Advanced English Writing MA Fatemeh Alipanahi …iauz.ac.ir/files/85696/Advanced writing for MA students.pdfAdvanced English Writing MA Fatemeh Alipanahi Assistant professor Islamic

Advanced English Writing

MA

Fatemeh Alipanahi

Assistant professor

Islamic Azad University,

Zanjan Branch

2014

• Advanced writing Course (MA)

Books:• Paragraph development by Martin L. Arnaudet and Mary Ellen

Barrett

• Writing Power by Nancy White

• Let’s write 2 by George E. Wilson• Modern English II by Marcella Frank

• Paragraph writing by Frank Chaplin

Final grade:

• Class participation, Class exercises, and final exam:10

• Final writing (paper) : 10 (If published it will get the optimalgrade). ( Any paper copied directly from the internet will receiveZero

• The course will be omitted for those who will be absent formore than 2 sessions or come late.

• Outline of the course

• Phrase

• Clause

• Sentence

• Topic

• Topic sentence

• Supporting topic sentences

• Paragraph

• Composition

• Essay

• NOW! What is a phrase?

• Phrase :

• A phrase is a group of words acting asa single part of speech and notcontaining both a subject and a verb.It is a part of a sentence, and doesnot express a complete thought.

• Which are phrases here? How many?

• phrases are italicized.• The sentence contains five phrases: "of

words," "acting as a single part of speech," "asa single part," "of speech," and "notcontaining both a subject and a verb." Exceptfor the phrase beginning with as, all thephrases are acting as adjectives. The phrasebeginning with as is adverbial.

• A phrase is a group of related words that lacks botha subject and a verb. Because it lacks a subject anda predicate it cannot act as a sentence.(Dictionary .com)

• A phrase typically functions as a single part ofspeech in a sentence

• What are the factions of a phrase?• A phrase functions as a noun, verb, adverb,

adjective or preposition in a sentence. The functionof a phrase depends on its construction (the wordsit contains). On the basis of their functions andconstructions, phrases are divided into differenttypes

• noun phrase, verb phrase, adverb phrase, adjective phrase,appositive phrase, infinite phrase, participle phrase andgerund phrase

• Noun PhraseA noun phrase consists of a noun as the head word and other words (usually modifiersand determiners) which come after or before the noun. The whole phrase works as anoun in a sentence.A sentence can also contain more noun phrases.For example. The girl with blue eyes bought a beautiful chair.

• Prepositional phrase.• A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition and object of preposition(noun or

pronoun) and may also consist of other modifiers.e.g. on a table, near a wall, in the room, at the door, under a tree

• Adjective Phrase.An adjective phrase is a group of words that functions like an adjective in a sentence. It consistsof adjectives, modifier and any word that modifies a noun or pronoun.

• Adverb PhraseAn adverb phrase is a group of words that functions as an adverb in a sentence. It consists ofadverbs and other words (preposition, noun, verb, modifiers) that make a group which workslike an adverb in a sentence.An adverb phrase functions like an adverb to modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb.

• Adverbs can modify adjectives, but anadjective cannot modify an adverb.

• A prepositional phrase can also act as an adverb phrase. Forexample in above sentence “He always behaves in a goodmanner”, the phrase “in a good manner” is a prepositionalphrase but it acts as adverb phrase here.

• Verb Phrase• A verb phrase is a combination of a main verb and its auxiliaries (helping verbs) in a sentence.•

Infinitive Phrase• An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive (to + simple form of verb) and modifiers or other words

associated to the infinitive.• Gerund Phrase• A gerund phrase consists of a gerund (verb + ing) and modifiers or other words associated with the gerund.

A gerund phrase acts as a noun in a sentence.

• Participle PhraseA participle phrase consists of a present participle (verb + ing) and a pastparticiple (verb ending in -ed or other form in case of irregular verbs) andmodifiers or other related words. A participle phrase is separated bycommas.Absolute Phrase

• Absolute phrase (also called nominative phrase) is a group of wordsincluding a noun or pronoun and a participle as well as any relatedmodifiers. An absolute phrase modifies (give information about) the entiresentence. It resembles a clause but it lack a true finite verb. It is separatedby a comma or pairs of commas from the rest of the sentence.

A true finite verb is the verb which shows tense, person, and number (eithersingular or plural).)

A non-finite verb,is the verb form without tense or person. They are what we know as the verbal

وارهفعل : the infinitives, gerunds, and the present or past participles. In theseforms, the verbs no longer function as verbs; they function either as nouns oradjectives.

Appositive phrase:A noun, noun phrase, or series of nouns placed next toanother word or phrase to identify or rename it.

Saint Valentine, the patron saint of lovers, was never married.

• Do the exercises: identify these phrases and state their functions.

1. Small children often insist that they can do it by themselves.

2. To read quickly and accurately is Eugene's goal.

3. The arctic explorers were caught unawares by the spring breakup.4. Frankenstein is the name of the scientist not the monster.

5. I consider Loki my favorite cat.

6. John is trying to decide whether she wants to go to medical school or to go to law school.

7. He did not have all the ingredients the recipe called for; so, he decided to make somethingelse.

8. After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent.

9. We will meet at the library at 3:30 p.m.

10. Running a marathon in the Summer is thirsty work.

11. I am planning to buy a house next month.

12. I was driven mad by the sound of my neighbor's constant piano practicing.

13. My father-in-law locked his keys in the trunk of a borrowed car.

14. We saw Peter dashing across the quadrangle.

15. We picked up the records broken in the scuffle.

16. She bought some spinach when she went to the corner store.

17. In early October, he planted some tulip bulbs; but squirrels ate the bulbs and none bloomed.

18. We will meet at the library at 3:30 P.M.

19. The dogs were capering about the clown's feet.

• Clause“ A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a predicate” Dictionary.com

A clause is a group of words that must contain a subject and predicate. Webster.com

He laughed.

There are two types of clauses:

• independent clauses –(main clauses):• dependent clauses – (subordinate clauses):

• Function of Subordinate Clauses• A subordinate (dependent) clause may function as a noun, an adjective or an adverb

in sentence. On the basis of their function in a sentence, subordinate clauses can bedivided into the following types.

1. Noun Clause2. Adjective Clause.3. Adverb Clause

• Noun Clause“A dependent clause that functions as a noun in a sentence is called noun clause.”A noun clause performs same function as a noun in a sentence.

• Adjective Clause“A dependent clause that functions as an adjective in a sentence iscalled adjective clause.”

Adjective clauses beginning with relative pronoun (that, who, whom,whose, which,..) and are also called relative clauses.

There are two types of adjective (relative) clauses:restrictive clauses or nonrestrictive clauses

Restrictive and Nonrestrictive ClausesA restrictive clause limits the meaning of preceding noun or pronoun. Anonrestrictive clause tells us something about preceding noun or pronoun butdoes not limit the meaning of preceding noun or pronoun.

•The student in the class who studied a lot passed the test. (restrictive clause)

•The student in the class, who had attended all the lectures, passed the test.(nonrestrictive clause)

• Adverb Clause“A dependent clause that functions as an adverb in a sentence is called adverbclause”:

• Sentence

• What is a sentence?

• The sentence is traditionally defined as a word orgroup of words expressing a complete idea andincludes a subject and a verb. (Martin L. Arnaudetand Mary Ellen Barrett)

Functional Types of Sentences

Affirmative:

A sentence in the form of a statement (in contrast to a command, a question,or an exclamation).

Declarative: اظھاری–اخباریIn a declarative sentence, the subject normally precedes the predicate. Adeclarative sentence states a fact or description about something

Interrogative:

In interrogative sentences, the subject is sometimes located in the predicatehalf of the sentence.

Exclamatory:

An exclamatory sentence uses expression or voice to present information.Sentences expressing some strong feelings or emotions such as joy, sorrow,regret, surprise, wonder etc., are called exclamatory sentences

Imperative:

An imperative sentence issues a command. Sentences which expressorders, commands, requests, advice, proposals or suggestions are calledimperative sentences.

Optative sentences ( تمنایی(These are not as common as the other sentences. Sentences whichexpress an ardent wish, prayer, curse etc., are calledگرم optativesentences.

• 1. "How beautiful a street is in winter!" (Virginia Woolf)

• 2. "Have the skillet hot and keep it well greased." (Ernest Hemingway)• 3. "We boarded our train with feelings of unbounded relief." (James Weldon Johnson)

• 4. "Each cell measured about ten feet by ten and was quite bare within except for a plankbed and a pot of drinking water." (George Orwell)

• 5. "Where were the blackbirds?" (Richard Jefferies)

• 6. "Always obey your parents, when they are present." (Mark Twain)

• 7. "The house was so big that there was always a room to hide in, and I had a red pony and agarden where I could wander." (W.B. Yeats)

• 8. "Even now, the sight of an old, six-inch, worm-eaten cork brings fragrant memories!"(Samuel H. Scudder)

• 9. "Why does a funeral always sharpen one's sense of humor and rouse one's spirits?" (GeorgeBernard Shaw)

• 10. "And whom should we see in the evening, but our two little boys, walking on each side of afierce, yellow-faced, bearded man!" (William Makepeace Thackeray)

• 11. "How can any deny themselves the pleasure of my company?" (Zora Neale Hurston)

• 12. "He was exceedingly poor, wearing only a ragged shirt and trousers." (James Huneker)

• 13. "Quietly go in, sit down, look at your man until you have seen him enough, and then go."(H.G. Wells)

• 14. "I looked tired, but my complexion was good." (Emma Goldman)

• 15. "Not a man in London made a better boot!" (John Galsworthy)

• conditional sentences: (complicated ones with different views and terms)

• conditional sentences are sentences discussing factualimplications or hypothetical situations and theirconsequences. Languages use a variety of conditionalconstructions and verb forms (such as the conditionalmood , ) to form such sentences.

• Syntactically, the condition is the subordinate clause, and theconsequence is the main clause. However, the properties ofthe entire sentence are primarily determined by theproperties of the condition (its tense and degree offactualness).

• Conditional clauses are of two kinds, distinguished by the form andmeaning of the principal clause.

• Type I : open conditionals( factual) : is represented by sentences like:• If the rain stops I shall go for a walk.

• If you are right, then I am wrong.

• Tense used here: A great many combinations of tenses may be usedin here.a. Tense in 'if' clause: Present Tense -Tense in Main clause: Present/ Future

•

• Tense in 'if‘ clause: Present/ future progressive

• Tense in main clause :Future Perfect/ Past / Imperative / Future

• Tense in 'if' clause: Past Tense in main clause: Present/ Past /Future

• Tense in 'if'-clause: Present Perfect Main clause: Future/present

• This sentence (with should) suggests a more remote possibility.

NOTE: The Future Tense cannot be used in the if clause even when the meaning isfuture, e.g.

I shall go for a walk if the rain will stop. (WRONG)

I shall go for a walk if the rain stops. (RIGHT)

Will is only possible in such cases if it is used to express not future but willingness, e.g.

If you will sign this agreement, I will let you have the money at once.

This could be expressed rather more politely with would:

If you would (would be so kind as to/would be kind enough to) sign this agreement, Iwill let you have the money at once.

2. Hypothetical Conditionals/ Supposition ( حالت/(Such sentences make a hypothesis which may be contrary to fact.

a. Present Time: condition refers to present

tense in “if” clause : Past Tense in Main clause : Present (in Persian: simplefuture in the past)

b. Past Time/ Condition refers to the past /implies negative.tense in “if” clause : Past perfect Tense in Main clause: Past ( complete future in

the past)

c. Future Time: The idea of futurity is often expressed by the same construction as usedin present

tense in “if” clause : Past Tense in Main clause : Future (simple future in the past)

• inversion in conditionals

• When the if clause contains one of the auxiliary verbswere, had or should, it can be replaced by a clausewithout 'if' by inversion of verb and subject, e.g.

2. conditional sentences are divided into three types based on their meanings: real,predictive, and imaginative.

• Real conditional sentences can express generalizations and inferences.

1. Generalizations: include facts that are always true and never change, and theyinclude present or past habitual activities that are or were usually true.

Tense: same tense (usually simple present or simple past) in both clauses.

