Administrative Behaviour

Decision-making is a everyday phenomenon. Decision-making is the basis of all organisations be it Public orPrivate. It is the essence of management. Of all theproblems in management, the problem of decision-making is the most difficult.

In Public administration, decision making is not as easy asin business and we cannot keep things pendingindefinitely.

In Public administration, we need right decisions. Decision-making in Public administration is not free from outsideinfluences. All types of pressures, direct and indirect, exertthemselves and a decision may have to be taken, muchto the displeasure and disapproval of the decision-maker.While, the business administration is much more free frompressures. Effective management, of public or privateorganisations, believes in making right and responsibledecisions.

Decision-making is defined as selection of acourse of action from amongst alternatives,and it covers matters relating to planning,organising, directing, staffing and controlling. Adecision is an act of choice wherein anexecutive forms a conclusion about what mustbe done in a given situation.

Webster's dictionary defines the-term Decision-making as "the act of determining in one'smind upon an opinion or course of action."

According to Terry, it is "the selection of onebehaviour alternative from two or morepossible alternatives."

In the words of Seckler-Hudson, “Decisionmaking in government is a plural activity.One individual may pronounce thedecision, but may contribute to the processof reaching the decision. It is part of thepolitical system." According to Ishwar Dayal,"Decision is the commitment of the decisionmaker to act, thereby committing thepersonnel, material and financial resourcesof the organisation towards the actionobjectives."

Decision-making includes all theconsiderations that go into identifying aproblem, reaching a conclusion and thentaking action.

1. Decisions are usually made to achieve

some purpose or goal.

2. No decision stands alone. They are all

linked together in a sequential chain.

3. It occurs over a period of time so that

concur-rent events influence the

outcome.

It involves several steps leading towards optional solutions. The stepsare:

(a) To diagnose problem.

(b) To analyse the internal (time, money, management talent,workers' skills and other resources) and external (economicclimate, interest rates, capital markets, politics and socialchanges and environmental factors).

(c) To state the problems correctly.

(d) To develop alternatives which indicate the various courses ofaction that may achieve the objective.

(e) To evaluate alternatives. The advantages and disadvantages ofeach alternative are taken into consideration. Usuallyalternatives are evaluated to satisfy criteria such as sufficiency,feasibility.

(f) To select best alternative that will maximise the results in terms ofexisting objectives.

1. There is no conflict over the goal.

2. All the relevant criteria can be identifiedand all viable alternatives can be listed.Further all possible consequences foreach alternative are known.

3. Alternatives can be assigned numericalvalues and ranked in a preferentialorder.

4. The alternative that would maximisesatisfaction would be selected.

The various types of decisions in an organisation are:

Programmed and non-programmed Decision:Decisions are programmed to the extent that theyare repetitive and routine, to the extent that adefinite procedure has been worked out for handlingthem so that they do not have to be treated do novoeach time they occur. It is decision making byprecedent.

Decisions are non-programmed to the extent thatthey are novel, unstructured and consequential.

Organisational and personal decisions: Decisionstaken by an executive which affect organisationalfunctioning directly are organisational decisions.Personal decisions are decisions taken by theexecutive which affect his personal life.

Policy and operative decisions: Policy decisions are veryimportant and have a long term impact and are taken bytop management to determine the basic policies.Operative decisions relate to the day to day operationsthat are handled by the lower levels of management.

Individual all group decisions: Individual decisions aretaken by an individual alone and group decisions aretaken by a group of people together.

Routine all strategic decisions: Routine decisions refer todecisions taken in relation to the day to day workings ofthe organisation. Being repetitive in nature routinedecisions are generally delegated to the lower levels ofthe organisation. Strategic decisions affect organisationalstructures, objectives, facilities and finance, and are takenat the higher levels of management.

Generic and Unique Decision: Drucker classified decisionsinto generic and unique decisions. Generic and uniqueresemble programmed and non-programmed decisionsrespectively.

