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Advanced Materials and Techniques for Reinforced Concrete StructuresMore free ebooks : http://fast-file.blogspot.com http://simcongroup.ir
Boca Raton London New York
Advanced Materials and Techniques for Reinforced Concrete Structures Mohamed A. El-Reedy, Ph.D. Consultant Engineer Cairo, Egypt
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CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
International Standard Book Number: 978-1-4200-8891-5 (Hardback)
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmit- ted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright. com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress CataloginginPublication Data
El-Reedy, Mohamed A. (Mohamed Abdallah) Advanced materials and techniques for reinforced concrete structures / author,
Mohamed El-Reedy. p. cm.
Buildings, Reinforced concrete. I. Title.
TA683.E495 2009 624.1’8341--dc22 2009016991
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com
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2.4.5.1 Pre-tensioned Concrete ............................... 13 2.4.5.2 Bonded Post-tensioned Concrete ................ 13 2.4.5.3 Unbonded Post-tensioned Concrete ............ 16
2.4.6 Hollow Slab ................................................................ 17 2.4.7 Composite Section ...................................................... 19
2.5 High-Rise Building .................................................................23 2.5.1 Frames ........................................................................24 2.5.2 Shear Wall ..................................................................25 2.5.3 Shear Wall and Frame System ...................................25 2.5.4 Framed Tube Structure ...............................................26 2.5.5 Cases of High-Rise Buildings ....................................29
2.6 Foundations ............................................................................. 33 2.6.1 Shallow Foundation .................................................... 33
2.6.1.1 Isolated Footing .......................................... 33 2.6.1.2 Combined Footing ...................................... 33 2.6.1.3 Strap Footing .............................................. 33
2.6.2 Raft Foundation .......................................................... 35 2.6.3 Deep Foundation ........................................................ 35
2.6.3.1 Timber Piles ................................................ 38 2.6.3.2 Steel Piles.................................................... 38 2.6.3.3 Concrete Piles ............................................. 39 2.6.3.4 Pile Caps ..................................................... 41
References .......................................................................................... 43
3.2.1 Dead Load .................................................................. 45 3.2.2 Live Load Characteristics ..........................................46
3.2.2.1 Stochastic Live Load Models......................46 3.2.2.2 Poisson Square Wave Process .....................54 3.2.2.3 Filtered Poisson Process .............................54 3.2.2.4 Analysis of Suggested Model ..................... 55 3.2.2.5 Methodology and Calculation
Procedure .................................................... 59 3.2.2.6 Testing of Suggested Model ........................60 3.2.2.7 Verification of Suggested Model Using
Monte-Carlo Simulation ............................. 61 3.2.2.8 Live Loads in Different Codes ................... 62
3.2.3 Wind Load .................................................................. 67 3.2.3.1 ANSI Code ..................................................68 3.2.3.2 Wind Tunnel ...............................................68 3.2.3.3 Wind Load in British Specifications ........... 70 3.2.3.4 Wind Load in Egyptian Code ..................... 76
3.2.4 Earthquake Loads ...................................................... 78 3.2.4.1 UBC 1997 ................................................... 79 3.2.4.2 Dynamic Analysis ...................................... 82 3.2.4.3 Spectrum Analysis Method ........................ 82 3.2.4.4 Earthquake Calculation in ECP .................. 82
3.3 Comparison of Calculations of Resistance for Different Codes ....................................................................................... 89 3.3.1 Capacity Reduction Factors ........................................ 89 3.3.2 Probability of Structure Failure ................................. 91 3.3.3 Probability-Based Limit States Design ......................92 3.3.4 Reliability Analysis Procedure ...................................92 3.3.5 Calculation of Reliability Index .................................94 3.3.6 Effect of C.O.V. of Resistance on Safety Index ..........97
References ........................................................................................ 100
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 103 4.2 Concrete Materials Test ......................................................... 103
4.2.1 Cement ...................................................................... 104 4.2.1.1 Cement Test by Sieve No. 170 ................... 105 4.2.1.2 Initial and Final Setting Times of
Cement Paste Using Vicat Apparatus ....... 106 4.2.1.3 Density of Cement .................................... 108
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4.2.1.5 Compressive Strength of Cement Mortars ..................................................... 112
4.2.2 Aggregate Tests ........................................................ 113 4.2.2.1 Sieve Analysis Test ................................... 113 4.2.2.2 Abrasion Resistance of Coarse
Aggregates in Los Angeles Test ............... 122 4.2.2.3 Determination of Clay and Other Fine
Materials in Aggregates ............................ 123 4.2.2.4 Aggregate Specific Gravity Test ...............124 4.2.2.5 Fine Aggregate Test .................................. 125 4.2.2.6 Define Specific Gravity for Coarse
Aggregate .................................................. 125 4.2.2.7 Bulk Density or Volumetric Weight
Test for Aggregate ..................................... 126 4.2.2.8 Percentage of Aggregate Absorption ........ 126 4.2.2.9 Recycled Aggregate Concrete................... 127
4.2.3 Mixing Water Test .................................................... 129 4.3 Steel Reinforcement Test ....................................................... 129
4.3.1 Weights and Measurement Test ................................ 130 4.3.2 Tension Test .............................................................. 130
4.4 Nondestructive Test for Hardened Concrete ......................... 132 4.4.1 Core Test ................................................................... 132
4.4.1.1 Core Size ................................................... 133 4.4.1.2 Sample Preparation for Test ...................... 135
