Advanced Placement Psychology

ADVANCED PLACEMENT PSYCHOLOGYChapter 17: Social Cognition

Social Psychology: The study of how people influence, and are influenced by, other people

Social Cognition: The mental processes associated with the ways in which people perceive & react to other individuals & groups

SELF-CONCEPT – (NOUN.) BELIEFS ABOUT WHO WE ARE & WHAT CHARACTERISTICS WE HAVE

Two main theories about how we form our self-concept:- Social Comparison Theory- Social Identity Theory

SELF-ESTEEM– (NOUN.) EVALUATIONS OF PERSONAL WORTH AS HUMAN BEINGS

SOCIAL COMPARISON THEORYWE KNOW WHO WE ARE BY COMPARING OURSELVES TO OTHERS Objective Measures: Things that can be measured

Ex: height, weight, age, etc. Non-objective Measures: Things that cannot be

measured Ex: attractiveness, athletic prowess, etc.

1. Social Comparison – Evaluation of the self by comparing to others

2. Reference Groups – Categories of people to which individuals see themselves as belonging & to which they compare themselves

3. Relative Deprivation – Occurs when a person’s relative standing is poor compared to a social reference group (no matter how much you’re getting, it’s less than you deserve)

SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORYWE KNOW WHO WE ARE THROUGH OUR ROLE IN SOCIETY (PART OF OUR SELF-CONCEPT) Social Identity: our beliefs about the groups to which

we belong “I am _____________.”

Physical Attributes Tall Smart Athletic

Social Attributes a student American a [sport] player

Cultural Differences Individualist Cultures – Tend to define themselves more

by physical attributes Collectivist Cultures – Tend to define themselves more by

social attributes

LINKAGES: SOCIAL COGNITION AND PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS1. Self-Schemas

a) Unified Self-Schemas – Same characteristics across situations

b) Differentiated Self-Schemas – Different characteristics across situations

Those with unified self-schemas are more prone to developing mental disorders

Parts of the Self-Schema1. Actual Self – What the person is like2. Ideal Self – What the person wants to be3. Ought Self – Who the person should be (morals)

Perceived discrepancies between the parts of the self may be the trigger for distress & then mental disorders

SOCIAL PERCEPTIONTHE ROLE OF SCHEMAS, FIRST IMPRESSIONS, ATTRIBUTION, & SELF-PROTECTIVE FUNCTIONS

Social Perception: the process through which people interpret information about others, form impressions of them, & draw conclusions about the reasons for their behavior

Social perception influences our thoughts, feelings, & actions!

ROLE OF SCHEMASGESTALT PRINCIPLES OF PERCEPTION: TOP-DOWN PROCESSING“FILLING IN THE BLANKS” ABOUT OTHER PEOPLE

Attention Schemas affect what we pay attention to & what we ignore Attributes consistent with our schemas get more attention

than those inconsistent with schemas Processing speed is quicker for characteristics that confirm

our schemas Memory

Schemas influence what we remember Attributes consistent with our schemas are easier to

remember than those inconsistent with schemas You will remember more about a random person if you knew

their profession ahead of time. Attribution

Schemas affect how we judge behavior of others A man and a woman doing the same thing get different

judgments of their behavior

FIRST IMPRESSIONSIS THE FIRST IMPRESSION THE MOST IMPORTANT?1. Forming Impressions

Influenced heavily by schemas & top-down processing Assumption: Others hold attitudes & values similar to your

own Negative information is more potent than positive

information Why?

There are many reasons for why someone might act positively Only one reason for why someone might act negatively

2. Lasting Impressions First impressions are very slow to change New information is filtered by the existing framework

through top-down processing3. Self-Fulfilling Prophecies

Schemas that lead people to behave in line with our expectations

EXPLAINING PERCEPTION: ATTRIBUTION Attribution – Process of explaining the causes of behavior

Attribution helps to understand the causes of behavior, predict future behavior, & decide how to control the situation itself

Scenario: A student asks Ms. de Bari for an extension on an assignment

a) Internal Attribution Behavior caused by characteristics of the person “Sigh… laziness…”

b) External Attribution Behavior caused by situational factors “Something must have happened that prevented him/her

from being able to work on the assignment.”