Types of Decisions Traditional Techniques Modern Techniques

Programmed:

Organisation develops

specific processes for

handling them

common expectations

A systems of sub goals

processing well-

defined information

channels.

Non-programmed:

One-shot, ill-structured,

novel decision

Handled by general

problem processes

1. Habit

2. Clerical routine

3. Organisation

structure: computer

simulation

4. Judgment, intuition,

and creativity

training human

5. Rules of thumb

6. Selection and

training of

executives

1. Operation

research: routine,

repetitive decision,

mathematical

analysis model

2. Electric data

process

3. Heuristic problem

policy solving,

techniques applied

to: (a) decision

makers (b)

consolving structing

heuristic computer

programs.

In the study of individual behaviour, probably noconcept has receive more attention than motivation.Motivation is not a personal trait; rather it is the resultof the interaction of the individual and the situation.Individuals differ in their basic motivational drive, andthis varies both between individuals and withinindividuals at different times.

Motivation represents an unsatisfied need whichcreates a state of tension or disequilibrium causingthe individual to move in a goal directed patterntowards restoring a state of equilibrium by satisfyingthe need.

Lillis observes, “It is the stimulation of any emotion ordesire operating upon one's will and promoting ordriving it to action.”

Davis says, “Motives are expressions of a

person's needs, hence they are personal

and internal.”

According to Durbin, “Motivation refers to

expenditure of effort towards a goal.”

So, we may define motivation as “a

willingness to expand energy to achieve a

goal or reward. It is a force that activates

dormant energies and sets in motion the

actions of the people. It is a function that

kindles a burning passion for action among

the human beings of an organisation.”

Motivation consists of three interactingelements of needs, drives and goals.

Needs: These are deficiencies, and arecreated whenever there is a physiological(or psychological imbalance).

Drives: These are action-oriented andprovide an energizing thrust towards goalaccomplishment. They are the very heart ofmotivational process.

Goals: Goals are the incentives or pay offsthat reinforce private satisfaction, that inturn reinforce the perpetuation of needs.

All organisational facilities will remain uselessunless people are motivated to utilise thesefacilities in a productive manner.

High motivation provides the followingadvantages:

Motivated employees give greaterperformance then demotivated ones.

Motivation inspires employees to make bestpossible use of different factors ofproduction.

Some of the traditional theories of motivation are:

1. Fear and punishment theory: this theory involves theuse of coercion and treat, close supervision andtight control of behaviour.

2. Reward theory: to offer some reward and goodworking conditions to motivate people to workbetter and harder; their demands are satisfied andharmony achieved.

3. Carrot and stick theory: it comes from the old storythat the best way to make a donkey move is to puta carrot in front of donkey or jab him with a stickfrom behind. The carrot is the reward for moving andthe stick is the punishment for not moving.

Some of the important modern theories

of motivation are:

1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs

2. McGregor’s theory of X and Theory of Y

3. Theory Z of Ouchi

4. Two factor Theory of Herzberg

5. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

PHYSIOLOGICAL

SAFETY

SOCIAL

ESTEEM

SELF ACTUALISATION

Physical

Needs

Safety

Needs

Social

Needs

Self-

esteem

Needs

Self-

actualization

Needs

Food and

thirst

Security and

safety

Acceptance Recognition

and prestige

Self-fulfillment

of potential

Sleep Protection Feeling of

belonging

Confidence

and

leadership

Doing things

purely for the

challenge of

accomplishment

Health Comfort and

peace

Membership

in group

Achievement

and ability

Intellectual

curiosity and

fulfillment

Exercise

and rest

No threats or

danger

Love and

affection

Competence

and success

Creativity and

aesthetic

appreciation

Sex Orderly and

neat

surroundings

Group

participation

Strength and

intelligence

Acceptance of

reality

Moderate risk takers

Usually demonstrate

interpersonal

competence

Want concrete

feedback

Like to take personal

responsibility

Tend to persist in the

face of adversity

Tend to be innovative

Concerned with

personal achievement

rather than success

Oriented towards the

future

Tend to be mobile

Never completely

content

Work is inherently distasteful to most people

Most people are not ambitious have little desire for responsibility and prefer to be directed