4.4.2 Rebound Hammer .................................................... 137 4.4.2.1 Data Analysis ............................................ 140
4.4.3 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity ......................................... 140 4.4.4 Load Test for Concrete Members ............................. 145
4.4.4.1 Test Procedure .......................................... 146 4.4.4.2 Test Steps .................................................. 146 4.4.4.3 Results Calculations .................................. 147 4.4.4.4 Acceptance and Refusal Limits ................ 148
4.4.5 Pullout Test ............................................................... 149 4.4.6 Define Chloride Content in Hardened Concrete ...... 149
References ........................................................................................ 151
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 153 5.2 Essential Statistical Information ........................................... 153
5.2.1 Arithmetic Mean ...................................................... 153 5.2.2 Standard Deviation ................................................... 154 5.2.3 Coefficient of Variation ............................................ 155
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5.3 Basics of Concrete Mix Design ............................................. 156 5.3.1 Normal Distribution ................................................. 158
5.4 Egyptian Code ....................................................................... 159 5.5 British Standard ..................................................................... 163 5.6 American Specification (ACI) ............................................... 163
5.6.1 Acceptance and Refusal for Concrete Mix .............. 164 5.6.2 Concrete Mix Procedure .......................................... 164
5.6.2.1 Step 1: Choice of Slump ........................... 165 5.6.2.2 Step 2: Choice of Maximum Size of
Aggregate .................................................. 165 5.6.2.3 Step 3: Estimation of Mixing Water
and Air Content ........................................ 165 5.6.2.4 Step 4: Chemical Admixtures ................... 166 5.6.2.5 Step 5: Selection of Water/Cement
(w/c) Ratio ................................................. 168 5.6.3 Mix Proportions ....................................................... 168
5.6.3.1 British Standard ........................................ 170 5.7 Fresh Concrete Test ............................................................... 170
5.7.1 Cylinder and Cube Test ............................................ 170 5.7.1.1 Cube Test .................................................. 171 5.7.1.2 Cylinder Test ............................................. 172
5.7.2 Predict Concrete Strength ........................................ 173 5.8 Define Concrete Density ....................................................... 174 5.9 Define Settlement for Fresh Concrete ................................... 177 5.10 Determining Compacting Factor for Fresh Concrete ............ 180 5.11 High Performance Concrete Mix .......................................... 182
5.11.1 Required Strength .................................................... 182 5.12 Pumped Concrete Mix .......................................................... 184
5.12.1 Basic Considerations ................................................ 184 5.12.2 Coarse Aggregate ..................................................... 184 5.12.3 Fine Aggregate ......................................................... 184 5.12.4 Combined Normal Weight Aggregates .................... 184 5.12.5 Water ........................................................................ 185 5.12.6 Cementitious Materials ............................................ 185 5.12.7 Admixtures ............................................................... 185 5.12.8 Field Practice ............................................................ 186 5.12.9 Field Control ............................................................. 186
References ........................................................................................ 188
6.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 191 6.2 Admixtures ............................................................................ 191
6.2.1 Samples for Test ....................................................... 192 6.2.1.1 Powder Admixtures .................................. 192 6.2.1.2 Liquid Admixtures ................................... 192
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6.2.2 Tests to Verify Admixture Requirements ................ 193 6.2.2.1 Chemical Tests .......................................... 193 6.2.2.2 Ash Content .............................................. 193 6.2.2.3 Relative Density ........................................ 194 6.2.2.4 Define Hydrogen Number ......................... 194 6.2.2.5 Define Chloride Ion .................................. 194
6.2.3 Performance Test ...................................................... 195 6.2.3.1 Control Mixing ......................................... 195
6.3 Hot Weather Concrete ........................................................... 195 6.3.1 Definition of Hot Weather Region ............................ 197 6.3.2 Problems with Concrete in Hot Climate .................. 198
6.3.2.1 Fresh Concrete Problems .......................... 198 6.3.2.2 Hardened Concrete Problems ................... 198 6.3.2.3 Problems Due to Other Factors in Hot
Climate ..................................................... 198 6.3.3 Effect of Hot Climate on Concrete Properties ......... 199
6.3.3.1 Control Water Temperature in Mixing .....200 6.3.3.2 Control Cement Temperature ...................202 6.3.3.3 Control Aggregate Temperature ...............202 6.3.3.4 Control Mixing Ratios ..............................203 6.3.3.5 Control Concrete Mixing Process ............203 6.3.3.6 Control Project Management ....................204
6.4 High-Strength Concrete .........................................................204 6.4.1 High-Strength Concrete Composition ......................206
6.5 Self-Compacted Concrete ...................................................... 217 6.5.1 Development of Prototype ........................................ 219 6.5.2 Applications of Self-Compacting Concrete .............220
6.6 Lightweight Aggregate Concrete ...........................................220 6.6.1 Lightweight Aggregates ........................................... 222 6.6.2 Lightweight Coarse Aggregate or Structural
Member .................................................................... 222 6.6.3 Lightweight Aggregate Concrete Durability ............ 223
6.7 Cellular Concrete ................................................................... 223 6.8 No-Fines Concrete .................................................................224 6.9 Sawdust Concrete ..................................................................224 6.10 Rice Husk Ash .......................................................................225 6.11 Advanced Materials for Concrete Protection ........................225