However, if the simple present tense is used in the if-clause, will + verb can be used inthe main clause without changing the meaning.

• 2. Inferences : Tense: real conditionals expressing inferencesusually have parallel verb phrases in both clauses. However, if amodal which explicitly expresses an inference (must or should, forexample) is used in the main clause, parallel verb phrases are notused.

• B. Predictive conditional sentences can express predictions and plans.

• Tense in the “if” clause simple present Tense in the result clause: will or be goingto. May or should can be used in the result clause to express less certainty.

• C. Imaginative conditional:

• Imaginative conditional sentences can express hypothetical or contrary-to-factevents or states.

• In this type of conditional sentence, past tense refers to present or future time; pastperfect tense refers to past time, were (not was) is used with singular subjects.

• 1. Hypothetical events or states are unlikely but possible in the present or future.

• Tense in the if-clause: past tense Tense in the result clause: would + verb (or might orcould + verb).

• 2. Contrary-to-fact events or states are either impossible in the present time or did nothappen in the past.

• Imaginative conditionals expressing present contrary-to-fact events or states:

• Tense in “if”-clause: past Tense in the result clause: would + verb (or might …)

• Imaginative conditional sentences expressing past contrary-to-fact events or states:

• Tense in “if” clause : past perfect in the result clause : would + have + 3rd form of theverb (or might or could + have…….). E.g.

•

• 1. If the rain stops I ....go for a walk.

• 2. If you are right, then I ..... wrong.

• 3. If I get this right, I ...every question correctly.

• 4. If what you say ....right, then what I said were wrong.

• 5. If you meet Henry, tell.... him I ....to see him.

• 6. If you should be passing, ..... and see us.

• 7. If the train should be late, what ....you....?• 8. If I said that, I.....• 9. If I said that I …..mistaken. (past)

• 10. If I made a mistake, ...to remedy it.• 11. If I have made a mistake, I …..try to remedy it.

• 12. If you .....your work, You may go to the cinema.

• 13. If Henry ....here, he would know the answer.

• 14. If I ...the money, I would buy a new car.

• 15. If wishes ....horses, beggars would ride. `

• 16. If John worked hard, he ....the exam.

• 17. If Henry ...here, he would know the answer.

• 18. If I had the money, I .....buy a new car.

• 19. If you .....there, you would see what I mean.

• 20. If our train ......arrive punctually, we should have time to visit your sister.

• 21. .......John here now , he would explain the whole matter.

22. ….our train to arrive punctually at 12, we should have time to visit yoursister.

23. …..you asked me, I would have told you the answer.

24. I will go, ……it be necessary.

25.If water…., it turns to steam.

26. If he eats breakfast, he …better all day.

27. If he ate breakfast, he … better all day.

28. When water boils, it …. to steam.

29. If today is Wednesday, it ….George’s birthday.

30. If I can do it, anyone ….it.

31. if it……, the streets are getting wet.

32. If he were at school, he ……. the accident.

33. If the exam is hard, many students …….

34. If Mary does well on the final exam, she …..an A in the class.

35. If Fred studies, he ……the exam.

36. If George had enough money, he …..a new car.

37. If I had won the lottery, I …….you a present.

• Ascriptive Sentence: A sentence, usually constructed with a copula, in which aquality is attributed to someone or something.

• Existential Sentence A sentence that asserts the existence or nonexistence ofsomething. For this purpose, English relies on constructions introduced by There(known as the "existential there").

• The verb most often used in existential sentences is a form of be, though other verbs(e.g., exist, occur) may follow the existential there.

• There is always some madness in love. But there is also always some reason inmadness

• Garden-Path Sentence In psycholinguistics, a sentence that is ambiguous or confusingbecause it contains a word group which appears to have more than one structuralanalysis.

• Put the box on the table in the kitchen.

• Loose sentences: This sentence is a basic statementwith a string of details added to it.EX: John was happy that as a result of hard work forthe first time ever he got an A on his report card.

• Periodic sentences: In this sentence, additional detailsare placed before the basic statement.As a result of celebrating and drinking too muchchampagne, John was drunk.

• combination sentences: In this sentence, additionaldetails are added before and after the basicstatement.

•

•

Kinds of Sentences According to StructureA sentence may consist of one clause (independent clause) ormore clauses (independent and dependent clauses). Anindependent clause is also called main clause. A dependentclause is also called subordinate clause.

the simple sentences, the compound sentences, the complexsentences, and the compound-complex sentences.

• Simple sentence

• A simple sentence consists of only one independent clause/main clausecontaining a subject and a verb and it expresses complete thought. There is nodependent clause.

Compound Sentences

Compound sentences contain two statements connected by a conjunction (i.e., and,but, or, etc.). A compound sentence consists of at least two independent clausesjoined by coordinating conjunctions. There is no dependent clause in a compoundsentence. The coordinating conjunctions ربطحروف used to join independentclauses are “ for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so” . Independent clauses can also be joined by asemicolon (;). A comma may or may not be used before the conjunction in compoundsentences. .

• Complex SentenceA complex sentence consists of one independent clause and at least one dependent clausejoined by subordinating conjunction (because, although, since, when,unless etc) or relative pronoun (that, who, which etc).

Complex - Compound SentenceA complex-compound sentence consists of at least two independents and one or moredependent clauses. It is also sometimes called compound-complex Sentence.

• Kernel sentence:• In transformational grammar, a simple declarative construction with only one

verb is called Kernel. A kernel sentence is always active and affirmative

• cleft sentence

• A cleft sentence is a complex sentence in which a simplesentence is expressed using a main clause and asubordinate clause. In English the typical cleft sentencehas the following form:

•

• Exercises, Simple, Compound, or Complex•

Directions: Identify the following sentences as simple, compound, or complex based on the material about simple,compound, and complex sentences .

• 1: The teacher walked into the classroom, greeted the students, and took attendance.– Simple

CompoundComplex

• 2: Peter played football while Janet went shopping.– Simple

CompoundComplex

• 3: Juan played football, yet Juanita went shopping.– Simple

CompoundComplex

• 4: Although Iran has the better football team, it lost.– Simple

CompoundComplex

• 5: The island was filled with many winding trails , a small lake, and dangerous wild pigs.– Simple

CompoundComplex

• 6: Nokia passed the test because he studied hard and understood the text better.– Simple

CompoundComplex

1: Helen Keller was born in Alabama, in 1880 and died in 1968.Simple Compound Complex

2: Until she was 19 months of age, her sight and hearing were normal.– Simple Compound Complex

3: At the age of 19 months, a severe illness left her deaf and blind.– Simple Compound Complex

4: When she was seven, she began her education in reading and writing with Anne of the Perkins Institute for the Blind.– Simple Compound Complex

5: Through persistence and stubbornness, Anne breaks through Helen's walls of silence and darkness and teaches her tocommunicate.

– Simple Compound Complex

6: Helen Keller learned to read by the Braille system, and she learned to write by using a specially constructed typewriter.– Simple Compound Complex

7: Later, she entered Radcliffe College and graduated with honors in 1904.– Simple Compound Complex

8: Helen Keller's story needed to be told, so in 1962, a beautiful movie was made about her life.– Simple Compound Complex

9: "If there were only joy in the world, we could never learn to be brave and patient." -- Helen Keller– Simple Compound Complex

10: "Life is either a daring adventure, or it is nothing." -- Helen Keller– Simple Compound Complex

1.Pauline and Bruno have a big argument every summer over where they should spend

their summer vacation.

A. Simple Sentence B. Compound SentenceC. Complex Sentence D. Compound-Complex Sentence

2. Pauline loves to go to the beach and spend her days sunbathing.A. Simple Sentence B. Compound SentenceC. Complex Sentence D. Compound-Complex Sentence

3. Bruno, on the other hand, likes the view that he gets from the log cabin up in the

mountains, and he enjoys hiking in the forest.A. Simple Sentence B. Compound Sentence

C. Complex Sentence D. Compound-Complex Sentence

4. Pauline says there is nothing relaxing about chopping wood, swatting mosquitoes, and

cooking over a woodstove.

A. Simple Sentence B. Compound SentenceC. Complex Sentence D. Compound-Complex Sentence

5. Bruno dislikes sitting on the beach; he always gets a nasty sunburn.A. Simple Sentence B. Compound SentenceC. Complex Sentence D. Compound-Complex Sentence

6. He tends to get bored sitting on the beach, watching the waves, getting sand in his T Shirt

, and reading detective novels for a week.A. Simple Sentence B. Compound SentenceC. Complex Sentence D. Compound-Complex Sentence

•

• 7. This year, after a lengthy, noisy debate, they decided to take separate vacations.A. Simple Sentence B. Compound SentenceC. Complex Sentence D. Compound-Complex Sentence

• 8. Bruno went to the White Mountains of New Hampshire, and Pauline went to Cape

• Cod.A. Simple Sentence B. Compound Sentence

C. Complex Sentence D. Compound-Complex Sentence

• 9. Although they are 250 miles apart, they keep in constant contact on the internet.A. Simple Sentence B. Compound SentenceC. Complex Sentence D. Compound-Complex Sentence

• 10. Bruno took the desktop computer that he uses at work, and Pauline sits on the

• beach with her laptop computer, which she connects to the internet with a

• cellular phone.A. Simple Sentence B. Compound SentenceC. Complex Sentence D. Compound-Complex Sentence

• 1. I made an airplane out of stone.("Stone Airplane")

• 2. I put a piece of cantaloupe underneath the microscope.("Nope")

• 3. Oaties stay oaty, and Wheat Chex stay floaty, and nothing can take the puff out ofPuffed Rice. ("Cereal")

• 4. While fishing in the blue lagoon , I caught a lovely silver fish. ("TheSilver Fish")

• 5. They say if you step on a crack, you will break your mother's back. ("Sidewalking")

• 6. They just had a contest for scariest mask, and I was the wild and daring one

• who won the contest for scariest mask--and (sob) I'm not even wearing one.

• ("Best Mask?") (that is, it’s the face itself that is scary).

• 7. My voice was raspy, rough, and cracked . ("Little Hoarse")• 8. I opened my eyes and looked up at the rain, and it dripped in my head and

• flowed into my brain. ("Rain")

• 9. They say that once in Zanzibar a boy stuck out his tongue so far that it reached

• the heavens and touched a star, which burned him rather badly. ("The Tongue

• Sticker-Outer")

• 10. I'm going to Camp Wonderful beside Lake Paradise across from Blissful Mountain

• in the Valley of the Nice. ("Camp Wonderful")

• 11. I joke with the bats and have intimate chats with the cooties who crawl through my hair.("The Dirtiest Man in the World")

• 12. The animals snarled and screeched and growled and whinnied and

• whimpered ...زوزه and hooted and howled and gobbled ...با حرص و ولع up thewhole ice cream stand. ("Ice Cream Stop")

• 13. The antlers of a standing moose, as everybody knows, are just the perfect

• place to hang your wet and drippy clothes. ("A Use for a Moose")

• 14. We'll walk with a walk that is measured and slow, and we'll go where the chalk-white

• arrows go. ("Where the Sidewalk Ends") painted arrows on roads, that are the color (white) of chalk

• 15. If I had a brontosaurus, (dinosaur) I would name him Horace or Morris. ("If I Had a

• Brontosaurus")

• 16. I am writing these poems from inside a lion, and it's rather dark in here. ("It's Dark in

• Here")

• 17. A piece of sky broke off and fell through the crack in the ceiling right into my soup. ("Sky

• Seasoning")

• 18. The grungy, grumpy, grouchyبدخلق Giant grew tired of his frowny poutبد عنق andلب

• hired me and Lee to lift the corners of his crumbling mouth. ("The Smile Makers")• 19. If you were only one inch tall, you'd ride a worm to school. ("One Inch Tall")

• 20. The traffic light simply would not turn green, so the people stopped to wait as the traffic

• rolled and the wind blew cold, and the hour grew dark and late. ("Traffic Light")

Oaties is the name of a cereal and oaty is a made-up adjective suggesting that the cereal bits don't getsoggy in milk. Another cereal, Wheat Chex float (so again a made-up adjective: floaty). Puffed Rice,another cereal, stay puffy (crispy) and, again, don't get soggy in milk.

