unauthorized persons information of value)
Source: US Army Field Manual FM-36-3, Section 1 (abbreviated wording)
Signals intelligence (SigInt) is intelligence information derived from signals and includes
communication intelligence (COMINT), electronic intelligence (ELINT) and foreign
instrumentation signals intelligence (FSINT). Signals intelligence systems primarily
collect spectrum emissions passively, i.e., they do not emit their own signal. The SigInt is
covered by the National Security Agency (NSA). The difference between SigInt and EW
support is that the EW support is tactical, i.e., only limited to the needs for a certain
situation at a certain timepoint, but EW support and signals intelligence missions use the
9 Morschhäuser 2014, p.1-2
Page 5
Electronic Warfare_28Oct2021 5 apl. Prof. Dr. Dr. K. Saalbach
same resources10. Signals intelligence above the tactical level is under the operational
control of the NSA.
The Spectrum Operations include the
• signature management where weapons systems reduce their electromagnetic
signature to reduce the probability of detection, interception and destruction;
• Navigation Warfare (NAVWAR) as “deliberate offensive and defensive actions
to assure friendly use and prevent adversary use of positioning, navigation, and
timing information through coordinated employment of space, cyberspace, and
electronic warfare capabilities. NAVWAR is further enabled by supporting
activities such as Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) and
electromagnetic spectrum (EMS) management”11.
• Also, Command and Control (C2) systems are supported.
1.2 History of Electronic Warfare
Jamming of communication signals was then already done to a limited extent in 1904 in
the Russia-Japanese war and in World War 1. In World War 2, radar systems and radar
jamming emerged as new phenomenon. Further advances in tactics and technology
occurred during the Vietnam War in air tactics12.
During Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan and Operation Iraqi Freedom in Iraq,
the U.S. Army used new electronic attack (EA) capabilities to jam radio-activated triggers
and defend friendly forces against radio-controlled improvised explosive devices 13.
After the end of Cold War, the dominance of the US enabled the uninterrupted use of the
Global Positioning System (GPS) with unhindered communications. As a result, concepts
such as radio discipline, electromagnetic signature control, and frequency hopping became
less important14. Also, the cyber warfare emerged and drove attention away from
traditional EW. But meanwhile, Russia and China have significantly upgraded their EW
capabilities. In Eastern Ukraine, Russian-backed forces used sophisticated jamming and
interception tactics to undermine communications and surveillance drones15. The
development of directed energy weapons and the expansion of EW capacities to outer space
by satellites are further reasons for the rapid re-emergence of electronic warfare.
1.3. Cyber Electromagnetic Attacks (CEMA)
1.3.1 Definition and Concept
In 2014, the United States integrated cyber warfare and electronic warfare into the new
concept of cyber electromagnetic activities (CEMA). The US Army Field Manual 3-38
defines: “Cyber electromagnetic activities are activities leveraged to seize, retain, and
10 Field Manual 3-36, Section 1-17 11 DoD cited by Hoehn/Sayler/Gallagher 2021 12 von Spreckelsen 2018, p.42 13 APT 3-12.3 2019, Section 1-3 14 von Spreckelsen 2018, p.42 15 von Spreckelsen 2018, p.42
Page 6
Electronic Warfare_28Oct2021 6 apl. Prof. Dr. Dr. K. Saalbach
exploit an advantage over adversaries and enemies in both cyberspace and the
electromagnetic spectrum, while simultaneously denying and degrading adversary and
enemy use of the same and protecting the mission command system”16.
While cyber capabilities area used to achieve objectives in and through cyberspace,
electromagnetic and directed energy are used to control the electromagnetic spectrum or to
attack the enemy17. Obviously, electromagnetism plays an important role for the
cyberspace as well. There is the power supply by electric energy, while bits (0 and 1) are
certain magnetic conditions on storage media. The electronic warfare targets the
electromagnetism, i.e., the physical component of the cyberspace.
The information environment is defined as “the aggregate of individuals, organizations,
and systems that collect, process, disseminate, or act on Information” 18 with three
dimensions, physical, informational and cognitive. While the electromagnetic component
resides within the physical dimension, the three layers of cyberspace (physical, logical, and
cyber persona) reside within the physical and informational dimensions of the information
environment19.
Note that the electromagnetic spectrum management appears in the definition of electronic
warfare and then in a similar way in the CEMA concept as Spectrum Management
Operations (SMO). The difference is that within CEMA this activity is part of a broader
concept. Spectrum Management Operations (SMO) include “the spectrum management,
frequency assignment, host-nation coordination, and policy that enable the planning,
management, and execution of operations within the electromagnetic operational
environment during all phases of military operations”20.
In summary, CEMA are implemented via the integration and synchronization of
cyberspace operations, electronic warfare (EW), and spectrum management operations
(SMO) 21.
On a higher level, United States perform inform and influence activities (IIA) “to affect
the information environment in order to synchronize themes, messages, and actions with
operations to inform United States and global audiences, influence foreign audiences, and
affect adversary and enemy decision-making”22. Within this broad approach, cyber
electromagnetic activities are considered information-related and must be integrated and
synchronized with other information-related capabilities.
16 Field Manual 3-38, Section 1-1 17 Field Manual 3-36, Table E-1 18 Field Manual 3-38, Section 1-18 19 Field Manual 3-38, Section 1-18 20 Field Manual 3-38, Section 1-7 21 Field Manual 3-38, Introduction 22 Field Manual 3-38, Section 1-23
Page 7
Electronic Warfare_28Oct2021 7 apl. Prof. Dr. Dr. K. Saalbach
Table 3 Cyber electromagnetic attacks (CEMA) Division Purpose Activities
Electronic
Warfare
Electronic attack The use of electromagnetic energy, directed energy, or
antiradiation weapons
Electronic protection Actions taken to protect personnel, facilities, and
equipment
Electronic support Actions to search for, intercept, identify, and locate or
localize sources of intentional and unintentional radiated
electromagnetic energy.