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6.11.6 Cathodic Protection by Surface Painting ................. 232 6.11.7 Cathodic Protection System ..................................... 232
6.11.7.1 Cathodic Protection .................................. 233 6.11.7.2 Cathodic Protection Components and
Design Considerations .............................. 235 References ........................................................................................240
7Chapter The Concrete Industry ...................................................................... 243
7.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 243 7.2 Execute Wooden Form .......................................................... 243 7.3 Formwork for High-Rise Buildings .......................................249
7.3.1 Formwork Types .......................................................249 7.3.2 Delivery Systems ......................................................250 7.3.3 Allowable Tolerance in Dimensions ......................... 251
7.4 Detailing, Fabrication, and Installation of Steel Bars ........... 252 7.4.1 Tolerance of Steel Bars in EGP ................................ 252 7.4.2 Allowable Tolerances in ACI 318 ............................. 255
7.5 Concrete Cover and Specifications ........................................ 255 7.5.1 British Standard ........................................................ 259 7.5.2 American Code ........................................................260 7.5.3 European Code .........................................................260 7.5.4 Special Specifications for Structures Exposed to
Very Severe Conditions ............................................ 262 7.5.5 Egyptian Code .......................................................... 263 7.5.6 Execute Concrete Cover ...........................................265
7.6 Concrete Pouring ................................................................... 270 7.6.1 Pouring Pumping Concrete ...................................... 274
7.6.1.1 Incorrect Mix ............................................ 275 7.6.1.2 Problems with Pipeline ............................. 275 7.6.1.3 Operator Error .......................................... 276
7.6.2 Construction Joint .................................................... 276 7.7 Compaction Procedure .......................................................... 277 7.8 Execute Curing ...................................................................... 279
7.8.1 Curing Process in ACI ............................................. 282 7.8.2 Curing in British Standard ....................................... 283 7.8.3 Protect Special Structures ........................................285
References ........................................................................................285
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8.3.3 Repair Time .............................................................. 291 8.3.4 Capacity Loss in Reinforced Concrete Sections ......292
8.4 Example .................................................................................294 8.4.1 Required Time to Corrosion.....................................294 8.4.2 Time Required to Deteriorate ..................................296 8.4.3 Cost Analysis for Different Protection Methods ......297
8.6 Maintenance Plan ..................................................................303 8.6.1 Assessment Process ..................................................303 8.6.2 Risk-Based Inspection Maintenance Plan ................307
Preface Nowadays, there is a race among investors for constructing high-rise buildings due to high profits from the real estate business worldwide. Therefore, the major challenge for structural engineers is how to achieve the goal for the investors and the architects as well.
The aim of this book is to present the most advanced materials and construc- tion techniques used in the reinforced concrete structure industry. Because advanced materials are growing parallel to the development of new structure systems, the advantages and disadvantages of the different structure systems are very important from durability, reliability, and construction points of view.
This book is intended to serve as a guide to junior and senior engineers who work in design, construction, and maintenance of reinforced concrete structures to assist them in choosing the most reasonable structure system, materials, method of con- struction, and maintenance plan.
Construction quality control is the main factor that allows a firm to be competitive in the market, so this book is written to be easy for structural engineers to under- stand the statistical parameters that govern quality control in concrete construction projects. Its aim is to avoid complicated statistical terms, and instead be more appli- cable by using strong theoretical background information to help analyze and meet concrete construction quality control criteria.
This book consists of three main approaches: the first chapters present ways to control a project to achieve the owner’s target and discusses different loads that affect the buildings from the point of view of the international codes. In addition, the different structure systems that are used in traditional and high-rise buildings will be presented with their advantages and disadvantages to assist the designer in choosing the optimum structure system to meet stability, reliability, and architec- tural requirements.
The second main approach is to describe the traditional and most recent materi- als used in concrete technology such as high strength concrete, high performance concrete, and self-compacted concrete. Moreover, the book presents the modern techniques used in all construction stages in temperate and hot climate regions. After construction, the structural engineers may face many problems with the dura- bility of the concrete, which can be achieved by using modern materials to protect steel bars from corrosion and avoid problems in countries with hot climates.
In the last chapter, the new approach for the integrity management system is presented by describing the advanced maintenance plan philosophy as risk-based for reinforced concrete structures. Recently, there is a movement toward main- taining the reliability of structures from safety and economic points of view by developing a structure integrity management system, which is also discussed in the final chapters.
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This book provides a practical guide to advanced materials, design, and con- struction techniques in concrete structures for normal and high-rise buildings with different environmental conditions and the modern approach to a concrete structure maintenance plan.