Just a phrase about the superstition of avoiding stepping on cracks in the sidewalk. This is a rhymingproverb: it’s bad luck to step on a pavement crack - something tragic will follow.

an example of bathos: sentence begins with big, extraordinary statement, ends with something muchmore commonplace. Also a kind of cautionary tale – i.e. don’t be too ambitious or you’ll get hurt. Ifone imagines his tongue touching a star, it would burn him because a star is a burning fire ball (like thesun).

An exaggeration--all these are fictitious places. Put together, they paint a picture of some greathappiness or you’re are going to a pleasant place/ escaping.

These are all the animal sounds. All these sounds are filling up the (air) in the ice cream stand.

Not that one could actually hang clothes from a (living) moose, but because the antlers have manyknobs and protrusions, one would have many "hooks" to hang things on.

Very imagistic--as if solid, a piece of sky came through the roof and crack in the ceiling and "seasoned"the soup, like salt would. What flavor would the sky give? Probably depends on if it's overcast or notImage of a giant who doesn't smile and two kids each take a side of his (crumbling=frowning) mouthand lift the sides to create a smile.

Image of a tiny person, so small they could climb on the back of a worm and ride like a horse toschool.

(A comment on how people obey or fail to act--if the light doesn't change to green for some people,they stop and wait and wait (and do nothing)

• Sentence connectors (coherence.)• Sentence connectors are used to link ideas from one sentence to the next and to give

paragraphs coherence. Sentence connectors perform different functions and areplaced at the beginning of a sentence. They are used to introduce: order, contrast,sequence etc.

• Logical / sequential order

• Contrast• Comparison• Order of importance• Result

Reason

• Subordinators• Subordinators are linking words that are used to join clauses

together. They are used at the beginning or in the middle of asentence.

• Common subordinators• Below are some examples of commonly used subordinators.• Comparison & Contrast• Possibility

• Cause / effect

• Place & manner

• Time

• Linking words and phrases

Although some of these words have alreadybeen mentioned as sentence connectors, theycan also be used to develop coherence within aparagraph, that is linking one idea / argumentto another.

• Sequence

Addition

Reason

• Example

• Contrast

Emphasis

• Sequence

• Fill in the blanks with a logical or sequence connector each1. There is no more food left. ______ there is plenty of drinks.2. The Interact Club has done well to help the poor. ______ the Welfare

Club has done well too.3. The documents will be scrutinized by the police. ______ they will be

sent back to the relevant authority.4. The retailer has been making losses. ______ he intends to wind up his

business.5. Wash the potatoes first. ______ you can boil them.6. We have been trying to contact Michael for the past few days. ______

we managed to trace him to a hotel in town.7. Life in the country may not be as exciting as life in the city. ______

you are close to nature which provides peace and quietness.8. The dog will bark without fail every time the ice-cream man passes

by. ______ it will start howling.9. Let us not be complacent with ourselves. ______ we may lose out in

the final round.10. Lopez has experienced poverty and hardship before. ______ he has

a sympathetic heart towards the poor and needy.

1. Your aunt is resting in the next room. So walk softly ______ disturb her.(A) so as to (B) in order to (C) so as not to (D) so that

2. ______ you are so interested, I won't persuade you to give up. ______ do check with theagent before you purchase it.

(A) If, In order (B) As, However (C) Unless, Though (D) Because of, So3. Tea should be served in every meeting ______ the members will not be sleepy.

(A) although (B) even if (C) as (D) so that4. ______ she adds salt. ______ she pours in the milk. ______ she beats the eggs.

(A) Before, Second, Third (C) First, Secondly, Finally(B) After, So, Then (D) Then, So, Finally

5. The boys encountered lots of problems ______ trying to get to the island. ______ theymanaged to reach the island in time before the sharks came.

(A) while, Nevertheless (C) then, However(B) during, Nevertheless (D) as, However

6. Sheila has not bothered to tidy up her room ______ her cousin came to stay.(A) then (B) since (C) as (D) in order

7. ______ her shortcomings, she is lucky to get the job.(A) However (B) As a result (C) In view of (D) Consequently

8. ______ the monsoon season, the fishermen managed to obtain a good income.(A) Even (B) As (C) Although (D) In spite of

9. Steven could not eat curry and ______ could David.. (A)so (B)neither (C)either (D) but10. ______ Mr. Lee and Mr. Abdullah came to the company ______ the manager was not in.

(A) As well as, and (C) Although, and(B) Both, but (D) Neither, but

• Fill in the blanks with suitable connectors.1. My sister was in the dentist's office for ten minutes. ______, I sat in the

waiting room with an old magazine in my hands. ( First, Meanwhile, Later )2. An hour passed but there was no sign of Mike. ______, we decided to go

home. ( Until, Before, Finally )3. We bumped into Salsa during our trip to Lang Island. A few weeks ______,

we met him again ( after, then, later )4. The teacher had trouble telling the twins apart. ______ she realized one had

a mole above her lips. ( Subsequently, Finally, Meanwhile )5. The men went to a nearby restaurant for breakfast. ______, they drove off

towards the Penang Bridge ( After, Afterwards, Meanwhile )6. The football coach announced, "Today, we will begin practicing for the

coming match." ______ he added, "Let's warm up first." ( Then, After,Eventually )

7. ______, heat the oil in the frying pan. Then put in all the marinated chickenpieces. ( Before, After, First )

8. Many customers bought the delicious chicken pies. ______ all the pies weresold out. ( Eventually, Afterwards, Next )

9. Many people wanted to buy the tickets. ______ a while, the queue was quitelong. ( Before, After, Finally )

10. Nazila will be back in fifteen minutes. ______, make yourself at home.( Later, Subsequently, Meanwhile )

• Correct punctuation,

• The standard punctuation marks are: period (.); question mark (?); exclamation mark(!); comma (,); semi-colon (;); colon (:); dash (-); parenthesis (); brackets []; quotationmarks (" ... ")

• 1. Sentences end with a period, an exclamation mark, or a question mark.

• A sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a period,

• The period is called a full stop. (Declarative)

• What a lovely time we had! (Exclamatory)

• Have you seen Shakespeare's Hamlet? (Interrogative)

• Halt! This was the command he heard. (Imperative)

• 2. Punctuation within the sentence:

A. Comma (,):

• (1) Words, phrases, and clauses in series are separated by commas.

• 1. He is tall, dark, and handsome.

2. The book tells the story of an old man, of his young wife, and of their manyproblems of adjustment.

3. Who he was, why he married her, what their problems were, and how it allended happily, are told with all the skill of a good storyteller.

• (2) Nouns of direct address are set off from the rest of the sentence by commas:

• Harry, have you found my books?

• I am going to have my examinations next month, Harry.

• I know, Harry, that you think I have not been studying.

(3) Words, phrases, and clauses in apposition (called appositives) are set off bycommas:

NOTE that a restrictive or limiting clause is not set off by commas, as in thesentence

• (4) Expressions that indicate some limitation to the expressed thought are setoff by commas:

•

•

(5) Statements or clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction (and, but,for, or, etc.) are separated by the comma:

• NOTE that, when the subject is the same and the sentence is short acomma may not be required:

(6) The comma is used with expressions such as e.g., i.e., namely, that is,

• to Introduce an example:

• (7) A comma is used to indicate an omitted repetition of a word orphrase:

(8) In direct discourse the comma separates the introductory statement from thequotation:

B. Semicolon (;):

As its name implies this mark is an intermediate one, somewhat stronger thanthe comma, yet not a full stop.

(1) A semicolon connects closely related independent statements or clauseswhere no conjunction is used:

(2) A semicolon is used to separate two statements or clauses when the second onebegins with a conjunctive adverb:

(3) When statements or clauses already have internal punctuation a semi-colon isused:

• C. The colon (:):

•(1) The colon is used to introduce a summary of items or a generalsummation:

(2) The colon is used to indicate definition, restatement, or opposition theآ) secondsentence explains the meaning of the the first sentence more fully)

(3) In direct discourse, a colon follows a quotation made up of more than onesentence:

• D. The dash (-):

• The dash is used in many of the same ways as the comma, semicolon, andcolon: it provides a somewhat sharper break than is usually required however.Therefore, the dash should be used only when strong emphasis is required.

•• E. The parenthesis ( ):• These marks are used to enclose explanatory words, phrases, and short

statements where stronger separation than the comma is required.

• Numbered series in continuing text are usually in ( ).

•

• F. The bracket []:

• Brackets are used to enclose an incidental word or phrase, or a commentadded by another person or an editor [for the purpose of explanation] .

• G. The apostrophe ('):

• This mark is used in forming the possessive case and in contractions.• H. The quotation marks (" "), (' ').

• Standard usage requires the so called double marks (occasionally (the writerwill use single marks and then double marks) and single marks for quotationwithin quotation.

• (I) Direct quotation:

(2) For material quoted from a book or paper, the opening mark is placed atthe beginning of the first line of the quotation with the final mark at the endof the completed quotation ( a set-off quotation).

(3) Unusual words or phrases, such as technical terms or special meaning ofwords, slang, and so on, may be enclosed in quotation marks:

• NOTE these special uses of punctuation:

• He asked, "Did you go?"

• Did you hear her shout, “ I will not?"• I answered, "What a thing to say!"

How puzzled I was when he called out "Stop!"

• I. Hyphen (-)

• 1. Use a hyphen to join two words that form one idea together.

• 2. Use a hyphen to join prefixes to words.

• 3. Use a hyphen when writing compound numbers.

• Commas:The comma tells the reader to pause, Below are four general ways touse commas with a reasonable degree of certainty.

• 1) Between Items in a Series.When you are listing three or more items in a sentence,.

• 2) Between Two Sentences• You’ ll remember that a semicolon is used to connect two sentences.

However, more often we glue two sentences together with a commaand conjunction (such as and or but). So, when you put twosentences together with a conjunction, you must also include acomma. That is, the conjunction and comma are equivalent to asemicolon when you’ re connecting sentences.

• Note., SENTENCE, conjunction, SENTENCEWhen you may use a conjunction but do not not have a completesentence on both sides of it. In this case you do not need a comma.

• One last bit of advice: if your sentence is very short(perhaps 5 to 10 words), you do have the option ofomitting the comma if you wish. Because yourreader can usually understand a short sentencemore readily than a long one,

More about commas: Attaching Word to the Front or Back of Your SentenceMost of the sentences we compose really consist of a short core sentence with manydetails added to that core sentence. Frequently, we add information to sentences byattaching one or more words to the front or back of the core sentence. In this casewe use commas.Remember that when you add information to the front or back of a sentence, youwant to help your readers understand your message.

• On Both Sides of a Nonessential Component (RE. CL)

• Often, you will insert a group of words into the middle of a sentence. Sometimes thisgroup of words will need to be set off by commas from the rest of the sentence, andsometimes you will not need commas. In order to tell whether you need commas,you must make a judgment about whether the added words are essential to themeaning of the sentence or whether they simply provide extra detail.

• If a group of words is added to a sentence but does not affect the meaning of thesentence when it is removed, then it is not essential.

• In order to tell a reader that a group of words is a nonessential component, you placecommas in front and in back of the group of words. However, if omitting the group ofwords would drastically change the meaning of the sentence, then those words arenot a component; rather, they are essential to the meaning of the sentence. In thatcase, you would not want to put commas on either side of the component so that thereader knows that those words are absolutely important to the meaning of thesentence.

•

• Rules for Commas (summarized)

• 1. Use a comma to separate 2 independent clausesjoined by

• for , and, nor, but , or, yet, so ( short linkers)

• When the 2 independent clauses are very short, somepeople don't use commas. However, if you use acomma, it is still okay.

Ali likes cheese cake, but Carol likes chocolate cake.

Ali likes cheese cake but Carol likes chocolate cake

2. If there is a list of three or more items, use a comma.Mom bought grapes, bananas, and strawberries.

3. If there are two or more adjectives in a row.Tim is a handsome, smart man.

4. When a dependent clause, unnecessary word, or unnecessary phrase AND anindependent clause are put together, there is usually a comma.