Cyberspace
Operations
Cyber situational awareness The knowledge of relevant information regarding
activities in and through cyberspace and the
electromagnetic spectrum
Network operations Activities conducted to operate and defend the Global
Information Grid*
Cyber warfare Warfare that extends cyber power beyond the defensive
boundaries of the Global information Grid to deny,
degrade, disrupt, destroy, and exploit enemies.
Spectrum
Management
Operations
(SMO)
To coordinate and to de-
conflict frequencies to enable
systems to perform their
functions without causing or
suffering unacceptable
electromagnetic interference23
spectrum management, frequency assignment, host-
nation coordination, and policy for spectrum dependent
devices, including air defense radars, navigation, sensors,
munitions using the electromagnetic spectrum, manned
and unmanned systems of all types (ground and air,
radar, sensor).
Source: US Army Field Manual FM 36-3, Appendix E and FM 38-3, Section 5
*Note: Global Information Grid is the term for the US military computer network, but for other countries
this could be generalized to “military computer network”
Moving on, the focus of this working paper will remain on the EW part, for a full
presentation of cyber warfare please refer to the open access working paper 2019
Cyberwar-methods-and-practice
https://repositorium.ub.uni-osnabrueck.de/handle/urn:nbn:de:gbv:700-201907091696
and its 2020 update under
https://repositorium.ub.uni-osnabrueck.de/handle/urn:nbn:de:gbv:700-202009303605.
1.3.2 Practical Implications
In Sep 2021, the U.S. Army’s first integrated Electronic Warfare, Cyber and Signals
Intelligence platform which can be used on Stryker vehicles reached the advanced testing
stage. The system is named Terrestrial Layer System-Brigade Combat Team (TLS-BCT)
and is produced by Lockheed Martin. The idea behind is that soldiers can e.g., detect and
visualize any electronic warfare threat on the battlefield24.
23 Field Manual 3-38, Section 5 24 C4ISRnet.com 27 Sep 2021
Page 8
Electronic Warfare_28Oct2021 8 apl. Prof. Dr. Dr. K. Saalbach
1.4 EW Programs and Capabilities
Electronic Warfare (EW) capabilities can be divided terrestrial and airborne (which now
also includes the space with satellites, refer to Section 3). Terrestrial EW sensors and
jammers on land or on ships are limited by the available power and the local situation, they
are focused on intercepting and jamming radios and artillery radars. Airborne EW is used
to intercept, decrypt, and disrupt communications, radars, and other command and control
(C2) systems over a large area.
1.4.1 United States
All parts of the US military are undergoing modernization efforts to achieve
Electromagnetic Spectrum Superiority.
Terrestrial electronic warfare programs can be grouped as follows:25
• Counter-improvised explosive device (C-IED) systems jam IED communications
radio frequencies to prevent them from detonating. These frequencies include cell
phones, small two-way radios, and other basic radio communications.
• Counter-unmanned aerial systems (C-UAS), or simply counter-drone systems
can detect and/or attack drones. In 2019, 235 counter-UAS products were counted.
The Army has recently tested a 5-kilowatt (kW) laser, which is placed on a Stryker-
armored vehicle and can destroy small drones, but a problem is the need for a power
supply which is still (too) large for operational practice.
• Communications and radar jammers: The Army’s primary communications
jammer is the EW tactical vehicle (EWTV), a vehicle to sense and to jam enemy
communications. Further advanced systems are in development26.
Electronic warfare aircrafts detect and jam enemy radars and air defense command-and-
control equipment; the US has three primary manned EW electronic attack aircraft types.
The new F-35 Joint Strike Fighter has an electronic warfare system called AN/ASQ-239
for signal collection, radar warning, geolocation of electronic emitters, tracking of multiple
aircrafts simultaneously and has a highly focused radio antenna for countermeasures and
attacks27. A new jamming system for airplanes, the Next Generation Jammer (NGJ) is
currently developed28.
1.4.2 Russia and China
China and Russia have developed anti-access/area denial (A2/AD) systems to deny access
to their communication and command and control. After the short war with Georgia in
2008, the experience was used for the New Look Program which resulted both in technical
and organizational modernization29. The signals intelligence forces and EW forces are
closely related. The idea is to block the enemies espionage (C4ISR) activities and to use
25 Hoehn 2019a 26 Hoehn 2019a 27 Hoehn 2019b 28 Hoehn 2019b 29 Hoehn 2019a
Page 9
Electronic Warfare_28Oct2021 9 apl. Prof. Dr. Dr. K. Saalbach
EW for military operations. Russia reportedly has employed EW as part of its military
operations in Ukraine and Syria30.
China developed the concept of “informationized warfare,” and organizes EW functions
in a new command called the Strategic Support Force, which includes cyber,
psychological, information, and space forces. The investments include ground-based and
airborne sensors and jammers as well as space-based intelligence devices31.
The close relation between cyber activities, information space and electronic warfare was
also reflected by the reform of the German Federal Army (Bundeswehr), where since 01
April 2017 all activities in the cyber and information space32 are led by the Cyber and
Information Space Command (Cyberinformationsraumkommando CIR) with the units
• German Army Secret Service for Exterior Affairs (Kommando Strategische
Aufklärung KSA) which is responsible for cyber network operations (CNO),
analysis (Auswertung) and 4 battalions for electronic warfare (elektronische
Kampfführung EloKA) 33
• the IT Command (Kommando IT Bundeswehr KdoItBW) which covers software and
security aspects and
• the military satellite unit (with the whole Geoinformation GeoBw).
2. Directed Energy Weapons
2.1 Introduction
Directed Energy weapons include high-energy lasers (HEL), high-powered microwave
(HPM) and particle beam weapons34. Particle beams are already used in medicine for
radiotherapeutic treatment of severe cancer since decades, but no weapons are ready for
action yet.
2.2 High-Energy Lasers
2.2.1 Overview
Lasers have advantages and disadvantages35:
• As long as the laser has power, the laser can fire endlessly (‘deep magazine’)
resulting in a low cost per shot ratio.
• The laser beam, if located in the infrared or ultraviolet spectrum, is invisible.
• It can be delivered with light speed and with high precision and potentially
infinite range36.