Mohamed Abdallah El-Reedy Cairo, Egypt
[email protected]
The Author Mohamed A. El-Reedy, PhD, pursued a career in structural engineering. His main area of research is the reliability of concrete and steel structures. He has provided consulting services to different engineering companies and oil and gas industries in Egypt and to international companies including the International Egyptian Oil Company (IEOC) and British Petroleum (BP). Moreover, he provides concrete and steel structure design packages for residential buildings, warehouses, telecommuni- cation towers, and electrical projects of WorleyParsons Egypt. He has participated in liquefied natural gas and natural gas liquid projects with international engineering firms. Currently, Dr. El-Reedy is responsible for reliability, inspection, and main- tenance strategies for onshore concrete structures and offshore steel structure plat- forms. He has managed these tasks for one hundred of these structures in the Gulf of Suez in the Red Sea.
Dr. El-Reedy has consulted with and trained executives at many organizations, including the Arabian American Oil Company (ARAMCO), British Petroleum (BP), Apachi, Abu Dhabi Marine Operating Company (ADMA), the Abu Dhabi National Oil Company and King Saudi’s Interior Ministry, Qatar Telecom, the Egyptian General Petroleum Corporation, Saudi Arabia Basic Industries Corporation (SABIC), the Kuwait Petroleum Corporation, and Qatar Petrochemical Company (QAPCO). He has taught technical courses about repair and maintenance for reinforced con- crete structures and advanced materials worldwide.
Dr. El-Reedy has written numerous publications and presented many papers at local and international conferences sponsored by the American Society of Civil Engineers, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, the American Concrete Institute, the American Society for Testing and Materials, and the American Petroleum Institute. He has published many research papers in international techni- cal journals and has authored four books about total quality management, quality management and quality assurance, economic management for engineering projects, and repair and protection of reinforced concrete structures. He earned a bachelor’s degree from Cairo University in 1990, a master’s degree in 1995, and a PhD from Cairo University in 2000.
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1 Introduction
The civilization of any country is measured by its advanced techniques and advanced materials used in constructing buildings. Concrete is the main element for construc- tion materials, and its development follows developments in engineering research.
Ancient Egyptians used concrete in buildings and temples along with crushed stone as an aggregate and clay as an adhesive. However, the Greeks used concrete in their buildings and called it Santorin Tofa (El-Arian and Atta 1974), and history mentions that the Romans used a concrete-like material called pozzolan.
After that, concrete disappeared for long time and then appeared again in the 18th century. Following are famous scientists who worked with concrete:
John Semitone used it to construct the Ediston lighthouse.• Joseph Parker researched stones and their uses in concrete.• Odgar researched cement made from limestone and clay.• Vicat researched using cement from limestone and clay.• Joseph Espedin used Portland cement.•
At the end of 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, major changes affected the shapes of buildings as architectural engineers and builders changed their points of view to ideas previously used from the European Renaissance, such as using columns and arches. To consider the function required and to achieve the architectural intent economically, concrete was the best solution.
Nowadays reinforced concrete is the most important material in the construction industry and is used for different types of civil engineering projects such as tun- nels, bridges, airports, drainage and hydraulic projects, and others. Research focuses on increasing concrete’s strength and its performance to to match the varieties of applications.
Reinforced concrete is considered cheap when compared to other building mate- rials, so it has been used for high-rise buildings for mega-projects and also for small projects such as one-story buildings, and all these projects are performed by con- tractors and engineers with different capabilities. From here one can conclude that concrete is used for projects of different scale with competent and noncompetent laborers and contractors, so there are many precautions in different codes to over- come these variables.
Due to expanding investment in real estate and industry and competition in con- structing high-rise buildings worldwide, there is a trend to use modern materials and construction techniques that can match designers’ visions. Moreover, modern research aims for new structure systems to accommodate the needs of high-rise buildings and enhance the architectural point of view.
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2 Advanced Materials and Techniques for Reinforced Concrete Structures
Culture, social life, and economics vary widely among different countries, espe- cially between the rich countries and poor countries or between developed countries and countries on their way to development. So, it is difficult to apply the specifica- tions and codes for one country to another as the loads required depend on the lives of the people and the laws of each country. For example, in some countries it is easy to convert residential buildings to commercial buildings, but other countries prohibit this conversion, so the probability of failure is different from one country to another. Moreover, the dead load value depends on the construction quality. On the other hand, the competency of the engineers, supervisors, and laborers differs from one country to another and this affects the quality of the concrete, and thus the probabil- ity of producing a good quality concrete is different.
Therefore, the modern codes and the philosophy of the codes and specifications will be discussed to clarify the answers to the following questions:
What is the probability of structure failure?• What are the factors that affect this probability?•
In addition, a comparison of strength, loads, and design factors is presented for dif- ferent international codes.
The main challenge that faces the engineer working in the concrete industry is to increase the strength and performance of the concrete to enhance its durability along its lifetime. Therefore, high strength concrete (HSC), high performance concrete (HPC), and ultra high performance concrete (UHPC) are widely discussed in the literature. Moreover, studies in Japan focus on concrete without compaction, which is called self-compacted concrete (SCC).
All these types of modern concrete depend on using the new, advanced materials and knowing their performance very well. These materials are the mineral compounds such as fly ash, silica fume, and blast slag, and synthetic materials, such as the super- plasticizer and different types of admixtures that enhance the concrete’s properties.
On the other hand, there are many development techniques focused on providing materials and new methodologies to protect steel reinforcement bars from corrosion.