Similar to locus of control, but what’s the difference?

SOURCES OF ATTRIBUTIONSKELLEY’S THEORY FOR UNDERSTANDING ATTRIBUTIONS You ask Ms. de Bari for an extension on an assignment & she yells

at you before refusinga) Consensus

Degree to which other people’s behavior is similar to that of the actor Consensus = External Consensus = Internal None of your other teachers ever give you extensions. All your other teachers give you extensions when you ask.

b) Consistency Degree to which the behavior is the same across time Consistency = Internal Consistency = External Ms. de Bari has never given you an extensions before. Ms. de Bari use to always give you extensions except this time

c) Distinctiveness Degree to which similar stimuli elicit the same behavior from the actor Distinctiveness = External Distinctiveness = Internal Ms. de Bari gives everyone extensions but you. Ms. de Bari gives extensions to NO ONE!

ATTRIBUTION ERRORS & BIASES

Fundamental Attribution Error Tendency to over-

attribute the behavior of others to internal factors, such as personality traits

Ultimate Attribution Error Tendency to attribute

negative behaviors of out-groups to stable traits, & positive behaviors as exceptions

Actor-Observer Bias Tendency to over-

attribute the behavior of self to external factors

Self-Serving Bias

Success Internal attribution

Failure External attribution

Explanation: Self-esteem Claims success & disowns

failures

Fundamental Attributional Error

Other Attributional Biases

SELF-PROTECTIVE FUNCTIONS People are motivated to maintain their self-esteem Ignoring negative information is one way to do it

Ex: If you just failed your last exam (hopefully not!) you are more likely to blame me as the teacher instead of painfully admitting that you got the grade you deserved

Unrealistic Optimism [Unique Invulnerability] The tendency to believe that:

Positive events are more likely to happen to you than others Negative events are more likely to happen others than you

Tends to persist even in the face of contradictory evidence Can lead to unhealthy behaviors

Alcoholism Reckless Driving Drugs

ATTITUDESTHE TENDENCY TO THINK, FEEL, OR ACT POSITIVELY OR NEGATIVELY TOWARD OBJECTS IN OUR ENVIRONMENT

Three components of attitudes1. Cognitive – Beliefs held about something (Ex: you believe drunk

driving is bad) 2. Affective – Emotional feelings toward something (Ex: you feel

angry when people drive drunk) 3. Behavioral – The way one acts towards something (Ex: you

participate in demonstrations against drunk driving) People will consciously or subconsciously try to maintain

consistency between the components of their attitude Factors Affecting Consistency [of behavior]

Cognitive & affective consistency [What you believe and how you feel are consistent]

In line with subjective norm [View of how people around us want us to act]

There is a degree of perceived control [Belief one can actually perform said behavior]

Having had direct experience [Having first-hand experience]

FORMING ATTITUDESNO ONE IS BORN WITH ATTITUDES Genetics

Inherited predispositions of temperament Learning

Modeling & Social Learning – Children learn from parents not just what objects are, but also how they should feel about them

Classical / Operant Conditioning – Naturally associating positive or negative feelings with the object

Mere-Exposure Effect All else being equal, attitudes toward an object will

become more positive the more frequently people are exposed to it

i.e. Spend enough time with the girl you like and maybe she’ll start liking you too.