30 Hoehn 2019a 31 Hoehn 2019a 32 Leithäuser 2015, p.4 33 Der Reibert 2020, p.B-131 34 Sayler 2021 35 Hoehn 2021c, Sayler et al 2021 36 Magnuson 2021, Eckel 2019
Page 10
Electronic Warfare_28Oct2021 10 apl. Prof. Dr. Dr. K. Saalbach
• Lasers however need to meet size, weight, and power (SWaP) and cooling
requirements.
• Atmospheric conditions (e.g., rain, fog, obscurants) may lead to beam diffraction,
spread, and absorption or scattering37. Technical adaptations may reduce this
problem, but it cannot be completely avoided.
• A laser that continues firing in the same exact direction can heat up the air it is
passing through, which in turn can defocus the laser beam, an effect called
thermal blooming38.
• Lasers can be less effective against targets that incorporate shielding, ablative
material, or highly reflective surfaces, or that tumble or rotate rapidly39.
• Some systems are small enough to fit on military vehicles, but many require
larger and/or fixed platforms.
• There concerns how long such as system could survive in combat and limitations
by saturation attacks (e.g., drone swarms which make it impossible to target
them all), but these problems exist for conventional weapons as well.
High-energy lasers (HEL) were taken into consideration since the 1960ies, but the overall
development takes much more time than initially expected40.
Technically, there are different types of laser weapons41: Solid-State Lasers (SSLs) use a
solid lasing medium, such as a rod made up of glass or crystal, or a gem, the Neodymium
Yttrium-aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG) is widely used. A chemical laser uses chemical
reaction to create population inversion in the lasing medium, while gas lasers use a pure
gas or gas mixture to produce a beam.
Fiber Lasers are SSLs powered by electricity, and use optical fibers as the gain media. In
1973, TRW Inc. produced the world’s first high-energy chemical laser, the Baseline
Demonstration Laser, for the US Department of Defense42.
The Protocol on Blinding Laser Weapons, Protocol IV of the 1980 Convention on Certain
Conventional Weapons of the United Nations came into force on 30 July 1998 and prohibits
to employ laser weapons specifically designed, as their sole combat function or as one of
their combat functions, to cause permanent blindness43.
All currently existing laser weapons are still more or less advanced demonstrators
(prototypes), but at least the lasers of the US and Chinese navy ships could already be used
for military practice. The focus of directed energy weapons on Navy ships is not surprising
as the size, weight and energy needs of lasers make other applications difficult, a
perspective that is shared by China as well44.
37 Sayler 2021 38 Sayler et al. 2021 39 Sayler et al. 2021 40 Pugo/Galuga 2017 41 Olson 2012 42 Olson 2012 43 Feickert 2018 44 Peck 2021
Page 11
Electronic Warfare_28Oct2021 11 apl. Prof. Dr. Dr. K. Saalbach
A key problem of the laser weapon development is the requirement of mobility (on ships,
armed vehicles, airborne). But is this restriction really necessary? A huge ground-based
laser or a coordinated group of lasers on a mountain plateau (clean atmosphere) would be
able to cover a large air and outer space sector and would be able to target satellites,
missiles and hypersonic weapons.
2.2.2 United States
The U.S. military has a long history in developing directed energy (DE) Weapons, but now
first practical results are seen.
HELs might be used in short-range air defense (SHORAD), counter-unmanned aircraft
systems (C-UAS), counter-rocket, artillery, and mortar (C-RAM) missions or to “dazzle”
(i.e., temporarily disable) or damage satellites and sensors45.
While only a few kilowatts (kW) power are needed to affect small drones, it is assumed
that laser with 100 kW could affect larger unmanned aircraft systems, small boats, rockets,
artillery, and mortars. The US DoD plans to kilowatts increase power levels from currently
around 150 kilowatts to around 300 kW in 2022, 500 kW in 2024, and 1 megawatt (MW)
by FY2030. A megawatt laser could be able to destroy missiles and hypersonic weapons46.
In August 2014, the US Navy has deployed their first Laser Weapon System (LaWs) on the
USS Ponce to test functionality of laser weapons under maritime conditions, the first ever
US Department of Defense laser weapon to be deployed and approved for operational use47.
Furthermore, the 150 kW Solid State Laser Technology Maturation SSL-TM is installed on
the USS Portland (LPD-27) 48.
By the end of 2021, the US Navy will set up the high-energy laser weapon Surface Navy
Laser Weapon System Increment 1 or High Energy Laser with Optical Dazzler and
Surveillance (HELIOS) with above 60 kW kinetic energy (with growth potential to 150
kW) which is able to downing drones and boats on an Arleigh Burke Flight IIA DDG-51
destroyer49. It also has dazzling functions and an Intelligence, Surveillance, and
Reconnaissance (ISR) sensor system if not used for attacks50. The laser is scalable by
combining multiple laser fibers.
The destroyer class IIA was chosen, because older classes do not provide sufficient power
supply for the laser while the newer class III already has too much electronic devices to
have enough power for an additional laser weapon51.
45 Hoehn 2021c, Sayler et al. 2021 46 Sayler 2021 47 Feickert 2018 48 O’Rourke 2021 49 O’Rourke 2021 50 Mizokami 2019, Magnuson 2021 51 Dean 2019
Page 12
Electronic Warfare_28Oct2021 12 apl. Prof. Dr. Dr. K. Saalbach
Furthermore, the ODIN (Optical Dazzling INterdictor) laser system will be applied on
seven destroyers to dazzle sensor of adversaries’ drones52. The HELCAP (High Energy
Laser Counter Anti-ship cruise missile Program) is still in an early stage53.
An airborne laser project called Self-protect High Energy Laser Demonstrator (SHIeLD)
is in progress. Various laser systems for placement on army vehicles are tested at the
moment (in early stages), such as the 50 KW Multi-Mission High Energy Laser (MMHEL)
for Stryker combat vehicles and a High Energy Laser Tactical Vehicle Demonstrator (HEL
TVD) with 100 kW for installation on trucks54.