Unless I see you, I won't go.5. When an adjective clause is unnecessary, use commas.• The president of the company, who is a Harvard graduate, plans on retiring at the end

of the month.6. Use commas before a direct quote.

Mark said, “I loved visiting China and Korea.”7. A name or title that is used to address or call a person to attention.

When, Sir, you come back to this hotel, I cannot guarantee you a room.NOTE: When the name is with an important term of identification, don't use a comma.

Alexander the Great8. A comma usually follows a transition word.

Robert studied for a whole week; therefore, he got an A+. (Two independent clausesso we have ; before coordinating adverb and commas after)Robert studied for a whole week. Therefore, he got an A+.Dorm lessons, however, can be just as useful as classroom lessons. (not independent

clauses)

• Punc. For Comp. sentences :

• A. Independent clause, coordinating conjunction independent clause.

• B. Independent clause; conjunctive adverb, independent clause.

• C. Independent clause; independent clause.

• Punc. For Compl. sentences :

• A. Dependent clause, independent clause

• B. Independent clause dependent clause

• C. Independent, nonessential dependent clause, clause.

• D. Independent essential dependent clause clause.

• 1. Coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS) Ic, and ic

• 2. Conjunctive adverbs Ic; therefore, ic.

• A dependent (subordinate) clause may be introduced by

• 1. Subordinating conjunctions (ADVERB CLAUSE) Dc, ic. Or Ic dc.

• 2. Relative pronouns (ADJECTIVE CLAUSE) I, dc, c. or I dc c.

• 3. Relative pronoun, subordinating conjunctions, or adverbs (NOUN CLAUSE)

• Transitional words and phrases represent one way of gaining coherence. Certainwords help continue an idea, indicate a shift of though or contrast, or sum up aconclusion. Check the following list of words to see those that will pull yoursentences and paragraphs together.

• For continuing a common line of reasoning: ( long linkers)• consequently

clearly, thenfurthermoreadditionallyandin additionmoreoverbecausebesides thatin the same wayfollowing this furtheralsopursuing this furtherin the light of the... it is easy to see that

• To change the line of reasoning (contrast):• However, on the other hand, but, yet ,nevertheless, on the contrary

COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE

Two independent clauses may be joined by1. Coordinating conjunctions Ic, and ic2. Conjunctive adverbs Ic; therefore, ic.A dependent (subordinate) clause may be introduced by1. Subordinating conjunctions (ADVERB CLAUSE) Dc, ic. or Ic dc.2. Relative pronouns (ADJECTIVE CLAUSE) I, dc, c. or I

dc c.

• Quiz• Directions: Put commas in the sentences below.

1. Ivan the Terrible is considered one of the most feared people inhistory.

2. If you would like to travel first class Madam that will cost an extra$300.

3. Rebecca asked "Can we go to the restaurant?"4. My best friend who comes from Egypt is a very nice guy.5. Even if it takes all day I am going to fix the roof.6. It seems that it will snow today because of the cold weather and

red sky.7. Japanese’s food is healthy light and not very oily.8. There was fear that another big war would start so the United

Nations was formed.9. When you meet people for the first time never talk about religion

politics and a bad boss.10. Jim wants to see a movie but Carol wants to stay home.

•

Add what you think are appropriate punctuation marks to the sentences below.

Punctuation Exercise

2. When a friend dies part of yourself dies too.

3. Picture this a Neanderthal man deep in the forest gorges on the yummies of his time fruits berriesanything sweet and pluckable.

4. Last week we read The Catbird Seat a short story by James Thurber.

5. Our three children Larry Curly and Moe have decided to enter show business.

6. When in doubt mumble when in trouble delegate.

7. An Americans devotion to McDonald's rests in part on uniformities associated with all McDonald'srestaurants setting architecture food ambience acts and utterances.

8. Some players hit the ball and stand dejected waiting for it to land others turn away and leave it to thecaddy.

9. Dynamite was lavishly used and many of San Franciscos structures were crumbled by man himself intoruins but there was no withstanding the onrush of the flames.

10. Lila who lives in a trailer with a parakeet and some scrappy dogs and cats has been the town fire wardenfor almost 30 years.

11. The woman is wearing golden stretch pants green eyelids and a hiveshaped head of hair that looks bothin color and texture exactly like 25-cents worth of cotton candy.

12. Hurling which has been the national sport of Ireland since legendary times is to American eyes like asoccer game played at icehockey speed.

13. While on maneuvers in South Carolina Billy Pilgrim played hymns he knew from childhood.

14. Guiding the ball through the upper chutes down a runover lane off the slingshot bumpers to the flippers Icradled it there bouncing it back and forth until I had a perfect shot through the lighted spinner.

15. The train its metal wheels squealing as they spin along the silver tracks rolls more slowly now.

• Transitional words : Without transitions, your writing does not flow smoothly.Transitions are words and phrases serving as bridges from on idea to the next,one sentence to the next, or one paragraph to the next. They help the reader tofind his or her own way and not get lost in the reading.

• Transitions can also be considered as the glue holding your ideas together. Theyare very important. Too many transitions can cause as much confusion as too few.

• Therefore, you don't necessarily need a transition between every idea or everysentence, but it is a good idea to use a transition between each paragraph.Transitions usually come near the beginning of a paragraph. However, you shoulduse a transition wherever it works best.

• Transitional words and phrases represent one way of gaining coherence. Certainwords help continue an idea, indicate a shift of thought or contrast, or sum up aconclusion. Check the following list of words to see those that will pull yoursentences and paragraphs together.

• For continuing a common line of reasoning: ( long linkers)• To change the line of reasoning (contrast):

• For the final points of a paragraph or essay:•

• Transitional chains, to use in separating sections of a paragraph whichis arranged in order of time……:

• To signal conclusion:

• To restate a point within a paragraph in another way or in a more exact way:

Sequence or time

What is grammar:The systematic study and description of a language.A set of rules and examples dealing with the syntax and word

structures of a language.

Basic Sentence Patterns:Pattern I (Noun + Verb) That man teaches.Pattern 2 (Noun + Verb + Adverb or Prepositional Phrase)

Ali works in a bakery.Pattern 3 (Noun + Verb + Noun)

That man teaches English.Pattern 4 (Noun + Verb + Noun + Noun)

The tailor made John a suit.Pattern 5 (Noun + Verb + Noun + Adjective or Noun)

That man called the teacher a genius.

• Pattern 6 (Noun + LV + Noun)That man is a teacher/Boys became men

• Pattern 7 (Noun + LV + Adjective/adverb/Prepositional Phrase)He was at home/He grew fat/The police became angry.

• Pattern 8 (There + LV + Noun + Adverb/Prepositional Phrase)There is teacher in the classroom/There used to be a bench there

• Pattern 9 (It + LV + Adjective, Adverb/Noun/PrepositionalPhrase)

It is ten to eight/It became lovely in spring/It is time to go.

Now Your Turn: Write some sentences for each pattern

Advanced English Writing

Introduction

Good writing is an art. You can learn how to write effectively. You only need to have aplan for writing. This plan should have four distinct phases: (a) pre-writing, (b)organization, (c) support, and (d) grammar and mechanics.

Prewriting: think before writing, consider the followings:A. Think about the subject of your writing task carefully.B. Narrow down the subject so that it can be covered within the limits defined

for you.C. Write a topic sentence which includes the topic, opinion or intent, and

some controlling ideas (limiting statements).Organization:

A. Organize your writing clearly.B. Begin and end your writing thoughtfully.C. Make relationships between ideas clear.D. Move from one sentence to another and from one paragraph to another

smoothly.Support: You must show that what you write is true so that they will believe you.

A. Support your topic sentences.B. Differentiate between topic sentence and supporting sentences.C. Use suitable evidence in supporting your ideas.D. Use suitable methods for supporting your claims.

• Grammar and mechanics: You must be able to:• Use language with precision.• Avoid common errors of grammar and usage.• Make your writing strong by revision.

Readership:• The reader is very important. The reader tells you what to write, and how to write it.

Your writing should be both interesting and valuable for the readers. So, keep thefollowing points in mind:

• A. Write about what you know.• B. Write about what the readers do not know.• C. Write about what the readers wrongly know.• D. Be specific in your writing.• E. Be precise in what you write.• F. Fully support what you write.• G. Avoid racist language.• H. Gear your grammar and words to the reader’s level.• It is the reader who determines what you write and how you write it. In this sense,

writing is interactive; the writer interacts with the reader through the text.Purpose: In English, writing is done for one of the two purposes:

A. To tell the readers about what they do not know.• B. To tell them that their knowledge is not right.

• Orderliness: Your thought units should be well ordered. Thought unitsare words, sentences, paragraphs, or longer units which show your ideasand thoughts. You should move from the beginning to the end of yourwriting in orderly way so that readers will understand what you mean.

• Smoothness: Is achieved through the followings:A. consistency in the use of verb tenses andB. choosing synonyms with care. (to avoid repetition a

better way is to use pronouns instead of nearsynonyms).

C. using synonyms, be careful to know what they exactlymean. (a good knowledge of word meaning and usageis another step toward effective writing).

D. avoid informal expressions.E. the referent for the pronouns should be clear.F. Readers should not search the text to get the referents

of pronouns. (anaphora, John who is.. cataphora, it isthe country where I live, endophora, information isincluded, exaphora, information is not included, we getit from the situation, I am here.)

Therefore, thoughtful attention to good sentence structure and wordchoice reduces the chance of bad writing.

• Length: When writing in English,A: say only what needs to be said.B. be as short and effective as possible.C. shorten long texts by deleting redundancy,

jargon, wordiness, evasiveness ( ), clumsiness)( and circumlocution, )داراز( . Weed out

overly detailed sentences. Short words and shortsentences are easier to comprehend than long ones.

D. Use no more words than needed to express meaning.( at least 8 and at most 30 sentences)

E. When you need to use long sentences, direct,declarative sentences with simple, common words areusually best

• RUN-ON SENTENCES:• A run-on sentence is a very long compound sentence made up of a lot of

simple sentences linked together by coordinating conjunctions (i.e., and, so,yet, but, or, nor). This common usage error happens when the ideas in bothsentences are closely related.

• (refer to page 129, paragraph development)• Example:• *Hasan went to Tehran and he bought a house there and he painted the house

and he lived in the house for several years and ....• Coordinate conjunctions can only link two sentences together. Other

sentences should be kept apart by the use of commas.

• EXERCISE• Mix the following simple sentences into compound ones.• 1. Jack was sick.• 2. The teacher did not call on him.• 2. The new student was very shy.• 3. Jack father became very angry.• 4. He came to school.• 5. Jack had failed his course.

• FRAGMENTS• Fragments are sentences with incomplete meanings. They are usually the result of bad

punctuation or missing either a subject or predicate. (refer to page 158, PD)

• Simple sentences are connected to make complex sentences in one of the two ways:

• (a) through the use of conjunctive adverbs, or (in addition, moreover, otherwise,..)

• (b) by means of subordinate conjunctions.

Unity: a paragraph is said to be unified if: (1) it announces its mainidea in the topic sentence, and (2) all the supporting sentencescontribute to the reader’s understanding of the main idea.

The definition sentence becomes the topic sentence. Eachcategory is expanded into major supporting sentences, and minorsupporting sentences. Now analyze this paragraph:

Cholera is an intestinal infection that can be described accordingto its cause, symptoms, and treatment. A bacterium, called Vibriocholera, is the causative agent of cholera. It can be spread throughcontaminated food, water, or feces. Cholera patients may exhibitdifferent symptoms that can vary from mild to severe. Somesymptoms are watery diarrhea and loss of water and salts. Oral orintravenous replacement of fluids and salts as well as specificantibiotics is a possible treatment for cholera. Patients can betreated with an oral rehydration solution or, in severe cases, anintravenous fluid.

When your teacher assigns a topic for you to write about, you will need:A. to narrow the topic down.B. try to find the subordinates of the topic. (Countries in a continent)C. find the coordinates of each subordinate. (Continents)D. Put the topic in the most general sentence of the paragraph. This sentence

is called the topic sentence.paragraph:is a piece of writing that consists of several sentences. A paragraph shouldalways have complete, correct, and concise sentences. It should be easy toread and well organized. It should focus on one subject, theme, or central

idea.

