Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach Chapter 10 School Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett.
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Adolescence and Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Emerging Adulthood: A
history and current state of schooling for adolescents history and current state of schooling for adolescents in the United States, other industrialized countries, in the United States, other industrialized countries, and developing countriesand developing countries
characteristics of effective schools, and the effects of characteristics of effective schools, and the effects of school climateschool climate
effects of family environments and friends’ influence effects of family environments and friends’ influence on adolescent achievement.on adolescent achievement.
part-time work and adolescents' academic part-time work and adolescents' academic achievement.achievement.
cultural, ethnic, gender, and intellectual differences on cultural, ethnic, gender, and intellectual differences on adolescents' school experiences.adolescents' school experiences.
factors leading to school dropout and related factors leading to school dropout and related prevention programs. prevention programs.
the emerging adult in college and university.the emerging adult in college and university.
Compulsory Compulsory education for education for adolescents is a adolescents is a recent advent in recent advent in AmericaAmerica
The “Age of Adolescence”The “Age of Adolescence”
In other Western In other Western countries, a countries, a similar trend took similar trend took place.place.
Developing CountriesDeveloping Countries
Effects of economic development is Effects of economic development is evident in literacy rates of youth vs. evident in literacy rates of youth vs. older generations:older generations:
Males 15 – 19 years oldMales 15 – 19 years old 74% can read & write74% can read & write
Males 65 + years oldMales 65 + years old
Females 15 – 19 years oldFemales 15 – 19 years old
30% can read & write30% can read & write
59% can read & write59% can read & write
Females 65 + years oldFemales 65 + years old 9% can read & write9% can read & write
E.g., EgyptE.g., Egypt
Secondary School in America: Secondary School in America: Changes Changes
19th CFor the wealthy,
esp. males;Broad liberal arts
1920Training for work and
citizenship; college prep,
vocational training
Mid-20th CExpanding
school population; curriculum expands to
include family life, arts
1980sBack to Basics
movement
Discuss social and political factors that impacted these Discuss social and political factors that impacted these changes in the school system…E.g., immigration, changes in the school system…E.g., immigration,
declining achievement scores in the 1980setc.declining achievement scores in the 1980setc.
Should high school Should high school courses be offered courses be offered only on academic only on academic subjects such as math subjects such as math and English, or should and English, or should courses in music and courses in music and physical education also physical education also be available? Justify be available? Justify your answer.your answer.
Diversity of American EducationDiversity of American Education Local and state level legislation and fundingLocal and state level legislation and funding
Results in diversity in curriculum, rules and Results in diversity in curriculum, rules and requirements and resource disparity requirements and resource disparity
19941994 – “Goals 2000” est. by federal government – “Goals 2000” est. by federal government toward national educational policytoward national educational policy
20012001 – “No Child Left Behind Act” passed – “No Child Left Behind Act” passed provided federal funding for national testing, provided federal funding for national testing, teacher training standards and evaluationteacher training standards and evaluation
Even still, only Even still, only 5%5% of school funding is provided of school funding is provided by the federal governmentby the federal government
What are benefits and drawbacks of these different systems?
In Developing Countries…In Developing Countries…Latin America – public Latin America – public secondary schools secondary schools overcrowded and underfunded; overcrowded and underfunded; private schools for wealthyprivate schools for wealthy
China and Japan – admission to China and Japan – admission to university for highest university for highest performing studentsperforming students
Arab Countries of North Africa Arab Countries of North Africa --- secular education system, --- secular education system, influence of Islam is stronginfluence of Islam is strong
Sub-Saharan Africa – lowest Sub-Saharan Africa – lowest rates of literacy; enrollment rates of literacy; enrollment varies across countriesvaries across countries
India – colonial origins & British India – colonial origins & British model; 50% of adolescents model; 50% of adolescents enrolledenrolled
Between 500 – 1000 studentsBetween 500 – 1000 students
What size of school did you go to?
Scholars don’t agree: How do your experiences compare?
Effective Schools: Size MattersEffective Schools: Size Matters Some research claims direct negative relation Some research claims direct negative relation
between class size and academic performancebetween class size and academic performance
Other scholars claim that typical variation Other scholars claim that typical variation (between 20 and 40 students) has little affect on (between 20 and 40 students) has little affect on achievementachievement
Small Class SizeSmall Class Size preferable for students with preferable for students with academic difficulties, more individual attentionacademic difficulties, more individual attention
6-3-36-3-3 6 years elementary; 3 years junior high; 6 years elementary; 3 years junior high; 3 years high school3 years high school
5-3-45-3-4 5 years elementary; 3 years middle 5 years elementary; 3 years middle school; 4 years high schoolschool; 4 years high school
8-48-4 8 years elementary; 4 years high school8 years elementary; 4 years high school
Discussion Detour:Discussion Detour: Which system did you attend? What were the benefits? Drawbacks? Which do you think is best? Discuss in terms of research, particularly regarding transitions and adolescence.