2.2.3 China
In 2018, China presented a Laser Weapon System on a People’s Liberation Army (PLA)
Navy Ship Type 055 destroyer which looks very similar to the US Navy laser weapon
system on the USS Ponce55. The US Navy assumes that this may have to do with the cyber
espionage activities of the sophisticated Advanced Persistent Threat (APT)
Temp.Periscope which systematically attacked universities, contractors and organizations
involved in maritime research since years56. Temp.Periscope is also active in other high-
tech areas such as satellites and hypersonic weapon research.
China has reportedly developed a 30-kilowatt road-mobile HEL, LW-30, designed to
engage unmanned aircraft systems and precision-guided weapons. China is also working
on an airborne laser system57. Japan assumes that China develops anti-satellite laser beam
weapons58. China is also working on a hand-held laser for crowd control which may be
able to affect skin and clothing59.
2.2.4 Further Actors
Other Asia-Pacific countries active in the area of directed energy and hypersonic weapons
are India, Japan, Australia and Pakistan60.
Russia has deployed the Peresvet ground-based HEL with several mobile intercontinental
ballistic missile units and it is assumed that this is able to dazzle satellites and provide point
defense against unmanned aircraft systems61.
Russia is reportedly developing a weapon that can disrupt Global Positioning System
(GPS) navigation signals and destroy radio communications equipment and satellites.
52 Dean 2019 53 Dean 2019 54 Feickert 2018 55 The Maritime Executive 2019 56 The Maritime Executive 2019 57 Peck 2021 58 Rajagopalan 2015 59 Yeo et al. 2021 60 Yeo et al. 2021 61 Hoehn 2021c
Page 13
Electronic Warfare_28Oct2021 13 apl. Prof. Dr. Dr. K. Saalbach
Russia plans to mount lasers with greater attack capabilities on their sixth-generation
aircraft, which are not likely to be operational until the late 2030s62.
In Germany, the drone defense research is going forward to the use of laser weapons. In
May 2015, a small quadrocopter drone could be destroyed after application of 20 Kilowatt
over 3.4 seconds63. The German laser weapon program is a joint effort of German research
institutes and German industry in cooperation with the German Ministry of Defense. In the
last decade, the two German companies Rheinmetall and MBDA have been putting up
various technology demonstrators up to 50 kW and the two companies intend to construct,
integrate and test a laser demonstrator for the German Navy’s corvette K13064. However,
in 2021 the German government could not predict when laser weapons will be ready for
military practice65.
2.2.5 Real-World Laser Attacks
In May 2018, the United States reported that in Djibouti, where both the United States and
China are present with military bases, China has repeatedly used lasers to interfere with
US aircraft landing66.
While it is meanwhile a common bad practice that laser pointers are misused by civil
persons to blind pilots (or goalkeepers in football stadiums) temporarily, at least three times
military-grade lasers were used in the above-described incidents and two pilots suffered
from minor eye injuries67. In the same year, it was reported that US military aircrafts were
attacked more than 20 times over the East Chinese Sea, also Australia in one case. On 17
Feb 2020, a US P8-A Poseidon surveillance aircraft was hit by a laser beam from a Chinese
Luyang III class destroyer 380 miles west of Guam68.
2.3 High-Powered Microwave (HPM) Weapons
Important aspects of HPM weapons are69:
• deep magazines (i.e., no need for a physical ammunition), low costs per shot, fast
engagement times, and can produce graduated effects
• HPM can generate waves at different frequencies and power levels to temporarily
or permanently disrupt selected electronic systems
• They can have broad effects and can be non-lethal.
• Theoretically, HPM weapons could potentially generate effects over wider areas
than HELs, e.g., as area defense against missile salvos and swarms of drones70.
62 Feickert 2018 63 Marsiske 2016 64 Eckel 2019, p.1-2 65 Bundesregierung 2021, point 16 and 17 66 Cronin/Neuhard 2020 67 Cronin/Neuhard 2020 68 Cronin/Neuhard 2020 69 Sayler et al. 2021 70 Sayler 2021
Page 14
Electronic Warfare_28Oct2021 14 apl. Prof. Dr. Dr. K. Saalbach
• HPM beams are more diffuse than lasers and the energy per unit area decreases
significantly over distance71.
• The waves may inadvertently damage other friendly systems as well.
• Microwaves can be stopped by solid walls as countermeasure.
It was reported that an HPM weapon might be responsible for the Havana Syndrome, the
term used for symptoms like headache, sickness and others experienced by U.S. Embassy
personnel in Havana (Cuba), but meanwhile also in other countries. However, this could
not be clarified so far and the investigation is still ongoing. 72
A variety of HPM systems have been provided to Army units in Iraq and Afghanistan to
counter Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) used to attack vehicle convoys and troops on
foot73. The Active Denial System (ADS) was a nonlethal counter personnel weapon that
projects a focused millimeter wave energy beam that induces a painful heating sensation
on an adversary’s skin with the intent of repelling individuals without injury. The system
was deployed to Afghanistan, but not used to avoid the impression that “radiation” would
be used74. In 2014, China reportedly introduced its WB-1 microwave active-denial system,
similar to the US Active Denial System.
3. Satellites
3.1 Introduction
A satellite is an object that has been intentionally placed into orbit, in 2019 several thousand
satellites are assumed to be in orbit, less than half of them approximately still operational.
Around 2,000 active satellites are in orbit controlled by more than 100 governments as well
as commercial entities from more than 50 countries75. However, tens of thousands of small
satellites are projected to launch in this decade for communications and Earth
observation76. Satellites can serve a lot of functions77, in particular
• Earth observation: land monitoring, marine environment monitoring, atmosphere
monitoring, climate change, emergency management and security
• Space observation including detection of near-earth objects such as asteroids
• Global satellite navigation systems for accurate and reliable positioning and
timing information for autonomous and connected cars, railways, aviation and
other sectors, in particular the Global Positioning System (GPS) from US, Galileo
from Europe and Glonass from Russia. High-precision navigation is reserved for
military purposes.
71 Sayler et al.2021 72 Sayler 2021 73 Feickert 2014 74 Feickert 2014 75 CRS 2019 76 Pekkanen 2019, p.93 77 EU 2019
Page 15
Electronic Warfare_28Oct2021 15 apl. Prof. Dr. Dr. K. Saalbach
• Communication Satellites for television, data transfer and telecommunication in
particular in regions where it is difficult to build infrastructure, because otherwise
earth and deep-sea cables may have much higher data flow rates.