In other words, a paragraph could be about any subject such as a “youngboy”. If the paragraph starts out talking about the boy, it must stay the samethroughout. For example, if the writer were to talk about where a young boylives and then go on to describe what the boy looks like these are twoseparate ideas. This is demonstrated below:

John lived in San Francisco, California, with his two parents. He had his ownbedroom, which he decorated himself. He and his parents all livedcomfortably in the cozy apartment on the third floor. The apartments wereonly three blocks from where he attended J.U. High School.

• John was only five years old, but he was extremely smart for hisage. He wasn’t that tall and he was a bit on the skinny side. He hadbig blue eyes, light brown hair, rosy cheeks, and a friendly smile.Just looking at him, he seemed like any other kid-- quite normal. Yet,everyone in his class looked at him differently because John couldnever be a normal kid. Instead, he wasn’t normal. No, he was a

genius.

In this example you can see that the first paragraph is about whereJohn lives and the second paragraph covers another topic or idea,which is what he looks like. When examining a paragraph you canalways ask yourself, what is the main idea in this paragraph? If yousee two ideas as in the above example you might have to create twoparagraphs. To understand what a paragraph is and how to write one,you need to know how a paragraph is constructed.

Elements of a Paragraph:A paragraph should contain structure and particular elements, which are listed below in relative order:

The topic is the theme, or idea of your writing.

The topic sentence, generally the first sentence, tells the reader what the topic will be. A topicsentence (also known as a focus sentence) organizes an entire paragraph, and you should be careful toinclude one in most of your major paragraphs. The topic sentence is the most important sentence inthe paragraph. It is the main idea of the paragraph. The topic sentence has two parts:

the topic and the controlling idea(s).

The topic is the subject of the paragraph.

Example: The color yellow is the color of mental activity. Or Dogs make better pets than cats

Topic: the color yellow/ Dogs

The controlling idea limits or controls your topic to one aspect that you want to write about. Example:Brown is the color of material security.

(topic) (controlling idea)1.A Topic sentence- motivates the reader to read more.2.The First main point- proves, backs up, or explains the topic sentence.3.The Second main point- usually provides a reason for the first point made.4. The Third main point- can help prove the topic sentence or back up the first or second main point ofthe paragraph.5. The Conclusion-sums up the main points or ideas and it usually completes the topic.

So, a paragraph starts out with a topic sentence or idea. The topic sentence is followed by the first,second, or third main points and then details are added in between each point to explain the idea fully.Once one idea or concept has been described the paragraph is brought to a conclusion by summing upthe main points or making a transition into the next paragraph.

Example:

1. The Topic Sentence:The poodle makes a perfect pet because poodles offer their owners a companionship for life, not to mentionthat they have a loveable personality. Why?

This could be your topic sentence. It tells the reader that poodles are in fact perfect pets. This may or may not betrue and so you would need to provide proofs as to why this could be true. However, it is an interesting statementand catchy because the reader wants to hear why the author thinks so, or what justifies this statement.

Write topic sentences for these topics: supermarkets, smoking, study habits, problems between generation,registration process at a university, Foreign students in the States

Supermarket are different from shops in several respects.

Smoking have many effects on human health.

There are several methods to improve your study habits among weak students.

Sociologists consider Problems between generations from three different view points.

Registration at a university in the US consists of some steps. (Look at the pages 14 -21)

Supporting Sentences: Supporting sentences develop the topic sentence. They give the reader reasons, examples,and more facts about the topic sentence. They must all be related to the topic sentence. The supporting sentenceadds detail, proof, example or explanation to the topic sentence.

2. The First Main Point:Poodles are smart, playful, and well mannered and they love to be around people. They are always willing tolend their unquestionable love and loyalty when you need the most and they are yours for life. Why? Whydo need more?

3. The Second Main Point:Apart from being a happy spirited dog and a great companion, the poodle is small and doesn’t require alot of room, so they are ideal for apartments or city settings. Why do we need more?

4. The Third Main Point:The poodle is suited to most environments and lifestyles; whether it'll be living in the suburbs ordowntown, with one person or a couple, or even living with a family and children, the poodle fits right in.

5.Conclusion: The Concluding Sentence

The Concluding sentence is the last sentence of your paragraph. This sentence signals the end of theparagraph. The concluding sentence is similar to the topic sentence. Both are general sentences. Theconcluding sentence can be written in two ways:

1.State the topic sentence in different words. Or

2. Summarize the main points of the paragraph. Write the conclusion for the above points.

The poodle makes a perfect pet because poodles offer theirowners a companionship for life, not to mention that they havea loveable personality. Poodles are sweet, smart, playful, andwell mannered and they love to be around people. They arealways willing to lend their unquestionable love and loyaltywhen you need the most and they are yours for life. Apart frombeing a happy spirited dog and a great companion, the poodleis small and doesn’t require a lot of room, so they are ideal forapartments or city settings. The poodle is suited to mostenvironments and lifestyles; whether it be living in the suburbsor downtown, with one person or a couple, or even living with afamily and children, the poodle fits right in. The poodle is a dogthat warms your heart with its character. It becomes a part ofyour family no matter where you live and it can provide youwith love and companionship that you won’t want to dowithout. In fact, you can’t ask for a better dog.

• Parts of a Paragraph

• 1. Topic Sentence

• 2. Supporting Details

• 3. Closing Sentence

• How to Write a Paragraph

• 1. Prewriting Paragraphs

• 2. Writing Paragraphs

• 3. Editing Paragraphs

• Kinds of Paragraphs

• persuasive, argumentative , Expository / Explanatory

• METHODS (sub-divisions)

• Descriptive

• Narrative

• Compare and Contrast

• Cause and effect

• TECHNIQUES (EXAMPLE, FACTS, STATISTICS, ANECDOTE, DETAILS,EXEMPLIFICATION)

• How to Write a Good Paragraph

• Write down a main topic and topic sentence.

• Think what you want to say next about this topic.

• Ask questions: the "what", "who", "where", "why", "how' questions? Anexample: For the main topic, "I like to eat healthy", "What foods arehealthy?", "How do these foods provide good health?", are good supportingquestions, because answers to these questions help to explain the maintopic.

• Write down whatever ideas come onto your mind.

• Answer this: Do your sentences explain the "what", "who", "where", "why","how' questions? Good supporting sentences.

• Read aloud your supporting sentences. Do they sound natural to you? Ifthey don't, rewrite them.

• Compare your paragraph with the example of a well written paragraph.• Paragraph Unity

•Each paragraph must have unity. A paragraph must have one main idea. Every sentence inthe paragraph must be relevant to that main idea.

Essays

An essay is a piece of writing that is several paragraphs long. An essay, just like a paragraph, isabout one topic.

There are 3 parts.

1.An introduction, 2.A body (one or more paragraphs) 3.A conclusion

Introduction paragraph

General statements: Give the reader background information about the topic of the essay. Getthe reader interested in the topic.

Thesis statement: Introduce the main idea of the essay. Like a topic sentence in a paragraph.State the main topic and tell what will be said in the body.

Write an introductory paragraph about one of these: respect,terrorism, or Negative effects of fast foodBody paragraphsConsist of one or more paragraphs. Each paragraph has a topic sentence, supportingsentences, and sometimes a concluding sentence.

• Support whatever is stated in the thesis statement.• Are similar to the supporting sentences of a paragraph

Conclusion paragraph• Summarize the main points or restates the thesis in different words.• Include a final comment or thought on the subject.• Begin your conclusion with a transition signal such as

In conclusion,… In summary,… In summarize,

Detailed Outline

I. IntroductionA. What is the paper about (thesis statement)B. What are the points that will be coveredC. Transition sentence to Point A

II. Body paragraph A (Topic Sentence)A. Sub-point a ( or supporting sentence )B. Sub-point bC. Sub-point cD. Point A conclusion and transition to Point B (one sentence)

III. Body paragraph B (Topic Sentence)A. Sub-point aB. Sub-point bC. Sub-point cD. Point B conclusion and transition to Point C (one sentence)

IV. Body paragraph C (Topic Sentence)A. Sub-point aB. Sub-point bC. Sub-point cD. Point C conclusion and (possible) transition to Conclusion

• Kinds of Paragraph : exposition vs Argumentation• University writing falls into two major categories: exposition and argumentation. That

is, there are two major purposes for which you write. While the aim of exposition isto explain, that of argumentation is to prove or persuade. In spite of their differentaims, both forms can be developed by a number of methods of support. By methodsof support, we mean (1) enumeration, (2) chronology, (3) process, (4) description, (5)definition, (6) cause-effect, (7) comparison-contrast, and (8) argumentation.

• The relationship between these is an inclusive one. Argumentation as a three-stepprocess includes exposition. In any argumentative paragraph, we follow these threesteps:

• 1) present a personal viewpoint

• 2) explain, clarify, and illustrate that viewpoint

• 3) convince the reader that the viewpoint is valid.

• The first two stages are used in exposition. The third step is, however, specific toargumentation.

In an argumentative writing, you are required to discuss a particularproblem, you are not free to interpret a subject in any way you wish. Anability to reason and a capacity for arranging ideas in logical order areimportant requirements of an argumentative writing.

1.aims:

a.To argue for or against a suggestion without necessarily attempting topersuade the reader to agree with you. Your aim here is simply to present aviewpoint.

b.To argue in such a way as to persuade the reader to agree with you.

c.To attempt to solve a problem.

d.To discuss a problem without necessarily arriving at a solution.

2. Defining an attitude:

in any argumentative paragraph, the meaning of the subject is usuallyimmediately clear. The difficulty lies in deciding on the best way of dealingwith the subject. So, before attempting to make a plan, you must defineyour attitude. That is, the way you intend to argue.

3. subject-matter:

the ability to write a good argumentative essay depends not only on what you know but onhow well you use what you know. A few facts well used can be more effective than a greatnumber which do not add anything significant to the essay. In addition, the correctpresentation of facts is as important as the facts themselves. Do not ‘invent’ false facts toprove an idea.

4. treatment:

there are two main forms of argument: inductive and deductive. In ‘inductive’ argument,you begin with a general statement and then produce facts to prove it. In ‘deductive’argument, you infer one statement from another, we begin with a general idea and arriveat a particular one. Any way you choose to argue, your essay should be balanced and thatyou deal with both sides of the argument.

An inductive argument is an argument in which it is thought that the premises providereasons supporting the probable truth of the conclusion. In an inductive argument, thepremises are intended only to be so strong that, if they are true, then it is unlikely thatthe conclusion is false.A deductive argument is an argument in which it is thought that the premises providea guarantee of the truth of the conclusion. In a deductive argument, the premises areintended to provide support for the conclusion that is so strong that, if the premisesare true, it would be impossible for the conclusion to be false.

The difference between the two comes from the sort of relation betweenthe premises and the conclusion. If the author does not think that the truthof the premises definitely establishes the truth of the conclusion, butbelieves that their truth provides good reason to believe the conclusion tobe true, then the argument is inductive. If the author of the argumentbelieves that the truth of the premises definitely establishes the truth ofthe conclusion due to definition, then the argument is deductive.5. devices: illustration, contrast.Illustration: an abstract idea will always become clear if a definite exampleis given to illustrate it. Once you have given an illustration, it is easier todraw a conclusion.Contrast: if you are presenting both sides of a case, contrast is embodied inthe very framework of your writing. .

6. Style:keep your English as simple and as direct as possible. In addition, it is bestto avoid the first person except in case where you are specifically asked togive your own opinion.7. Planning: how you will order your ideas is for you to decide.

1.Write an argument in favor or against hunting animals for entertainment

2.Write an argument in favor or against using animals in circuses.

Writing explanation

This writing explains the writer's thoughts, feelings, ideas, and/oropinions to share knowledge about a given topic.

This writing may be based on the writer’s personal knowledge andexperience or on information presented to him. This writing conveysinformation and explains something to inform the readers.

a. We use this writing to help our reader's gain insight into how we feelabout a topic and understand an important experience or event in ourlifetime.

b. We use this writing to give step-by-step instructions on how to dosomething. For example, suppose you wanted to write a paragraphexplaining to your friend how to make chocolate cupcakes with vanillafrosting and sprinkles ( process paragraph).