Improving Adolescents’ School Improving Adolescents’ School ExperienceExperience
““. . . some of the motivational . . . some of the motivational problems seen at early adolescence problems seen at early adolescence may be a consequence of the may be a consequence of the negative changes in the school negative changes in the school environment rather than environment rather than characteristics of the developmental characteristics of the developmental period per se.”period per se.” (Eccles et al., 1993, p. 92) (Eccles et al., 1993, p. 92)
Transition from Elementary SchoolTransition from Elementary School In comparison to Elementary In comparison to Elementary
Schools, Secondary Schools:Schools, Secondary Schools:1.1. Place greater emphasis on teacher control Place greater emphasis on teacher control
and discipline.and discipline.
2.2. Provide fewer opportunities for student Provide fewer opportunities for student decision-making, choice, and self-decision-making, choice, and self-management.management.
3.3. Secondary School teachers spend more time Secondary School teachers spend more time controlling and less time teaching.controlling and less time teaching.
4.4. Less personal and positive teacher-student Less personal and positive teacher-student relationships. Students perceive teachers relationships. Students perceive teachers less friendly, less supportive, and less caring. less friendly, less supportive, and less caring.
School ClimateSchool Climate Includes….the kinds of Includes….the kinds of
interactions teachers and interactions teachers and students have in the students have in the classroom, expectations of classroom, expectations of standards, methods used in standards, methods used in the classroom….the classroom….
-Higher attendance-Higher achievement scores-Lower rates of delinquency
Violence in the SchoolViolence in the School The past decade has seen numerous highly The past decade has seen numerous highly
publicized murders in schoolspublicized murders in schools
Yet, in recent years, there is an overall decline in Yet, in recent years, there is an overall decline in violence in U.S. schoolsviolence in U.S. schools
Widespread perception that U.S. have become Widespread perception that U.S. have become more dangerous in the past decademore dangerous in the past decade
EngagementEngagement: Being psychologically : Being psychologically committed to learningcommitted to learning
Research indicates that more and more, Research indicates that more and more, students are “physically present but students are “physically present but psychologically absent” (Steinberg, psychologically absent” (Steinberg, 1996, p. 67)1996, p. 67)
How do the results in the following slide compare?
American High School Students’ American High School Students’ School EngagementSchool Engagement
Peers, Friends & SchoolPeers, Friends & School In relation to school, the influence of In relation to school, the influence of
friends is greater than that of parents friends is greater than that of parents in some respects:in some respects:
Consistency of class attendanceConsistency of class attendance Time spent doing homeworkTime spent doing homework GradesGrades
Adolescent friends with high Adolescent friends with high achievement and aspirations support achievement and aspirations support and encourage each other in schooland encourage each other in school
High Achieving Friends vs. PeersHigh Achieving Friends vs. Peers
Peer GroupPeer Group FriendsFriendsIf surrounded by high-If surrounded by high-achieving peer group, achieving peer group, adolescents have lower adolescents have lower academic self-concept academic self-concept and expectationsand expectations
In schools with lower In schools with lower achievement levels, achievement levels, adolescents have better adolescents have better academic self-concepts academic self-concepts and expectations and expectations
Even low achieving Even low achieving adolescents with high-adolescents with high-achieving friends are achieving friends are likely to have higher likely to have higher expectations and expectations and aspirationsaspirations
Beyond 10 Beyond 10 hrs/week, the more hrs/week, the more adolescents work, adolescents work, the poorer their the poorer their school school performance.performance.
Steinberg (1996) asserts that Steinberg (1996) asserts that to change American to change American adolescents’ school adolescents’ school performance, Americans performance, Americans would have to change their would have to change their beliefs about what should be beliefs about what should be required of adolescents.required of adolescents.
Do you think more should be Do you think more should be required of American required of American adolescents in high school? adolescents in high school? Why or why not?Why or why not?
Discussion DetourDiscussion Detour Are you in America or Canada?Are you in America or Canada?
In either case, see if there is In either case, see if there is someone from the other country in someone from the other country in your class.your class.
Compare and contrast aspects of Compare and contrast aspects of secondary education and the school secondary education and the school system in the two countries. system in the two countries.
Extend the discussion to include Extend the discussion to include students’ perspectives from other students’ perspectives from other countries.countries.
Consider the ethnic differences in Consider the ethnic differences in academic achievement outlined in your academic achievement outlined in your chapterchapter
What explains these differences?What explains these differences? Some differences are intertwined with issues of Some differences are intertwined with issues of
social class, parenting practices, friends’ social class, parenting practices, friends’ influencesinfluences
Systemic prejudice and discriminationSystemic prejudice and discrimination Consider these issues in relation to the Consider these issues in relation to the
Much more research has been Much more research has been conducted on why adolescent conducted on why adolescent girls do less well than adolescent girls do less well than adolescent boys in math and science than boys in math and science than on why boys generally do worse on why boys generally do worse than girls on virtually every than girls on virtually every other measure of academic other measure of academic achievement.achievement.