The concrete industry is spread worldwide from very cold countries to very…
Boca Raton London New York
Advanced Materials and Techniques for Reinforced Concrete Structures Mohamed A. El-Reedy, Ph.D. Consultant Engineer Cairo, Egypt
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CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
International Standard Book Number: 978-1-4200-8891-5 (Hardback)
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmit- ted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright. com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress CataloginginPublication Data
El-Reedy, Mohamed A. (Mohamed Abdallah) Advanced materials and techniques for reinforced concrete structures / author,
Mohamed El-Reedy. p. cm.
Buildings, Reinforced concrete. I. Title.
TA683.E495 2009 624.1’8341--dc22 2009016991
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com
More free ebooks : http://fast-file.blogspot.com http://simcongroup.ir
More free ebooks : http://fast-file.blogspot.com http://simcongroup.ir
2.4.5.1 Pre-tensioned Concrete ............................... 13 2.4.5.2 Bonded Post-tensioned Concrete ................ 13 2.4.5.3 Unbonded Post-tensioned Concrete ............ 16
2.4.6 Hollow Slab ................................................................ 17 2.4.7 Composite Section ...................................................... 19
2.5 High-Rise Building .................................................................23 2.5.1 Frames ........................................................................24 2.5.2 Shear Wall ..................................................................25 2.5.3 Shear Wall and Frame System ...................................25 2.5.4 Framed Tube Structure ...............................................26 2.5.5 Cases of High-Rise Buildings ....................................29
2.6 Foundations ............................................................................. 33 2.6.1 Shallow Foundation .................................................... 33
2.6.1.1 Isolated Footing .......................................... 33 2.6.1.2 Combined Footing ...................................... 33 2.6.1.3 Strap Footing .............................................. 33
2.6.2 Raft Foundation .......................................................... 35 2.6.3 Deep Foundation ........................................................ 35
2.6.3.1 Timber Piles ................................................ 38 2.6.3.2 Steel Piles.................................................... 38 2.6.3.3 Concrete Piles ............................................. 39 2.6.3.4 Pile Caps ..................................................... 41
References .......................................................................................... 43
3.2.1 Dead Load .................................................................. 45 3.2.2 Live Load Characteristics ..........................................46
3.2.2.1 Stochastic Live Load Models......................46 3.2.2.2 Poisson Square Wave Process .....................54 3.2.2.3 Filtered Poisson Process .............................54 3.2.2.4 Analysis of Suggested Model ..................... 55 3.2.2.5 Methodology and Calculation
Procedure .................................................... 59 3.2.2.6 Testing of Suggested Model ........................60 3.2.2.7 Verification of Suggested Model Using
Monte-Carlo Simulation ............................. 61 3.2.2.8 Live Loads in Different Codes ................... 62
3.2.3 Wind Load .................................................................. 67 3.2.3.1 ANSI Code ..................................................68 3.2.3.2 Wind Tunnel ...............................................68 3.2.3.3 Wind Load in British Specifications ........... 70 3.2.3.4 Wind Load in Egyptian Code ..................... 76
3.2.4 Earthquake Loads ...................................................... 78 3.2.4.1 UBC 1997 ................................................... 79 3.2.4.2 Dynamic Analysis ...................................... 82 3.2.4.3 Spectrum Analysis Method ........................ 82 3.2.4.4 Earthquake Calculation in ECP .................. 82
3.3 Comparison of Calculations of Resistance for Different Codes ....................................................................................... 89 3.3.1 Capacity Reduction Factors ........................................ 89 3.3.2 Probability of Structure Failure ................................. 91 3.3.3 Probability-Based Limit States Design ......................92 3.3.4 Reliability Analysis Procedure ...................................92 3.3.5 Calculation of Reliability Index .................................94 3.3.6 Effect of C.O.V. of Resistance on Safety Index ..........97
References ........................................................................................ 100
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 103 4.2 Concrete Materials Test ......................................................... 103
4.2.1 Cement ...................................................................... 104 4.2.1.1 Cement Test by Sieve No. 170 ................... 105 4.2.1.2 Initial and Final Setting Times of
Cement Paste Using Vicat Apparatus ....... 106 4.2.1.3 Density of Cement .................................... 108
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4.2.1.5 Compressive Strength of Cement Mortars ..................................................... 112
4.2.2 Aggregate Tests ........................................................ 113 4.2.2.1 Sieve Analysis Test ................................... 113 4.2.2.2 Abrasion Resistance of Coarse
Aggregates in Los Angeles Test ............... 122 4.2.2.3 Determination of Clay and Other Fine
Materials in Aggregates ............................ 123 4.2.2.4 Aggregate Specific Gravity Test ...............124 4.2.2.5 Fine Aggregate Test .................................. 125 4.2.2.6 Define Specific Gravity for Coarse
Aggregate .................................................. 125 4.2.2.7 Bulk Density or Volumetric Weight
Test for Aggregate ..................................... 126 4.2.2.8 Percentage of Aggregate Absorption ........ 126 4.2.2.9 Recycled Aggregate Concrete................... 127
4.2.3 Mixing Water Test .................................................... 129 4.3 Steel Reinforcement Test ....................................................... 129
4.3.1 Weights and Measurement Test ................................ 130 4.3.2 Tension Test .............................................................. 130
4.4 Nondestructive Test for Hardened Concrete ......................... 132 4.4.1 Core Test ................................................................... 132
4.4.1.1 Core Size ................................................... 133 4.4.1.2 Sample Preparation for Test ...................... 135