Techniques of support

Supporting sentences, more specific than the topic sentence, should be able to clarify, illustrate, explain,

define, or prove the topic sentence. This is achieved through techniques of support.

1. Exemplification

Exemplification is a technique using examples to support or defend the thesis. Examples are good supportbecause they are specific; they make your meaning very clear. To give examples, the following transitionscan be used at the beginning of your paragraph or supporting sentences.

Things to Watch for

1. Examples without a point do not help your essay. make sure that your example has a point, and that thepoint is the one you’re trying to make

Signal Phrases for Examples

Signal phrases that can introduce examples ( For example or For instance,…) are followed by a comma. Infront of an example which is just a word or phrase (not an entire sentence). “Like “and “such as” canalso be used. (pages 28-29 PD)

Exercises on page 30 :

Some words in English represent people's names. X The word quisling خائن comes from the name of aNorwegian politician. (for instance) Some words in English represent people's name. The word quisling,for instance, comes from the name of a Norwegian politician. (For instance could start the secondsentence, and a semicolon could used instead of a period- between the two sentences.)

2. Some articles of clothing were named for the people who invented them. The word mackintosh (a kind ofraincoat) takes its name from Charles Macintosh, a Scottish inventor.

(for example) ……….

2. The verb to lynch (to hang someone illegally by mob action probably originated with CaptainWilliam Lynch, an eighteen century Virginian.

Some words are the actual names of the people first involved in the activities suggested by themeanings of those words.

(a good illustration of this)

3. Da Vinci and Einstein

• Intellectual heroes used their intelligence for the good of mankind.

• (such as)

4. Occasionally a literary character adds a new word to the English language.

The Spanish character Don Quixote gave us the word quixotic (extravagantly romantic orimpractical.

(can be illustrated)

5. ( for example, for instance) When writers want to give examples, they sometimes announce theseexamples with signals. (like)

6. The zeppelin takes its name from Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin. Sometimes an invention becomesknown by the name of its inventor.

• (for instance)

7. Some people, through their bad deeds, live on in the language long after they have died.Vidkun Quisling was a Norwegian politician who -betrayed his country.

(such a person)

8. zeppelin and mackintosh

• An invention sometimes becomes known by the name of its inventor.

• (good examples of the fact that)

2.facts And statistics: A fact is something which is objectively verifiable. Astatistic is a numerical fact presenting significant information about givensubject. ( p. 42 -43) descending order, (the largest to the smallest andascending is the other way around) (do ex. P.45 )

The average elderly household spends three-fourth of its budget on thenecessities of life. A survey conducted by U.S Office of the Census shows thathousing, the main necessity of life, consumes 34 percent of an average elderlycitizen’s budget. In addition, such a household spends 21.4 percent of itsbudget on food. Health care, another necessity, consumes 10.4 percent of thesaid budget. As it is evident from the graph, an average elderly householdallocates 14.4, 7.3, and 2.4 percent of its budget to transportation, recreation,and personal care, respectively. (2-16, 45, PD) (More example will be in nextslides)

• Another Example of Statistics: Hunger in the UnitedStates

• One of the most disturbing and extraordinary aspectsof life in this very wealthy country is the persistenceof hunger. The U.S. Department of Agriculture(USDA) reports, based on a national U.S. Censussurvey of households representative of the U.S.population, that in 2004, 11.9 percent of all U.S.households were "food insecure" because of lack ofresources. Of the 13.5 million households that werefood insecure, 4.4 million suffered from foodinsecurity that was so severe that USDA's veryconservative measure classified them as "hungry."

The average senior citizen’s income comes fromdifferent sources. A survey conducted by U.S. Officeof the Census shows that social security, the mainsource of income, constitutes 37 percent of income.Another 25 percent of the income comes fromearning. Assets, another source of income, provides23 percent of the average senior citizen’s income. Inaddition to these sources, pensions and othersources supply 13 and 2 percent of income,respectively.

Do exercise 3-6 on page 65

3. Details: particular part of whole thing or idea. More used indescription. e.g. (p. 34 2-7) Example 1: (2-9 page 36)

A newborn baby is really not very beautiful. First, a newborn baby,discolored or wrinkled in skin, has frequently puffy and inflamed eyes.In addition, as a result of difficult birth process, the shape of its head isdistorted. Another feature is its hair. A newborn baby mostly has eithercountable hairs or thick but unruly one. Finally, since its muscles havenot yet been developed, its movements are jerky and uncontrolled.

(do the exercise 2-7 page 34)

( do 2-10 page 37)

4. Anecdotes : Anecdotes a short description of some happening An Anecdote is apersonal story that is related to the topic . Your Anecdote may be true or mostlytrue, but should be entirely believable. Save the end of your story for theconcluding paragraph. This can be the lesson you learned, or what cameafterwards.Examples:If I could redo one choice in my life, I would choose not to ride my cousin’s motorcycle.Growing up, I wanted to be just like my cousin Chip, even when he got a dirt bike.When I was seven years old, I asked Chip if I could ride his new motorcycle. My handrevving the throttle, I took off, slid on the pavement, and became trapped under myaunt’s car. Just as I should have thought first about riding my cousin’s motorcycle, soPonyboy and Johnny should have thought of the consequences of their choices beforeacting. Because Ponyboy and Johnny made a short-sighted decision, they faceconsequences with the law, their families, and with their consciences. (Introparagraph)

Concluding Paragraph in anecdote

• The Concluding Paragraph should be the mirror image of the introductoryparagraph.

– It begins with a restated thesis in different words but in formallanguage

– It ends with a reference to the anecdote. This can be the end of thestory or the lesson learned.

Example: Ponyboy and Johnny have to deal with repercussions from the law, Ponyboy’s brothers, andعواقبtheir own feelings since they acted rashly. Similarly, I suffered a hospital stay, a summer on crutches چوب

, and my cousin’s disappointment when I crashed his new motorcycle.Practice

– Write a 2-4 sentence anecdote that would get your audience ready to read about a paragraph on:

– Should students all have their own cell phones?

– Write a story about a time when a cell phone would have been helpful.

Do the exercise (2-12, 41, PD)not knowing a language….

(2-12, 41, PD)

• Academic writing: The forms of expository andargumentative writing used by university studentsand researchers to convey a body of informationabout a particular subject.

• Generally, academic writing is expected to beprecise, formal, impersonal, and objective.

• Central Values of Academic Writing"When you write college papers, you need to remember that you aresituated within an academic community [with] clear expectations forwhat your papers should do and how they should look. you should beknow the central values subscribed by its members :

• Truth:

• A successful college paper will show that its writer can use theknowledge and methods of the discipline to reveal something that is

true.Evidence

Scholars use credible evidence to support the truths they find. Alwaysdocument sources for this evidence.

Balance

Academic convention suggests that you present your inferences, andarguments in neutral, serious, non-emotional language and be fair toother people’s points of view.

(example of paragraph with academic topic, page 33, PD)

English, as the first international language, has influenced Persianlanguage in some respects. Persian language suffers from lexical gapsespecially in the area of science and technology due to rapidlygrowing science and technology. This language fills its existing gaps tosome extent through borrowing from other languages, mainly fromEnglish; as a result, Persian has borrowed a lot of its technical wordsin different domains of science and technology from English. Theword itself is such a borrowed word. Other words in thiscategory include ,,فتوسنتز . Having been modified to fitthe phonetic constraints of Persian language, they became an integralpart of such domains. In addition to such technical words, somegeneral English words have found their way into Persian language.Such words can be heard in every day language. For example, theverb is one of the most frequently heard English words inIranian’s every day speech. Thus, English has played a major role inPersian language enrichment.

Read the following academic paragraph from a research essay and answer thequestions that follow.

Assignment essay tasks are set to assist students to develop mastery of theirstudy subject. Firstly, assignment tasks enhance understandings about subjectmatter. Yang and Baker (2005, p. 1) reason that "to master your learningmaterials and extend your understandings, you need to write about themeanings you gain from your research". Secondly, research (Jinx, 2004;Zapper, 2006) clearly demonstrates that students learn the writingconventions of a subject area while they are researching, reading and writingin their discipline. This activity helps them to "crack the code" of thediscipline (Bloggs, 2003, p. 44). Thus, students are learning subject matterand how to write in that disciplinary area by researching and writingassignment essays.

1. What is the topic sentence? 2. What will the whole paragraph be about?3. There are two main points used in the paragraph to develop the positiontaken in the topic sentence .What are they?4. Who were the authorities cited to support the information put forward in argument5. Who were the authorities cited to support the information put forward in argument6. What is the concluding sentence? 7. Name three transitional words.

(do the exercise 2-4, 33, PD)

(2-4, 33, PD)

Narrative ParagraphsNarration is story writing. When you write a narrative paragraph, you write aboutevents in the order that they happen. In other words, you use time order to orderyour sentences.Time Order Signals: The words and phrases used to show time order are called timeorder signals because they signal the order in which the events happen.Examplelearning new things and new situations is an example of a personal narrative essaythat describes learning to swim.Learning Can Be Scary“Learning something new can be a scary experience. One of the hardest things I'veever had to do was learn how to swim. I was always afraid of the water, but I decidedthat swimming was an important skill that I should learn. I also thought it would begood exercise and help me to become physically stronger. What I didn't realize wasthat learning to swim would also make me a more confident person. New situationsalways make me a bit nervous, and my first swimming lesson was no exception. AfterI changed into my bathing suit in the locker room, I stood timidly by the side of thepool waiting for the teacher and other students to show up. After a couple ofminutes the teacher came over. She smiled and introduced herself, and two morestudents joined us. Although they were both older than me, they didn't seem to beembarrassed about not knowing how to swim. I began to feel more at ease.”( pages 79, 82, 85, 89, 90, and 91 )

Methods of paragraph development

In order to write a complete and unified paragraph, select a method of support,sometimes called methods of development.

1.Enumeration(50, 51, 60, 62, and 63, PD)

2.Process and chronology(79, 82, 83, 85, 89, 90, and 91, PD)

3.Description

4.Definition( 153, 155, 160, and 165, PD)

5.Cause and effect( 97, 100, 106, 110, and 114, PD)

6.Comparison and contrast (119, 127, 130, 138, 140, 146, 147, and148, PD)

7.Argumentation

Methods of support, unlike techniques of support( details, anecdotes, facts andstatistics), do not apply to individual supporting sentences; rather, they are concernedwith the arrangement of the paragraph as a whole.

Methods of Paragraph Development

Regardless of which of the following methods of paragraph development you use, a wellwritten paragraph has unity, coherence, and development, which means subordinate ideasmust be linked to major ideas. The ideas must be related, logical, and contain sufficientsupporting details.

Followings are some examples of types of paragraphs to use in your essay:

Examples: The more specific your writing, the more impact it will have. Using examples todevelop your paragraph lets the writer to include specific details. Anecdotes, analogies, andmetaphors are also effective.

Process: A process paragraph is a step-by-step analysis of how to do something. Processparagraphs are the simplest way to explain how to do something.

Division and Classification: Most effective for comparing and contrasting .Organizing yourparagraph using this method will highlight similarities and/or differences.

Comparison and Analogy: When explaining difficult concepts, use something with whichthe reader is likely to be familiar and compare it to the concept in question.

For example, Marriage works best (difficult concept) when husband and wife are pulling inthe same direction, not unlike two horses pulling a wagon over a bumpy field (easilyunderstood comparison).

Cause and Effect: A cause and effect paragraph can be organized in two ways: (1) Identifythe effect in the topic sentence and write about its causes; or (2) write about the cause inthe topic sentence and write about its effects.

Descriptive Paragraphs

Descriptive writing tells how sometimes looks, feels, smells,tastes, and/or sounds. A good description is a word picture; thereader can imagine the object, place, or person in his or hermind. A description usually follows a pattern that we callSpatial order.

Spatial Order: Just as an artist plans where to place each objectin a painting, a writer plans where to put each object in a wordpicture. In a description , writers often use spatial order toorganize their ideas. Spatial order is the arrangement of ideas inorder by space.