What hypotheses would you What hypotheses would you propose to explain why boys propose to explain why boys generally do worse than girls generally do worse than girls academically, from grade school academically, from grade school through adolescence?through adolescence?
Gifted AdolescentsGifted Adolescents Traditional criterion = IQ of at least 130Traditional criterion = IQ of at least 130 Today, gifted programs recognize special talents Today, gifted programs recognize special talents
(e.g., art, music, creativity, leadership)(e.g., art, music, creativity, leadership) Four characteristics of giftedness:Four characteristics of giftedness:
1.1. PrecocityPrecocity2.2. IndependenceIndependence3.3. Drive for MasteryDrive for Mastery4.4. Excellence in Information ProcessingExcellence in Information Processing
Advanced Placement classes include higher level Advanced Placement classes include higher level material in specific subjectsmaterial in specific subjects
Issues: Issues: Gifted adolescents may become bored and alienated from Gifted adolescents may become bored and alienated from
school or socially isolatedschool or socially isolated Challenges in defining giftedness have implications for Challenges in defining giftedness have implications for
Adolescents with DisabilitiesAdolescents with Disabilities Disabilities related to school Disabilities related to school
difficulties include speech handicaps, difficulties include speech handicaps, mental retardation, emotional mental retardation, emotional disorders, and learning disabilitiesdisorders, and learning disabilities
About About 10%10% of adolescents in of adolescents in American schools have been American schools have been diagnosed with learning disabilitydiagnosed with learning disability
• ReadingReading is the most common source of is the most common source of difficultydifficulty
• Problems of inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivenessProblems of inattention, hyperactivity, impulsiveness
• Classified as learning disabilityClassified as learning disability
• One-halfOne-half of adolescents with LD have been diagnosed of adolescents with LD have been diagnosed with ADHDwith ADHD
• Boys Boys four timesfour times as likely as girls to be diagnosed with as likely as girls to be diagnosed with ADHDADHD
• Nearly Nearly 50%50% of those diagnosed have a sibling or parent of those diagnosed have a sibling or parent with the disorderwith the disorder
• Critics argue the levels of diagnosis indicate improper Critics argue the levels of diagnosis indicate improper diagnosis in many casesdiagnosis in many cases
• Diagnosis often made without full professional evaluationDiagnosis often made without full professional evaluation
• Nearly Nearly 90%90% of children diagnosed are treated with Ritalin of children diagnosed are treated with Ritalin or other medicationor other medication
Adolescents with Disabilities: StrategiesAdolescents with Disabilities: Strategies InclusionInclusion
• Goal is to make the education of the adolescents Goal is to make the education of the adolescents with disabilities as similar to the experience of with disabilities as similar to the experience of other adolescents and to have contact with the other adolescents and to have contact with the full range of studentsfull range of students
• Resource Room and specially trained teacher Resource Room and specially trained teacher usually available for extra help or scheduled usually available for extra help or scheduled periodsperiods
TrackingTracking (Stratified levels) (Stratified levels)1.1. Upper – college preparatory levelUpper – college preparatory level2.2. General – for average studentsGeneral – for average students3.3. Remedial/special education – for students academically Remedial/special education – for students academically
Discuss the Discuss the possible benefits possible benefits and problems and problems associated with associated with tracking and tracking and inclusion.inclusion.
By the year 2000, what By the year 2000, what percentage of young people had percentage of young people had not obtained a high school not obtained a high school diploma by age 24?diploma by age 24?
11%11%
Factors Associated with Dropout?Factors Associated with Dropout?
Repeating a gradeHistory of school
difficulties
Active, aggressive, high-sensation
seeking personality
Having a Learning Disability
Girls – having a child during adolescenceParents’ education
and incomeParents who have
dropped outLow income –
lower school qualitySingle-parent familyLarge schoolSchool Climate
Other factors?Other factors?Are these individual, social, cultural, Are these individual, social, cultural, systemic factors?systemic factors?
Ethnic Differences in High School Ethnic Differences in High School Dropout RatesDropout Rates
Discuss factors associated with these results…Discuss “retention” in terms of SES
56%56%
Asian Americans who enter college? Asian Americans who enter college?
60%60% Black students?Black students? 55%55%
Latino Students?Latino Students? 33.3%33.3%
Consider the Consider the changing trends in changing trends in areas of study areas of study chosen in college chosen in college and gender and gender differences.differences.
Discuss possible Discuss possible reasons for these reasons for these changes.changes.
Do these hold true today? Can you recognize these groups amongst your friends, peers, yourself?
College Classroom Experience: College Classroom Experience: Your ExperienceYour Experience
Considering the factors Considering the factors associated with a associated with a satisfying college satisfying college educational experience educational experience outlined in your outlined in your chapter, reflect on your chapter, reflect on your own experience.own experience.