4.4.2 Rebound Hammer .................................................... 137 4.4.2.1 Data Analysis ............................................ 140
4.4.3 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity ......................................... 140 4.4.4 Load Test for Concrete Members ............................. 145
4.4.4.1 Test Procedure .......................................... 146 4.4.4.2 Test Steps .................................................. 146 4.4.4.3 Results Calculations .................................. 147 4.4.4.4 Acceptance and Refusal Limits ................ 148
4.4.5 Pullout Test ............................................................... 149 4.4.6 Define Chloride Content in Hardened Concrete ...... 149
References ........................................................................................ 151
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 153 5.2 Essential Statistical Information ........................................... 153
5.2.1 Arithmetic Mean ...................................................... 153 5.2.2 Standard Deviation ................................................... 154 5.2.3 Coefficient of Variation ............................................ 155
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5.3 Basics of Concrete Mix Design ............................................. 156 5.3.1 Normal Distribution ................................................. 158
5.4 Egyptian Code ....................................................................... 159 5.5 British Standard ..................................................................... 163 5.6 American Specification (ACI) ............................................... 163
5.6.1 Acceptance and Refusal for Concrete Mix .............. 164 5.6.2 Concrete Mix Procedure .......................................... 164
5.6.2.1 Step 1: Choice of Slump ........................... 165 5.6.2.2 Step 2: Choice of Maximum Size of
Aggregate .................................................. 165 5.6.2.3 Step 3: Estimation of Mixing Water
and Air Content ........................................ 165 5.6.2.4 Step 4: Chemical Admixtures ................... 166 5.6.2.5 Step 5: Selection of Water/Cement
(w/c) Ratio ................................................. 168 5.6.3 Mix Proportions ....................................................... 168
5.6.3.1 British Standard ........................................ 170 5.7 Fresh Concrete Test ............................................................... 170
5.7.1 Cylinder and Cube Test ............................................ 170 5.7.1.1 Cube Test .................................................. 171 5.7.1.2 Cylinder Test ............................................. 172
5.7.2 Predict Concrete Strength ........................................ 173 5.8 Define Concrete Density ....................................................... 174 5.9 Define Settlement for Fresh Concrete ................................... 177 5.10 Determining Compacting Factor for Fresh Concrete ............ 180 5.11 High Performance Concrete Mix .......................................... 182
5.11.1 Required Strength .................................................... 182 5.12 Pumped Concrete Mix .......................................................... 184
5.12.1 Basic Considerations ................................................ 184 5.12.2 Coarse Aggregate ..................................................... 184 5.12.3 Fine Aggregate ......................................................... 184 5.12.4 Combined Normal Weight Aggregates .................... 184 5.12.5 Water ........................................................................ 185 5.12.6 Cementitious Materials ............................................ 185 5.12.7 Admixtures ............................................................... 185 5.12.8 Field Practice ............................................................ 186 5.12.9 Field Control ............................................................. 186
References ........................................................................................ 188
6.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 191 6.2 Admixtures ............................................................................ 191
6.2.1 Samples for Test ....................................................... 192 6.2.1.1 Powder Admixtures .................................. 192 6.2.1.2 Liquid Admixtures ................................... 192
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6.2.2 Tests to Verify Admixture Requirements ................ 193 6.2.2.1 Chemical Tests .......................................... 193 6.2.2.2 Ash Content .............................................. 193 6.2.2.3 Relative Density ........................................ 194 6.2.2.4 Define Hydrogen Number ......................... 194 6.2.2.5 Define Chloride Ion .................................. 194
6.2.3 Performance Test ...................................................... 195 6.2.3.1 Control Mixing ......................................... 195
6.3 Hot Weather Concrete ........................................................... 195 6.3.1 Definition of Hot Weather Region ............................ 197 6.3.2 Problems with Concrete in Hot Climate .................. 198
6.3.2.1 Fresh Concrete Problems .......................... 198 6.3.2.2 Hardened Concrete Problems ................... 198 6.3.2.3 Problems Due to Other Factors in Hot
Climate ..................................................... 198 6.3.3 Effect of Hot Climate on Concrete Properties ......... 199
6.3.3.1 Control Water Temperature in Mixing .....200 6.3.3.2 Control Cement Temperature ...................202 6.3.3.3 Control Aggregate Temperature ...............202 6.3.3.4 Control Mixing Ratios ..............................203 6.3.3.5 Control Concrete Mixing Process ............203 6.3.3.6 Control Project Management ....................204
6.4 High-Strength Concrete .........................................................204 6.4.1 High-Strength Concrete Composition ......................206
6.5 Self-Compacted Concrete ...................................................... 217 6.5.1 Development of Prototype ........................................ 219 6.5.2 Applications of Self-Compacting Concrete .............220
6.6 Lightweight Aggregate Concrete ...........................................220 6.6.1 Lightweight Aggregates ........................................... 222 6.6.2 Lightweight Coarse Aggregate or Structural
Member .................................................................... 222 6.6.3 Lightweight Aggregate Concrete Durability ............ 223
6.7 Cellular Concrete ................................................................... 223 6.8 No-Fines Concrete .................................................................224 6.9 Sawdust Concrete ..................................................................224 6.10 Rice Husk Ash .......................................................................225 6.11 Advanced Materials for Concrete Protection ........................225