• Espionage and Reconnaissance: The information from satellite pictures is also
known as Imaging Intelligence (IMINT). The largest satellite-based intelligence
organization is the United States National Reconnaissance Office (NRO). Another
satellite imaging organization is the National Geospatial Agency (NGA). Satellites
stepwise replaced spy planes which were initially used after World War 2. The
EU has a Satellite Center EU SatCen which supports the Intelligence Center
IntCen.
• Military satellites for detection of missile attacks or as ‘killer satellites’.
3.2 The Strategic Role of Satellites
Satellites are of growing strategic relevance for three reasons:
• The first aim is to achieve a better global coverage. Note only the number of
civil satellites (in particular the Starlink satellite network with thousands of new
satellites in the 2020ies), but also the number of military and espionage satellites
is rapidly growing.
• The second aim is to achieve a better imaging quality and faster and more
precise analysis. Here, Artificial Intelligence plays a key role, in the US military
the Project Maven.
• The third aim to give satellites a more active role in military operations by having
a closer relation between threat detection and response, in the US military the
Joint All-Domain Command and Control project and Project Prometheus78.
But there also civilian projects like Starlink from SpaceX which will increase the number
of satellites and would have significant impact on daily life, but also increase the
vulnerability of societies against satellite attacks which shows the importance of satellite
security79.
In a study for the RAND Corporation, Weinbaum et al. found commercially available EW
capabilities for eavesdropping, jamming, and hijacking of satellite communications80.
3.2.1 Global Coverage
The leading nation working with any kind of satellites are the United States. A recent count
estimated for the US 154 military satellites and 49 satellites of the satellite-based
intelligence organization National Reconnaissance Office (NRO). China had in the same
count 63 and Russia 71 (known) satellites, while other countries had less than ten each.
78 Strout 2021 79 Hlavica 2019 80 Weinbaum et al. 2017
Page 16
Electronic Warfare_28Oct2021 16 apl. Prof. Dr. Dr. K. Saalbach
The Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) satellites (‘spy satellites’) can
for examples detect and record hundreds of thousands of cell phone calls simultaneously
and produce highest-quality images of the earth81.
3.2.2 Imaging Quality and Analysis
The summary of the 2018 US Department of Defense DoD AI strategy states that “AI refers
to the ability of machines to perform tasks that normally require human intelligence—for
example, recognizing patterns, learning from experience, drawing conclusions, making
predictions, or taking action— whether digitally or as the smart software behind
autonomous physical systems.”82
AI is expected to be particularly useful in Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance
(ISR) due to the large data sets available for analysis as in the above-mentioned Project
Maven. But Imaging Intelligence (IMINT) is more than target identification or face
recognition, the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) and the Central Intelligence Agency
(CIA) for example supervise adversary buildings with restricted access to analyze
activities83.
The DoD Joint Artificial Intelligence Center (JAIC) coordinates since 2019 the efforts to
develop, mature, and transition artificial intelligence technologies into operational use.
Project Maven is active since 2017 for automating intelligence processing with computer
vision and machine learning algorithms for target identification from drone data. Other AI
programs include developing algorithms for multilingual speech recognition and
translation in noisy environments, geo-locating images without the associated metadata,
fusing 2-D images to create 3-D models, and analysis tools to infer a building’s function
based on pattern-of-life analysis84.
3.2.3 Threat Detection and Response
The DoD Joint Artificial Intelligence Center (JAIC) is working on projects that should
transfer information on threats detected by satellites into immediate response
recommendations for commanders.
The Joint All-Domain Command and Control project seeks to connect every sensor to
every shooter and in demonstrations, this cut down response time from detection to firing
from 20 minutes to 20 seconds.
A part of this is the Project Prometheus of the US Army, which automatically detects
threats in satellite imagery and Project Firestorm which is focused on creating response
recommendations to commanders85.
81 Abbany 2020 82 DOD 2018, p.5 83 Folmer/Margolin 2020 84 Hoadley/Sayler 2019, p.9-10, DoD 2018, OSTP 2020, NSCAI 2020 85 Strout 2021
Page 17
Electronic Warfare_28Oct2021 17 apl. Prof. Dr. Dr. K. Saalbach
3.3 Attacks on Satellites
3.3.1 Overview
The threats to satellites can be categorized into:
• Space weather
• Anti-satellite (ASAT) missiles86
• Co-orbital systems87
• Space debris
• Cyber-attacks (see Section 3.3.2)
• Electronic warfare: jamming (including Navigation Warfare), laser beams for
sensor dazzling or destruction (see Section 3.3.3)
Space weather caused by solar variability is a potential threat to space systems, human
space flight and ground- and space-based infrastructures upon which societies increasingly
depend. Solar winds have a similar effect like an electromagnetic pulse and can damage
sensitive electronic elements.
Established weapons are anti-satellite (ASAT) missiles which however cause a lot of
space trash which brings all other space objects into danger88. For testing purposes,
satellites in low earth orbit have been destroyed by ballistic missiles launched from earth
by Russia, the United States, China and India. The testing of anti-satellite weapons by
China in 2007 and recently by India in 2019 caused additional debris to the space
environment89.
Co-orbital systems are satellites placed on similar orbits and can intercept or interfere with
other satellites through close orbital rendezvous operations90. In 2017, the Russian Louch-
Olympus spy satellite came very close to the French-Italian Athena-Fidus military satellite
and has meanwhile ‘visited’ eight satellites91. In January 2020, it was reported that the
Russian satellite Cosmos 2542 came close to the US satellite USA 245. The orbit of USA
245 was then changed, but Cosmos 2542 was able to follow. Later on, it released a sub-
satellite, Cosmos 2543, to continue the observation of USA 24592.
Space debris: The space activities in the past 60 years have created an estimated 23,000
pieces of uncontrolled debris that can disable or destroy a satellite93. However, space debris
can also be used to cover virtual satellites. Virtual satellites consist of small parts in
slightly different orbits which wireless cooperate and act like a regular satellite. Virtual
satellites are an attractive approach for spy satellites, but also for military sleeper
satellites94.