CHANGING ATTITUDES Two Routes to Attitude Change

a) Three factors affecting attitude changei. Characteristics of the person communicatingii. Content of the messageiii. Audience who receives it

b) Elaboration Likelihood Modeli. Peripheral Route

Persuasion Cues are important How confident or attractive the persuader is

ii. Central Route Content of message is important How logical the argument is

Which Route Will Be Taken? Personal Involvement – How personally important the

information is [C] Cognitive Busyness – Thinking about other things [P] Need for Cognition – Need for thoughtful mental activities [C] Need for Closure – Discomfort with uncertainty [P]

ADVERTISEMENTSBILLIONS SPENT TO CHANGE YOUR ATTITUDE

ATTITUDE CHANGEFESTINGER’S COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY

Participants did mundane peg-turning activity

Advertised the task to others as “exciting & fun” Group 1: $1 reward Group 2: $20 reward

Group 1 More favorable attitude

towards the task Group 2

Small increase in attitude towards the task

Procedure / Results Explanation

Group 1

Group 2

ATTITUDE CHANGEFESTINGER’S COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY People want their thoughts, beliefs, &

emotions to be consistent with one another and with their behavior

In cases where the behavior & cognition can’t be changed, the attitude naturally shifts

ATTITUDE CHANGE SELF-PERCEPTION THEORY You’re not quite sure yet

how you feel about a particular boy or girl

You examine How excited you get when

you are on your way to spend time with him or her

How upset you get when others speak poorly about the boy or girl

How unhappy you get when you see him or her with others of the opposite gender

Does not presuppose internal tension when attitudes are inconsistent with behavior

Under ambiguous situations, people examine their behavior to infer their attitude.

Self-Perception Theory Best when there is weak/no

prior attitude Cognitive-Dissonance Theory

Best when there is strong/clearly defined attitudes and internal consistency is important for self-esteem

FIRST, SOME VOCABULARY

Some commonly interchange words Stereotype – Perceptions, beliefs, and expectations

about members of a group Prejudice – Positive or negative attitude toward an

individual because of his or her membership in a group Discrimination – Differential treatment of individuals

who belong to different groups

Group Dynamics In-group – Group to which one identifies with and

belongs to Out-group – Everyone else

THEORIES OF PREJUDICE AND STEREOTYPING:MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES Motivational Theories

Prejudice may enhance one’s sense of security Prejudice is especially likely among those with an

authoritarian personality trait Acceptance of conventional or traditional values Willingness to unquestioningly follow the orders of

authority Inclination to act aggressively towards those identified by

these authority figures as threatening the values held by one’s in-group

Prejudice may enhance one’s self-esteem by affirming their social identity with their in-group

THEORIES OF PREJUDICE AND STEREOTYPING: COGNITIVE AND LEARNING

Cognitive Theories Social relationships are so numerous and complex that

we rely heavily on schemas People are then sorted into social categories

Categories that replace the individual details of a person Members of the same social category are perceived to be

quite similar to each other [saves cognitive energies: less attention]

“All you ____________ people look the same.”

Learning Theories Children learn prejudice by watching parents, peers,

and others Children often know about the negative characteristics

of groups before they ever meet a member

REDUCING PREJUDICE Contact Hypothesis

Stereotypes and prejudice toward a group will diminish as contact with the group increases

Lessons Since 1954 [Brown vs. Board of Education]How to make desegregation work Members of the two groups had to be roughly the

same social and economic status Members of the two groups had to work together on

projects that required reliance and teamwork for success

Contact has to happen on a one-on-one basis Members of each group must be seen as typical

AND NOW, WHAT WE’VE ALL BEEN WAITING FOR…

KEYS TO ATTRACTIONAKA: THE LOVE MANUAL The Environment

Mere-Exposure Effect (forming attitudes section) Classical / Operant Conditioning

Similarity Attitudes, age, habits Balance

Similar attitudes towards mutual acquaintances “If you wanna be my lover, you gotta get with my friends, make it last

forever, friendship never ends…” – Spice Girls Conclusion: Opposites don’t actually attract Why?

We don’t know which direction the causality arrow points Physical Attractiveness

Matching Hypothesis – People tend to form committed relationships with others of similar attractiveness

Why? Balance between attraction and likeliness of rejection

ANALYZING LOVETRIANGULAR THEORY OF LOVE