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6.11.6 Cathodic Protection by Surface Painting ................. 232 6.11.7 Cathodic Protection System ..................................... 232
6.11.7.1 Cathodic Protection .................................. 233 6.11.7.2 Cathodic Protection Components and
Design Considerations .............................. 235 References ........................................................................................240
7Chapter The Concrete Industry ...................................................................... 243
7.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 243 7.2 Execute Wooden Form .......................................................... 243 7.3 Formwork for High-Rise Buildings .......................................249
7.3.1 Formwork Types .......................................................249 7.3.2 Delivery Systems ......................................................250 7.3.3 Allowable Tolerance in Dimensions ......................... 251
7.4 Detailing, Fabrication, and Installation of Steel Bars ........... 252 7.4.1 Tolerance of Steel Bars in EGP ................................ 252 7.4.2 Allowable Tolerances in ACI 318 ............................. 255
7.5 Concrete Cover and Specifications ........................................ 255 7.5.1 British Standard ........................................................ 259 7.5.2 American Code ........................................................260 7.5.3 European Code .........................................................260 7.5.4 Special Specifications for Structures Exposed to
Very Severe Conditions ............................................ 262 7.5.5 Egyptian Code .......................................................... 263 7.5.6 Execute Concrete Cover ...........................................265
7.6 Concrete Pouring ................................................................... 270 7.6.1 Pouring Pumping Concrete ...................................... 274
7.6.1.1 Incorrect Mix ............................................ 275 7.6.1.2 Problems with Pipeline ............................. 275 7.6.1.3 Operator Error .......................................... 276
7.6.2 Construction Joint .................................................... 276 7.7 Compaction Procedure .......................................................... 277 7.8 Execute Curing ...................................................................... 279
7.8.1 Curing Process in ACI ............................................. 282 7.8.2 Curing in British Standard ....................................... 283 7.8.3 Protect Special Structures ........................................285
References ........................................................................................285
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8.3.3 Repair Time .............................................................. 291 8.3.4 Capacity Loss in Reinforced Concrete Sections ......292
8.4 Example .................................................................................294 8.4.1 Required Time to Corrosion.....................................294 8.4.2 Time Required to Deteriorate ..................................296 8.4.3 Cost Analysis for Different Protection Methods ......297
8.6 Maintenance Plan ..................................................................303 8.6.1 Assessment Process ..................................................303 8.6.2 Risk-Based Inspection Maintenance Plan ................307
Preface Nowadays, there is a race among investors for constructing high-rise buildings due to high profits from the real estate business worldwide. Therefore, the major challenge for structural engineers is how to achieve the goal for the investors and the architects as well.
The aim of this book is to present the most advanced materials and construc- tion techniques used in the reinforced concrete structure industry. Because advanced materials are growing parallel to the development of new structure systems, the advantages and disadvantages of the different structure systems are very important from durability, reliability, and construction points of view.
This book is intended to serve as a guide to junior and senior engineers who work in design, construction, and maintenance of reinforced concrete structures to assist them in choosing the most reasonable structure system, materials, method of con- struction, and maintenance plan.
Construction quality control is the main factor that allows a firm to be competitive in the market, so this book is written to be easy for structural engineers to under- stand the statistical parameters that govern quality control in concrete construction projects. Its aim is to avoid complicated statistical terms, and instead be more appli- cable by using strong theoretical background information to help analyze and meet concrete construction quality control criteria.
This book consists of three main approaches: the first chapters present ways to control a project to achieve the owner’s target and discusses different loads that affect the buildings from the point of view of the international codes. In addition, the different structure systems that are used in traditional and high-rise buildings will be presented with their advantages and disadvantages to assist the designer in choosing the optimum structure system to meet stability, reliability, and architec- tural requirements.
The second main approach is to describe the traditional and most recent materi- als used in concrete technology such as high strength concrete, high performance concrete, and self-compacted concrete. Moreover, the book presents the modern techniques used in all construction stages in temperate and hot climate regions. After construction, the structural engineers may face many problems with the dura- bility of the concrete, which can be achieved by using modern materials to protect steel bars from corrosion and avoid problems in countries with hot climates.
In the last chapter, the new approach for the integrity management system is presented by describing the advanced maintenance plan philosophy as risk-based for reinforced concrete structures. Recently, there is a movement toward main- taining the reliability of structures from safety and economic points of view by developing a structure integrity management system, which is also discussed in the final chapters.
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This book provides a practical guide to advanced materials, design, and con- struction techniques in concrete structures for normal and high-rise buildings with different environmental conditions and the modern approach to a concrete structure maintenance plan.