86 Finkbeiner 2021 87 Rajagopalan 2019 88 Finkbeiner 2021 89 CRS 2019 90 Rajagopalan 2019 91 DW 2019 92 Finkbeiner 2021 93 CRS 2019 94 Abbany 2020
Page 18
Electronic Warfare_28Oct2021 18 apl. Prof. Dr. Dr. K. Saalbach
3.3.2 Satellite Hacking
3.3.2.1 Direct Cyber Attacks
Another weapon is satellite hacking which can be done as direct attack on satellites or as
attack on the ground station and or providers. Little is published, but one can say that direct
takeover of satellites in space is cumbersome and has little effect, while hacking of space
control centers on earth has led to a substantial increase of satellite hacking activities.
Satellite hacks of US satellites were already reported since a decade and China was
suspected by the US-China Economic and Security Review Commission since a longer time
already95. In 2011, a report of this Commission stated that two US satellites had been
compromised in 2007 and 2008 through a ground station in Norway and in 2014, the US
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration confirmed that one of its satellites had
been hacked96.
The Waterbug group (aka Turla/Snake/Ouroburos/Venomous Bear/Krypton/Group88) is
the name for the actors who use the malware Wipbot/Tavdig/Epic Turla,
Uroburos/Turla/Snake/Carbon and agent.btz/Minit. In one source code the term
UrObUr()s was used, alternative writings to Uroburos are Ouroburos and Uroboros.
Western intelligence attributes this APT to the Russian civil intelligence FSB. The group
owns a malware family that could be backdated to 2005. The group is utilizing satellite-
based internet links for action97.
Simply spoken, a sender sends data to a satellite as uplink, the satellite then sends data back
to one or more receivers as downlink. The Waterbug/Turla group hijacks DVB-S (digital
video broadcasting satellite) links with their own satellite dish by inserting their own data
packages into the downlink signal to control their botnet. This method allows to act highly
anonymously as the signal seems to come from a legitimate sender98.
3.3.2.2 Cyber Attacks on Ground Stations/Control Centers
While in the past people thought that future wars on earth would be decided in space, it
seems now that future wars in space may still be decided on earth: the hacking of space
control centers could be used for sabotage, i.e., by sending false commands to move
satellites resulting in damage, collision or loss. This does not only affect satellites, but is
also applicable for all kinds of space robotics in general. Cyber-attacks included:
• The German Space Center Deutsches Luft- und Raumfahrtzentrum DLR was
hacked in April 2014, presumably for technology espionage99.
• In 2015, the French Television TV5Monde was temporarily taken offline by the
Russian cyber group APT28 (Fancy Bears)100. The server for the satellite signals
95 Menn 2018 96 Rajagopalan 2019 97 Weedon 2015, p.72-73 98 Paganini 2015 99 Die Zeit online 2014 100 FAZ online 2015, p.1
Page 19
Electronic Warfare_28Oct2021 19 apl. Prof. Dr. Dr. K. Saalbach
was attacked and as the maintenance of this server was done by another vendor, a
longer signal downtime was achieved101.
• According to reports from June 2019, the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory JPL
was accessed by connecting a Rapsberry Pi device, which then allowed to steal data
from Mars missions102. In 2018, also the JPL Deep Space Network as system of
satellite dishes for communication with Nasa spacecrafts was infiltrated. In
December 2018, two members of the Chinese cyber group APT10 were indicted for
intrusion of the JPL, but it was not stated whether this specific attack was meant.
• In addition to ground stations, suppliers and stakeholders are also a security risk103.
In June 2018, Symantec reported successful breaches of satellite and defense
companies by a new espionage hacking group (Advanced Persistent Threat APT)
called Thrip which has been active since 2013. This APT may have overlaps with
the APT40 (Temp.Periscope/Temp.Jumper/Bronze Mohawk/Leviathan). APT40 is
active since 2013 and attacks preferably industries involved into military ship
construction.
3.3.3 Electronic Warfare in Outer Space
It is nowadays no problem to produce high-precision long-range laser beams, but it is
currently still difficult to produce sufficient kinetic energy to impact larger objects. In
principle, laser beams can dazzle sensors, but also damage and destroy satellites.
Japan assumes that China develops anti-satellite laser beam weapons104. China possibly
already has a limited capability to employ laser systems against satellite sensors and a
ground-based laser weapon that can counter low-orbit space-based sensors105.
France is also intensifying research on laser weapons to defend their satellites106.
Due to the low received signal strength of satellite transmissions, satellites are also
vulnerable by jamming by land-based transmitters, e.g., to disturb GPS navigation
satellites. To prevent this, the US Department of Defense has developed the concept of
Navigation Warfare (NAVWAR) as deliberate offensive and defensive actions which is
further enabled by supporting activities such as Intelligence, Surveillance, and
Reconnaissance (ISR) and electromagnetic spectrum (EMS) management107.
In a study for the RAND Corporation, Weinbaum et al. found EW/SigInt capabilities
available outside government usage (either legal or illegal), including applications for
eavesdropping, jamming, and hijacking of satellite communications.108 As an example,
jamming of satellite-signals was frequently reported in the Middle East region. As a
consequence, the Satellite provider Eutelsat integrated anti-jamming techniques in 2013
for its satellites109.
101 Wehner 2016, p.6 102 Cimpanu 2019 103 Hlavica 2019 104 Rajagopalan 2015 105 Hoehn 2021c 106 DW 2019 107 Hoehn/Sayler/Gallagher 2021 108 Weinbaum et al. 2017 109 Weinbaum et al. 2017
Page 20
Electronic Warfare_28Oct2021 20 apl. Prof. Dr. Dr. K. Saalbach
The US military has established satellite-based electronic warfare capabilities, including
the Space Based Infrared System (SBIRS) constellation program, electronic intelligence by
satellite (ELISA) electronic intelligence satellites; and space-based radar systems110.
3.4 Space Resilience
Based on the increasing threats, there is need for a concept of space resilience as the
technical backbone of space defense. There is no official NATO definition, but resilience
(or resiliency) is commonly understood as robustness and survivability111.