For example, when describing your favorite bedroom at home,you could first describe things on the left side of the doorwayand then move clockwise around to the right side. You couldalso start on the right and move counterclockwise around to theleft.

Spatial Order Signals

Just as there are words and phrases to show time order, there are words and phrases to showspatial organization. They are often prepositional phrases of location or position.

Topic Sentences for Descriptive Paragraphs:

The topic sentence of a descriptive paragraphs should name the topic. The controlling idea shouldgive the overall impression of the place, object or person you are describing.

Supporting Sentences for Descriptive Paragraph:

supporting sentences not only provide the details to prove the truth of your topic sentence, butthey also make your writing rich and interesting. In a descriptive paragraph, the more details youinclude, the more clearly your reader will imagine what you are describing. Your details should berelated to the five senses. They should tell the reader how something looks, smells, sounds, fells,and tastes.

Descriptive Paragraphs: Paragraph Unity

An important element of a good paragraph is unity. When a paragraph has a unity, all thesupporting sentences discuss only one idea. From the beginning to end, each sentence is directlyor indirectly related to the topic.Descriptive Paragraphs: Review

A description is a word picture. It tells the reader how something looks, feels, smells, tastes, and sounds.

1. Unity is an important element of a good paragraph. Unity means that a paragraph discusses one, andthe only one, main idea.

2. Supporting details prove the truth of your topic sentence, and make your writing rich and interesting.

The Writing Process: Outlining

The best way to organize a paragraph is to make an outline before you begin towrite. An outline is like an architect’s plan for a house. The kitchen might be faraway from the dining room, or the house might have no windows. Having aplan not only helps you to organize your thoughts but also helps that not leaveanything important.

• Tips to remember when writing your descriptive essay:

– Actually describe something

– Use concrete and abstract images and ideas

– Do not go overboard with adjectives and adverbs

– Do not go overboard with similes and metaphors

– Give it to someone else to see if your essay actually describes something

Recognizing Styles

Imagery

When writers try to create a picture of something to make it seem realto us, they use imagery. To make an image or picture, they may usecolorful words and expressions for comparisons. Two kinds of imageryare the simile and the metaphor.

SimileA simile compares one thing with another to show similarity. A simileuses like or as. There are many idiomatic expressions with similes,Metaphor استعاره

A metaphor compares one thing with another without using like or as.

Similes

A simile is a figure of speech where youcompare something using the words “AS” or“LIKE”.

Metaphors

A metaphor is where you compare something (X)to something else (Y), but you say that X is Y.

• Do not use “like” or “as”.

Which are similes and which are metaphors?

1. Tracy felt as sick as a parrot.

2. The traffic is murder.

3. She ran like the wind.

4. The perfect sky is torn.

5. I’m as light as a feather.

6. Kitty is the apple of her mother’s eye.

7. My feet are as warm as toast.

8. The cucumber is cool.

9. James was as cool as a cucumber.

10.Everyday is a winding road.

Gregory:

Gregory is my beautiful gray Persian cat. He walks with pride and grace,performing a dance of disdain as he slowly lifts and lowers each pawwith the delicacy of a ballet dancer. His pride, however, does not extendto his appearance, for he spends most of his time indoors watchingtelevision and growing fat. He enjoys TV commercials, especially thosefor Meow Mix and 9 Lives. His familiarity with cat food commercials hasled him to reject generic brands of cat food in favor of only the mostexpensive brands. Gregory is as finicky about visitors as he isabout what he eats, befriending some and repelling others. He maysnuggle up چسباندنخودرا against your ankle, begging to be petted,or he may imitate a skunk and stain your favorite trousers. Gregory doesnot do this to establish his territory, as many cat experts think, but tohumiliate me because he is jealous of my friends. After my guests havefled, I look at the old fleabag snoozing زدنچرت and smiling to himself infront of the television set, and I have to forgive him for his obnoxious,but endearing, habits.

The Magic Metal TubeOnce in a long while, four times so far for me, my mother bringsout the metal tube that holds her medical diploma. On the tubeare gold circles crossed with seven red lines each--"joy"ideographs (a written sign or symbol used in some writing systemsrepresenting an idea or object) in abstract. There are also littleflowers that look like gears for a gold machine. According to thescraps of labels with Chinese and American addresses, stamps, andpostmarks, the family airmailed the can from Hong Kong in 1950.It got crushed in the middle, and whoever tried to peel the labelsoff stopped because the red and gold paint come off too, leavingsilver scratches that rust. Somebody tried to pry the end off beforediscovering that the tube falls apart. When I open it, the smell ofChina flies out, a thousand-year-old bat flying heavy-headed out ofthe Chinese caverns where bats are as white as dust, a smell thatcomes from long ago, far back in the brain.(Notice how writer integrates informative and descriptive details in this account of "themetal tube" that holds her mother's diploma from medical school.)

Junk Food Junkie ( what is lacking in this paragraph)?

I confess: I am the worst junk food junkie in this great gluttonous پرخور galaxyof sugar and fat. You can keep your lentils, granola, and prunes. I want caloriesand carbohydrates, burgers and fries. Within minutes after waking up grouchy

ترش and puffy eyed in the morning, I stumble to the kitchen and pourmyself a tall glass of ice cold Pepsi. Ahh! My tongue tingles and my eyes popopen. I then have the energy to eat. I rummage through the refrigerator, pushaside the yogurt and apples, and there it is: a fat slice of leftover pepperonipizza. That's enough to get me off to school and through my first class. Ofcourse, I then head to the store on my first break for a Snickers bar and a DietPepsi. The "little" soft drink, you see, compensates for the calories in thecandy. An hour or two later, for lunch, I gobble down a row of Double StuffGolden and a peanut butter sandwich. Later in the afternoon I stop at Bunny'sto devour a triple bacon cheeseburger and a monster order of sodium-loadedfries. Finally, before going to bed, I knock off a bag of Philly Cheese SteakRippled Potato Chips--dripping with onion dip.

The following paragraph is effectively developed with specific examples. Theparagraph is also well organized, but it lacks a satisfactory concludingsentence. Respond to the questions that follow "Junk Food Junkie."

Describing People

The Dominant Impression

The descriptive essay relies on concrete and sensory detail to communicateits point.

• A descriptive essay writer must carefully select details to support thedominant impression. Often when describing people, we use the dominantimpression. It is the main effect a person has on our feelings or senses. Wegive the dominant impression by selecting the most important feature orcharacter of a person and emphasizing it. Adjectives like shy, beautiful,ambitious, or generous can easily give a dominant impression.

• Since description very often relies on emotion to convey its point, verbs,adverbs and adjectives are more meaningful to the reader than nouns.

1. a descriptive essay has one, clear dominant impression.

2. a descriptive essay can be objective or subjective, giving the author awide choice of tone, diction and attitude.

3. the purpose of a purely descriptive essay is to involve the readerenough to help him to actually visualize the things being described.

• Description

• When you describe someone, you give a picture in words to your readers.To make the word picture as vivid and real as possible, you must writespecific details that seem interesting to your readers' senses. More thanany other paragraph, a descriptive paragraph needs sharp, colorful details.

Write a descriptive essay using dominant impression

on the following topic:

Describe yourself or someone you know, using one

or two adjectives to give dominant impression.

Do the exercise 2-10, page 37, PD

Comparing and Contrasting

• Comparison: Look at the similarities between two things

• Contrast: Look at the differences.

Points

1. 1. The two things that you compare and contrast must be of the same general class.

2. 2. When you compare and contrast two things, the points you use for support must be used for boththings.

• Organization

1. Block arrengement or text-by-text: All the similarities are discussed in one block. Thedifferences are discussed in another block. you discuss all of A, then all of B.

2. Point-by-point , integrating or alternating arrangement: to discuss a particular point aboutfirst topic and then immediately to discuss the same point about second one. you alternatepoints about A with comparable points about B.

• Comparison Words and Phrases (unit 6 of PD)Sentence connectors Clause connectors others

SimilarlyLikewiseAlsoTooHoweverNeverthelessIn contrastOn the other handOn the contrary

AsJust asAndAlthoughEven thoughWhileWhereas

Like (+ noun)Similar to (+noun)Just like (+noun)(be) similar to(be) the same asBoth… andNot only… but alsoButYetDespite (+noun)In spite of (+)

How to Write an Effective Comparison or Contrast Essay: Summary1. Know which style you are using. Whether you use the block arrangement or point-by-point arrangement,

you should be able to identify it. Being able to identify your style will not only help you in the organizationof your own writing, but it will also help your reader follow the points you make.

2. State your arrangement style .

3. Keep your audience in mind. Be sure your reader can relate to your topic. After you finish writing, readyour essay from the perspective of your audience.

4. Say what you want to say. In your essay, make your preference clear.

Finally, to further clarify how it would be possible to say what you want to say in your writing, considerwhich of the following options would YOU prefer, and why? To support your point in each essay, whatcharacteristics would you choose to contrast, and what support would you use?

Sample Paragraph in the Block Format:Americans have a sense of space, not of place. Go to an American home inexurbia, and almost the first thing you do is drift toward the picture window.How curious that the first compliment you pay your host inside his house is tosay how lovely it is outside his house! He is pleased that you should admire hisvistas .منظره The distant horizon is not merely a line separating earth from sky,it is a symbol of the future. The American is not rooted in his place, howeverlovely: his eyes are drawn by the expanding space to a point on the horizon,which is his future. By contrast, consider the traditional Chinese home. Blankwalls enclose it. Step behind the spirit wall and you are in a courtyard withperhaps a miniature garden around a corner. Once inside his private compoundyou are wrapped in an ambiance of calm beauty, an ordered world ofbuildings, pavement, rock, and decorative vegetation. But you have no distantview: nowhere does space open out before you. Raw nature in such a home isexperienced only as weather, and the only open space is the sky above. TheChinese is rooted in his place. When he has to leave, it is not for the promisedland on the terrestrial horizon, but for another world altogether along thevertical, religious axis of his imagination.

--

• Sample Paragraph in the Alternating Format: An orange grown in Floridausually has a thick and tightly fitting skin, and is also heavy with juice.Californians say that if you want to eat a Florida orange you have to get intoa bathtub first. California oranges are light in weight and have thick skinsthat break easily and come off in hunks. The flesh inside is marvelouslysweet, and the segments almost separate themselves. In Florida, it is saidthat you can run over a California orange with a ten-ton truck and not evenwet the pavement. The differences from which these hyperbolesariseاغراق will prevail in the two states even if the type of orange is thesame. In arid climates, like California’s, oranges develop a thick albedo,which is the white part of the skin. Florida is one of the two or three mostrained-upon states in the United States. California uses the Colorado Riverand similarly impressive sources to irrigate its oranges, but of courseirrigation can only do so much. The annual difference in rainfall betweenthe Florida and California orange-growing areas is one million one hundredand forty thousand gallons per acre. For years, California was the leadingorange-growing state, but Florida surpassed California in 1942, and growsthree times as many oranges now. California oranges, for their part, cansafely be called three times as beautiful.

Vacationing at the Beach or in the Mountains

People are always looking forward to their vacation period. There are many optionswhere to choose. I think that the two most common places people choose for taking avacation are the beaches and the mountains. Both places offer a variety of funactivities. The beach offers activities that the mountain cannot offer and vice versa. Themountain and the beach are totally different. The purpose of this essay is to contrastthe climate, types of activities and locations of beaches and mountains.

I’m going to discuss mountains first. The three aspects I’m going to discuss are climate,types of activities and location. Climate is always important in order to enjoy vacations.If a person dislikes cold weather, he or she might have a hard time in the mountains.The cold climate in the mountains is the first barrier to enjoying them, but the climateand the temperature of these zones also determine the types of activities they offer.Snow boarding, mountain climbing, mountain biking, hiking, and skiing are someactivities people can enjoy when going to the mountains. There are many regions thathave mountains where people can go and have a great vacation. Canada is a countrylocated in North America and contains many mountain vacation sites where people cango and have fun.

I’m going to discuss the beach second. The three aspects I’m going to discuss areclimate, types of activities and location. Warm climate is one of the most importantfeatures that the beach has. Sun and fun are two words that describe the beach. Thetemperature in those places is always hot. The sea and the warm climate determine theactivities that are available at the beach.