Mohamed Abdallah El-Reedy Cairo, Egypt
[email protected]
The Author Mohamed A. El-Reedy, PhD, pursued a career in structural engineering. His main area of research is the reliability of concrete and steel structures. He has provided consulting services to different engineering companies and oil and gas industries in Egypt and to international companies including the International Egyptian Oil Company (IEOC) and British Petroleum (BP). Moreover, he provides concrete and steel structure design packages for residential buildings, warehouses, telecommuni- cation towers, and electrical projects of WorleyParsons Egypt. He has participated in liquefied natural gas and natural gas liquid projects with international engineering firms. Currently, Dr. El-Reedy is responsible for reliability, inspection, and main- tenance strategies for onshore concrete structures and offshore steel structure plat- forms. He has managed these tasks for one hundred of these structures in the Gulf of Suez in the Red Sea.
Dr. El-Reedy has consulted with and trained executives at many organizations, including the Arabian American Oil Company (ARAMCO), British Petroleum (BP), Apachi, Abu Dhabi Marine Operating Company (ADMA), the Abu Dhabi National Oil Company and King Saudi’s Interior Ministry, Qatar Telecom, the Egyptian General Petroleum Corporation, Saudi Arabia Basic Industries Corporation (SABIC), the Kuwait Petroleum Corporation, and Qatar Petrochemical Company (QAPCO). He has taught technical courses about repair and maintenance for reinforced con- crete structures and advanced materials worldwide.
Dr. El-Reedy has written numerous publications and presented many papers at local and international conferences sponsored by the American Society of Civil Engineers, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, the American Concrete Institute, the American Society for Testing and Materials, and the American Petroleum Institute. He has published many research papers in international techni- cal journals and has authored four books about total quality management, quality management and quality assurance, economic management for engineering projects, and repair and protection of reinforced concrete structures. He earned a bachelor’s degree from Cairo University in 1990, a master’s degree in 1995, and a PhD from Cairo University in 2000.
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1 Introduction
The civilization of any country is measured by its advanced techniques and advanced materials used in constructing buildings. Concrete is the main element for construc- tion materials, and its development follows developments in engineering research.
Ancient Egyptians used concrete in buildings and temples along with crushed stone as an aggregate and clay as an adhesive. However, the Greeks used concrete in their buildings and called it Santorin Tofa (El-Arian and Atta 1974), and history mentions that the Romans used a concrete-like material called pozzolan.
After that, concrete disappeared for long time and then appeared again in the 18th century. Following are famous scientists who worked with concrete:
John Semitone used it to construct the Ediston lighthouse.• Joseph Parker researched stones and their uses in concrete.• Odgar researched cement made from limestone and clay.• Vicat researched using cement from limestone and clay.• Joseph Espedin used Portland cement.•
At the end of 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, major changes affected the shapes of buildings as architectural engineers and builders changed their points of view to ideas previously used from the European Renaissance, such as using columns and arches. To consider the function required and to achieve the architectural intent economically, concrete was the best solution.
Nowadays reinforced concrete is the most important material in the construction industry and is used for different types of civil engineering projects such as tun- nels, bridges, airports, drainage and hydraulic projects, and others. Research focuses on increasing concrete’s strength and its performance to to match the varieties of applications.
Reinforced concrete is considered cheap when compared to other building mate- rials, so it has been used for high-rise buildings for mega-projects and also for small projects such as one-story buildings, and all these projects are performed by con- tractors and engineers with different capabilities. From here one can conclude that concrete is used for projects of different scale with competent and noncompetent laborers and contractors, so there are many precautions in different codes to over- come these variables.
Due to expanding investment in real estate and industry and competition in con- structing high-rise buildings worldwide, there is a trend to use modern materials and construction techniques that can match designers’ visions. Moreover, modern research aims for new structure systems to accommodate the needs of high-rise buildings and enhance the architectural point of view.
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2 Advanced Materials and Techniques for Reinforced Concrete Structures
Culture, social life, and economics vary widely among different countries, espe- cially between the rich countries and poor countries or between developed countries and countries on their way to development. So, it is difficult to apply the specifica- tions and codes for one country to another as the loads required depend on the lives of the people and the laws of each country. For example, in some countries it is easy to convert residential buildings to commercial buildings, but other countries prohibit this conversion, so the probability of failure is different from one country to another. Moreover, the dead load value depends on the construction quality. On the other hand, the competency of the engineers, supervisors, and laborers differs from one country to another and this affects the quality of the concrete, and thus the probabil- ity of producing a good quality concrete is different.
Therefore, the modern codes and the philosophy of the codes and specifications will be discussed to clarify the answers to the following questions:
What is the probability of structure failure?• What are the factors that affect this probability?•
In addition, a comparison of strength, loads, and design factors is presented for dif- ferent international codes.
The main challenge that faces the engineer working in the concrete industry is to increase the strength and performance of the concrete to enhance its durability along its lifetime. Therefore, high strength concrete (HSC), high performance concrete (HPC), and ultra high performance concrete (UHPC) are widely discussed in the literature. Moreover, studies in Japan focus on concrete without compaction, which is called self-compacted concrete (SCC).
All these types of modern concrete depend on using the new, advanced materials and knowing their performance very well. These materials are the mineral compounds such as fly ash, silica fume, and blast slag, and synthetic materials, such as the super- plasticizer and different types of admixtures that enhance the concrete’s properties.
On the other hand, there are many development techniques focused on providing materials and new methodologies to protect steel reinforcement bars from corrosion.
The concrete industry is spread worldwide from very cold countries to very…
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