The space defense needs to cover the space segment with spacecrafts, the ground
segment with control center, ground station and remote centers as well as the IT facilities
and the launch facility, and finally the user segment with customer terminals (such as
satellite TVs)112.
In general, space resilience can be achieved by113
• Disaggregation - the allocation of different missions, functions or sensors across
separate subsystems,
• Distribution - separate subsystems perform the same mission and collectively
behave as a single system, e.g., the Global Positioning System (GPS)
• Proliferation – using multiple units of the same system to provide technical
redundancy
• Protection – e.g., by physical or electromagnetic hardening.
• Responsive launch of ISR (‘spy’) satellites - highly developed ISR satellites are
a key element and in case of conflict a primary attack target. To restore or
reconstitute a degraded capability, small modular, preproduced and rapidly ready-
to-launch ISR satellites will become more and more important as ‘patches’ for ISR
gaps114.
4. Concluding Remarks During Cold War, electronic warfare (EW) was an important military activity; a typical
attack method was jamming (disturbance) of communication frequencies and radar signals.
After cold war, the focus shifted to network-centric and cyber warfare and drove attention
away from traditional EW. But meanwhile, leading powers like United States, Russia and
China have significantly upgraded their electronic warfare capabilities. The development
of directed energy weapons and the expansion of electronic warfare capacities to outer
space by satellites are further reasons for the rapid re-emergence of electronic warfare.
In the United States, electronic warfare and cyber warfare are now integrated in the concept
of cyber electromagnetic attacks (CEMA).
The US and Chinese Navy have advanced prototypes of military laser weapons and first
reports of real-world attacks exist. The focus of directed energy weapons on Navy ships is
not surprising as the size, weight and energy needs of lasers make other applications
110 Hoehn 2021a and 2021b 111 Console 2018 112 Console 2018 113 Console 2018 114 Vasen 2018
Page 21
Electronic Warfare_28Oct2021 21 apl. Prof. Dr. Dr. K. Saalbach
difficult. A key obstacle of the laser weapon development is the requirement of mobility,
but is this restriction really necessary?
High-Powered Microwave weapons are already used in practice to block detonations of
improvised explosive devices.
Satellites are of growing strategic relevance to achieve a better global coverage, better
imaging quality and faster and more precise analysis and to have a closer relation between
threat detection and response. Also, civilian satellite programs expand rapidly. However,
satellites and their communication lines are vulnerable for threats like space weather, anti-
satellite missiles, co-orbital systems, space debris, but in particular for cyber
electromagnetic attacks. The paper has shown that cyber and electronic attacks on satellites
are no theory anymore, but already practice. In response, the concept of space resilience
was developed as a technical backbone of space defense.
In summary, Electronic Warfare will be an important topic for future warfare concepts.
Page 22
Electronic Warfare_28Oct2021 22 apl. Prof. Dr. Dr. K. Saalbach
5. Literature Abbany, Z. (2020): Modern spy satellites in an age of space wars. Deutsche Welle online
25 Aug 2020 Article a-54691887
ATP 3-12.3 (2019): Army Techniques Publication No. 3-12.3. Headquarters Department
of the Army. Washington, DC, 16 July 2019. Approved for public release; distribution is
unlimited.
Bundesregierung (2021): Deutscher Bundestag Drucksache 19/27621 19. Wahlperiode
17.03.2021
Cimpanu, C. (2019): NASA hacked because of unauthorized Rapsberry Pi connected to
its network. ZDNet 21 June 2019
Console, A. (2018): Space Resilience – Why and How? The Importance of Space
Resilience and the Current Approach. Joint Air Power Competence Centre (JAPCC)
Journal Edition 27/2018, p.10-16
Cronin, P.M., Neuhard, R.D. (2020): Countering China’s Laser offensive. The Diplomat
02 April 2020
CRS (2019): “Space Force” and Related DOD Proposals: Issues for Congress.
Congressional Research Service CRS Paper 08 April 2019
Dean, S.E. (2019): US Navy führt Laserwaffen ein. MarineForum 11-2019, p.34-35
Der Reibert (2020): Das Handbuch für die Soldaten und Soldatinnen der Bundeswehr
Mittler Verlag.
Die Zeit online (2014): Cyberangriff: Hacker spionierten Luft- und Raumfahrtzentrum
aus. 13 Apr 2014
DoD (2018): U.S. Department of Defense, Summary of the 2018 Department of Defense
Artificial Intelligence Strategy: Harnessing AI to Advance Our Security and Prosperity
DW (2019): France details military command of space plans to protect satellites. Article
a-49747318
Eckel, H.A. (2019): Laser weapon activities in Germany - technology and operational
safety aspects. Report of the German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Technical
Physics, Stuttgart, 2 pages
EU (2019): EU Space Policy Fact Sheet of the European Commission.
FAZ online (2015): Cyber-Angriff auf TV5 Monde. Ermittler verfolgen Spur nach
Russland. FAZ online 09 Jun 2015
Feickert, A. (2018): U.S. Army Weapons-Related Directed Energy (DE) Programs:
Background and Potential Issues for Congress. Updated February 12, 2018 R45098
Finkbeiner, A. (2021): Kampf im Orbit. Spektrum der Wissenschaft 17 Mar 2021
Page 23
Electronic Warfare_28Oct2021 23 apl. Prof. Dr. Dr. K. Saalbach
FM (Field Manual) 3-36 (2012): Electronic Warfare. Headquarters Department of the
Army. Washington, DC, 9 November 2012. Approved for public release; distribution is
unlimited.
FM (Field Manual) 3-38 (2014): Cyber Electromagnetic Activities. Headquarters
Department of the Army. Washington, DC, 12 February 2014. Approved for public
release; distribution is unlimited.
Folmer, K., Margolin, J. (2020): Satellite data suggest Coronavirus may have hit China
earlier: Researchers. ABC News online, 08 June 2020
Hlavica, L.K. (2021): Hacker-Attacks Against Satellites. An Evaluation of Space Law in
Regard to the Nature of Hacker-Attacks. Master thesis at the Vrije Universiteit
Amsterdam, August 2021
Hoadley D.S., Sayler, K.M. (2019): Artificial Intelligence and National Security
Congressional Research Service R45178 Version 6 Updated November 21, 2019
Hoehn, J. (2019a): Ground Electronic Warfare: Background and Issues for Congress.