• People can swim, play volleyball, play soccer, and ride water bikes. Inmost coastal sites, there are discos and restaurants where people candance or party throughout the night. Mexico offers many amazingcoastal sites to visit. Acapulco and Cancun are two of the most beautifuland famous beaches in the word.

• It doesn’t matter what place a person decides to choose. The fun is100% guaranteed. People often choose one of these two options tospend their vacations. Depending on what the person likes is what he orshe will choose. I like the beach better than the mountains, butsometimes it is better to take a risk and try a different place to enjoy.(399 words)

• Is the essay above organized using block or point-by-point arrangementof details? Note first the essay is four paragraphs, (1) an introduction,(2) a paragraph about vacationing in the mountains, (3) a paragraphabout vacationing at the beach, and (4) a conclusion. This is the blockarrangement, the first block containing information about mountainsand the second block containing information about the beach.

Consuming Fresh Foods Instead of Canned FoodsEating is an activity that we as humans do at least two times a day. We live in a world where thevariety of food is immense, and we are responsible for what we eat. We decide what we areabout to eat and how it will affect our bodies. The purpose of this essay is to compare andcontrast the differences between eating fresh foods instead of canned foods. The three maindifferences are flavor, health benefits, and cost.The most notable difference between these two kinds of foods is their flavor. Fresh foods havegreat flavor and taste because they keep all their natural conditions. Canned foods however, lacka lot of its flavor characteristics because there are some other chemical products added to thenatural foods. It is logical that the fresh foods will have a greater taste and flavor whenconsumed just because of the time in which they have been prepared.Comparing both types of foods we notice another difference. There is a health factor thataffects both of them. Canned foods lose some of the original fresh food nutrients when stored,and also it has to be tinned with many conservatives and chemical factors that prolong the shelflife and apparent freshness of the food but could also become toxic if consumed too often.Yet another difference between these two types of foods is the cost. Canned foods are muchmore expensive than fresh foods. Here the benefit of buying tinned foods is that they are easierto find, for example, in a supermarket instead of the market like the fresh foods, and theyrequire less work to prepare than fresh foods, just open and serve.Here are the main three differences between buying fresh foods and buying canned foods. Aswe can see it comes down to a personal choice, based on the time each person has, the moneyand the importance he/she gives to his/her nutrition and health. Therefore it is important thatyou consider your possibilities and choose the best type of foods for your convenience andlifestyle. (347 words)

• The essay above is the "classic" five paragraph essay containing the"classic" point-by-point organization, each point stated anddeveloped in a single paragraph. The essay contains five paragraphsthat contrast three differences between fresh and canned foods. Theessay includes (1) an introduction, (2) the development of the firstdifference (flavor), (3) the development of the second difference(health benefits), (4) the development of the third difference (cost),and (5) a conclusion. In the true classic tradition, the three maindifferences in this contrast essay—flavor, health benefits, and cost—are stated both in the introduction and the conclusion as well. Myown observation is this: US kids are taught to organize and write fiveparagraph essays like this from early childhood, but they rarely attainthe degree of perfection of the essay above.

• This ends the first part of this page, the explanation of thedifferences between the classic organizational styles of comparisonand contrast essays, (1) block and (2) point-by-point or alternatingarrangement.

The Cause-and-Effect Essay

in this case, you will look at the situation (effect) and examine thereasons (causes) for it.1. Usually there are more than one reason for the situation.

2. When there are many reasons, there is usually one that is most important.

points when you write about the effect:1. Look at the possible causes and discuss them.

2. Support all the causes. Give good examples.

3. State your most important cause list. This will make your essay more interesting.

Transitions for showing cause: because and as

• Because and as introduce a reason clause. They both answer thequestion “why?” Both because and as can be used at the beginning ofthe sentence or in the middle.

• Use a comma after the reason if you start the sentence with becauseand as.

• There are two ways to arrange a cause-and-effect essay: blockarrangement and chain arrangement .

• Some topics work better when organized in block, while others work betterwhen organized in a chain. If the causes and effects are closely related, it isbetter to use a chain organization.

Block organization: You discuss all of the causes in one block (one, two orthree paragraphs, depending on the number of causes). Then you discuss allthe effects in another block.

Chain organization: You discuss a first cause and then the effect, a secondcause and its effect, a third cause and its effect, and so on.

Cause-and-Effect Structure Words:

Cause structure words: the first reason is, the next cause,

Effect structure words: the first effect, as a result, consequently

Note: use a semicolon before and a comma after consequently and therefore.

Cause/effect paragraphs generally follow basic paragraph format. That is, theybegin with a topic sentence and this sentence is followed by specificsupporting details. For example, if the topic sentence introduces an effect,the supporting sentences all describe causes.

Sample Paragraph with clear support sentences

Headaches

Headaches can have several causes. One obvious cause isstress. People have hectic lives and frequently havemultiple stressors everyday, like work, family and money.Another reason for headaches in some people has to dowith diet. Some get headaches because they aredependent on caffeine. Other people may be allergic tosalt, or they may have low blood sugar. The environmentcan also cause this uncomfortable condition. Allergenssuch as household chemicals including polishes, waxes, bugkillers, and paint can lead to headaches. Lowering stress,controlling your diet and avoiding allergens can help avoidheadaches.

Sample Paragraph with cause/effect signal wordsHeadachesRecurring headaches can have initiate disruptive effects ina person's life. Initially, in many cases, these headachesmake a person nauseous to the point that he or she mustgo to bed. Furthermore, sleep is often interruptedbecause of the pain. Disrupted sleep worsens the physicaland emotional state of the sufferer. For those who try tomaintain a normal lifestyle, drugs are often relied on to getthrough the day. Such drugs, of course, can lead to othernegative effects. Drugs can inhibit productivity on a job,perhaps even causing regular absences. Not only is workaffected, but the seemingly unpredictable occurrence ofthese headaches leads to disruption in family life. Theinterruption to a person's family life is enormous:cancelling plans in the last minute and strainingrelationships with friends and family. It is no wonder thatmany of these people feel discouraged and even depresseddue to the cycle of misery reoccurring headaches cause.

Do the exercise 5-4, page 106, PD, Technology

Technology has a number of impacts on agriculture. First, due totechnology progress, a number of pesticides have been producedreducing harmful insect populations without any harm to agriculturalcrops. Second, technology progress makes it possible for agriculturalspecialists to raise crops in a simulated environment in order to studythe harmful insects and determine which stage of such insects’ life cyclecauses the most damage to the crops; as a result, the farmers will usethe pesticides in due time. Third, most of the processes involved infarming, previously performed manually such as dispersing seeds andharvesting crops, are now done by agricultural machinery.Consequently, a great deal of human energy and time is saved. Finally,thanks to technology, people have access to various kind of crops yearround.(exercise 5-4, page 106, PD)

• Do the exercise 5-9, page 114, PD

• For some time now, medical scientists have noted an alarming increasein disease of lungs and respiratory tract among people who smokecigarettes. They hold that inhaling the smoke can result in thecollection of impurities in the windpipe, larynx, and lungs.Consequently, gas, tar, and smoke are no longer removed. Hence, theyfind their way to the respiratory tract leading to slowing the action oftiny hair like projections which cleanse the air of the windpipe.Thereby, the precancerous and cancerous cells form in the variousparts of the respiratory tract. In addition to cancer, the lungs may losetheir elasticity and cease to function efficiently. Thus, loss of lungs’elasticity contributes to emphysema development. (exercise 5-9, page114, PD)

• (96, 97, 100, 104, and 110)

Do the exercise 7-7, 165, PD

. (7-7, 165, PD)

Title: An original title – not just stating thetopicIntro:Describes situation: defines the issue andbasic terms that the essay will discussThesis StatementFollows pattern:(Noun) should (action)This thesis statement is indirect. Both directand indirect (implied) are OK.

"Fixing" What Isn't BrokenEvery pet owner knows that there areenormous responsibilities that go along withhaving a cat or dog. You must feed andexercise your pet, to keep it physicallyhealthy; you must play with it, and keep itemotionally healthy too. You have to keep itsafe from cars, people, or other animals, andyou ought to protect other people, property,or pets from your own animal. There’sanother responsibility that not all pet ownersthink about, however: spaying or neutering,or “fixing.” What does “fixing” you pet mean?Simply put, it means taking your pet to thevet for a quick, cheap surgery that willprevent your pet from ever becoming amother or father. This surgery solvesproblems that pet owners know about, andsome that they might not have consideredbefore. In fact, I believe that all pet ownersshould be required to have their pets fixed.

Comparison Paragraph: Example : My hometown and my college townhave several things in common. First, my hometown, Gridlock, is a smalltown. It has a population of only about 10,000 people. Located in a ruralarea, Gridlock is surrounded by many acres of farmland which aredevoted mainly to growing corn and soybeans. Gridlock also contains acollege campus, Neutron College, which is famous for its AgriculturalEconomics program as well as for its annual Corn-Watching Festival. Asfor my college town, Subnormal, it too is small, having a population ofabout 11,000 local residents, which swells to 15,000 people whenstudents from the nearby college are attending classes. Like Gridlock,Subnormal lies in the center of farmland which is used to raise hogs andcattle. Finally, Subnormal is similar to Gridlock in that it also boasts abeautiful college campus, called Quark College. This college is wellknown for its Agricultural Engineering department and also for its yearlyHog-Calling Contest. Analyze this paragraph: state topic sentence ,subtopics and details. (Then, do the exercise page 118-119,127) . write acomparative paragraph.

Comparison Paragraph -- Organized by Subtopic

TOPIC SENTENCE My hometown and college town aresimilar.

SUBTOPIC #1: GRIDLOCK

DETAILS ABOUT GRIDLOCK:

•Gridlock is a small town.• It has about 10,000 people.

•Gridlock is in a rural area.• It is surrounded by many acres of farmland.• This farmland is devoted to growing corn.• The land is also used to grow soybeans.

•Gridlock is home to Neutron College.• This college is famous for its Agricultural

Economics program.• It is also famous for its annual Corn-Watching

Festival.

SUBTOPIC#2: SUBNORMAL

DETAILS ABOUT SUBNORMAL:

•Subnormal is a small town.• Subnormal has about 4000 college students.• It has about 11,000 local residents.

•Subnormal is in a rural area.• Subnormal is in the center of land used for raising

hogs.• This land is also used to raise cattle.

•Subnormal contains Quark College.• This campus is famous for its Agricultural Engineering

department.• It is also famous for its yearly Hog-Calling Contest.

• Comparison Paragraph -- Organized by Similar Points

• My hometown and my college town have several thingsin common. First, both are small rural communities. Forexample, my hometown, Gridlock, has a population ofonly about 10,000 people. Similarly, my college town,Subnormal, consists of about 11,000 local residents.This population swells to 15,000 people when thecollege students are attending classes. A second way inwhich these two towns are similar is that they are bothlocated in rural areas. Gridlock is surrounded by manyacres of farmland which is devoted mainly to growingcorn and soybeans. In the same way, Subnormal lies inthe center of farmland which is used to raise hogs andcattle . . . .

Here is an example:

• In recent decades, cities have grown so large that now about 50% of theEarth's population lives in urban areas. There are several reasons for thisoccurrence. First, the increasing industrialization of the nineteenth centuryresulted in the creation of many factory jobs, which tended to be located incities. These jobs, with their promise of a better material life, attractedmany people from rural areas. Second, there were many schoolsestablished to educate the children of the new factory laborers. Thepromise of a better education persuaded many families to leave farmingcommunities and move to the cities. Finally, as the cities grew, peopleestablished places of leisure, entertainment, and culture, such as sportsstadiums, theaters, and museums. For many people, these facilities madecity life appear more interesting than life on the farm, and therefore drewthem away from rural communities.

• (analysis this to causes and effects, state topic and supporting sentences)

EFFECT(Topic Sentence)

CAUSES(Supporting Sentences)

Cities have grown very large.[There are several reasons forthis.]

Factory jobs attracted people.

(Cities have grown very large.)Better schools attractedfamilies to moveto the city.

(Cities have grown very large.)

Places of leisure,entertainment, and culturemade city life appear moreinteresting.