September 17, 2019. Congressional Research Service CRS, Document R54919
Hoehn, J. (2019b): U.S. Airborne Electronic Attack Programs: Background and Issues for
Congress. May 14, 2019. Congressional Research Service CRS, Document R44572
Hoehn, J. (2021a): Defense Primer: Military Use of the Electromagnetic Spectrum.
Updated September 27, 2021. Congressional Research Service CRS, Document IF 11155,
Version 12
Hoehn, J. (2021b): Defense Primer: Electronic Warfare. Updated September 29, 2021.
Congressional Research Service CRS, Document IF 11118
Hoehn, J. (2021c): Defense Primer: Directed-Energy Weapons. Updated September 29,
2021. Congressional Research Service CRS, Document IF 11882
Hoehn, J.R., Sayler, K.M., Gallagher, J. (2021): Overview of Department of Defense Use
of the Electromagnetic Spectrum. Updated August 10 ,2021 R46564
Leithäuser, J. (2015): Aufrüstung für den Krieg der Zukunft. Frankfurter Allgemeine
Zeitung No.217/2015, p.4
Magnuson, S. (2021): Navy to Fully Integrate Laser into Aegis Combat System
(updated). Navy News 15 Feb 2021 NationalDefensemagazine.org
Marsiske, HA (2016): Bei Strahlenwaffen liegt Deutschland vorn. Article 3117433
Heise.de 25 Feb 2016, 2 pages
Menn, J. (2018): China-based campaign breached satellite, defense companies:
Symantec. Reuters online 19 June 2018
Mizokami, K. (2019): The Navy plans to put HELIOS Laser Weapon on Destroyer in 2021.
Morschhäuser, T. (2014): Heftiger Sonnensturm verfehlt Erde nur knapp. Frankfurter
Rundschau online version 25 July 2014, p.1-2
NSCAI (2020): National Security Commission on Artificial Intelligence First Quarter
Recommendations March 2020, 131 pages
Page 24
Electronic Warfare_28Oct2021 24 apl. Prof. Dr. Dr. K. Saalbach
NSTC (2020): Artificial Intelligence and Cybersecurity: Opportunities and Challenges
Technical Workshop Summary Report - A report by the Networking & Information
Technology Research and Development Subcommittee and the Machine Learning &
Artificial Intelligence Subcommittee of the National Science & Technology Council
March 2020
Olson, M. (2012): History of Laser Weapon Research. Naval Surface Warfare Center,
Dahlgren Division, Corporate Communication, C6,6149 Welsh Road, Suite 239,
Dahlgren, VA ,22448-5130 ADA557756 Approved for public release; distribution
unlimited
O'Rourke, R. (2021): Navy Lasers, Railgun, and Gun-Launched Guided Projectile:
Background and Potential Issues for Congress. Updated October 20, 2021 R44175
OSTP (2020): American Artificial Intelligence Initiative: Year One Annual Report.
Prepared by The White House Office of Science and Technology Policy February 2020
Paganini, P. (2015): Turla APT Group Abusing Satellite Internet Links. September 10,
2015 https://securityaffairs.co/wordpress/40008/cyber-crime/turla-apt-abusing-
satellite.html
Peck, M. (2021): Airborne Laser Weapons: China’s Savvy New Tool. National Interest
21 July 2021
Pekkanen, S.M. (2019): Introduction to the Symposium on the New Space Race.
Governing the New Space Race. Ajil Unbound. doi:10.1017/aju.2019.16
Pudo, G., Galuga, J. (2017): High Energy Laser Weapon Systems: Evolution, Analysis
and Perspectives. Canadian Military Journal Vol. 17, No. 3, Summer 2017, p.53-58
Rajagopalan, R.P. (2015): Japans Shift in Space Policy Reflects New Asian Realities. 23
Feb 2015
Rajagopalan, R.P. (2019): Electronic and Cyber Warfare in Outer Space. UNIDIR May
2019 — Space Dossier 3, May 2019
Sayler, K.M. (2019): Defense Primer: Emerging Technologies. Updated December 19,
2019. Congressional Research Service CRS, Document IF 11105
Saylor K.M. et al. (2021): Department of Defense Directed Energy Weapons:
Background and Issues for Congress. Version 2Updated September 28, 2021, R46925
Strout, N. (2021): National Geospatial Agency (NGA) boss reveals strategy.
C4ISRnet.com 06 Oct 2021
The Maritime Executive (2019): Chinas tests laser weapon similar to US Navy prototype.
10 April 2019
Vasen, T. (2018): Responsive Launch of ISR Satellites - A Key Element of Space
Resilience? Joint Air Power Competence Centre (JAPCC) Journal Edition 27/2018, p.17-
21
von Spreckelsen, M. (2018): Electronic Warfare –The Forgotten Discipline. Why is the
Refocus on this Traditional Warfare Area Key for Modern Conflict? Joint Air Power
Competence Centre (JAPCC) Journal Edition 27/2018, p.41-45
Page 25
Electronic Warfare_28Oct2021 25 apl. Prof. Dr. Dr. K. Saalbach
Weedon, J. (2015): Beyond ‚Cyber War‘: Russia’s use of strategic espionage and
information operations in Ukraine. In: Geers, K. Cyberwar in Perspective Russian
aggression against Ukraine. NATO CCD COE Publications. Tallinn 2015, p.67-77
Wehner, M. (2016): Cyberkrieg. Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung from 07 Aug
2016, p.6
Weinbaum C., Berner, S. and McClintock, B. (2017): SIGINT for Anyone. The Growing
Availability of Signals Intelligence in the Public Domain. RAND Corporation
Publication PE273
Yeo, M., Pittaway, N., Ansari, U., Raghuvanshi, V. and Martin, C. (2021): Hypersonic
and directed-energy weapons: who has them and who’s winning race in Asia-Pacific?
The Defense News 15 Mar 2021