Most people have little capacity for creativity in solving organizational problems

Motivation occurs only at the physiological and safety levels

Most people must be closely controlled and often coerced

Work is as natural as play, if conditions are favourable

Self control is often indispensable in achieving organizational goals

The capacity for creativity is widely distributed in population

Motivation occurs at social, esteem & S.A. levels as well

People can be self-directed

Policies and

administration

Supervision

Working Conditions

Interpersonal

Relations

Money, Status

Security

Achievement

Recognition for

Accomplishment

Challenging work

Increased

responsibility

Scope for growth

and development

Hygiene Factors Motivation Factors

Every one likes to be a successful LEADER and to be a

part of victorious accomplishment

GOOD LEADERSHIP IMPLIES

Skill to direct – to show the way

Ability to win cooperation and loyalty

Courage to carry on until the assigned task is

accomplished

Recognize

accomplishments

Reinforce positively and

appropriately

Offer choices to your

worker

Offer support to your

worker

Model your own

motivation

Create a climate of trust

and open communication

Explain your expectations

and check your worker’s

understanding of them

Involve your worker in

setting goals

Acknowledge

improvements in

performance

Criticize the behaviour

rather than the worker

Express confidence in your

workers

Allow and encourage your worker to risk new and

challenging tasks

Show interest in each worker

and handle conflicts and

complaints as they arise

Balance extrinsic rewards

with intrinsic satisfaction

Avoid threats, punishment

and reliance on rules

Individualize your supervision

Keep employees informed

Develop group spirit

Believe in yourself and in

other people

Exercise strong leadership

Motivation - I

The willingness to exert high levels of effort

towards organizational goals, conditioned

by the efforts’ ability to satisfy some

individual needs.

Motivation - II

Motivation is the ability to influence other

people in such a manner as to get them to do

what you expect them to do because the

person motivated enjoys doing it.

Self

Motivation

Techniques

Choose a

Meaningful

Role Model

Create and

Post Sight

Triggers

Use Audio

Triggers

Do

Something!

List

Potential

Gains and

Losses

Maintain a

Visual

Progress

Chart

Declare a

Deadline

Break Mega-

Tasks into

Mini-Tasks

Maintenance Factors

Policies and

Administration

Supervision

Working conditions

Interpersonal

relationships

Money, Status

Security

Motivational Factors

Scope for

achievement

Recognition for

accomplishment

Challenging work

Increased responsibility

Scope for growth and

development

Emergence of new problems which urgentlyneed solution.

Development of new consciousness of oldproblems.

Contact with other ways of life.

Informational and educational programmes bychange agents.

Recommendations of respected leaders andscholars.

Accepted innovation requiring additionalchange.

Demonstration of new devices tools or ways ofworking.

Major changes in environment.

1. Incentive or Positive Motivation: It is generally based onreward. People work for incentives in the form of 4P's ofmotivation - Praise, Prestige, Promotion and pay cheque.Incentive motivation is the fuel mechanism. It leads togood team spirit, co-operation and a feeling of happiness.

2. Negative or Fear Motivation: It is based on force and fear.Fear motivation is a push mechanism, Fear causes personsto act in a certain way because they are afraid of theconsequences if they do not work. But it has been used toachieve the desired behaviour as in the case of fire. abreakdown, a panic or a riot. However, in recent years thetrend has been towards the positive motivation.

3. Extrinsic Motivation: It is concerned with external motivatorswhich employees enjoy pay promotion, status, fringebenefits, retirement plans, holidays and vacation, etc. Byand large these motivators are associated with financialrewards.

4. Intrinsic Motivation: It is concerned with the feeling of havingaccomplished something worthwhile, i.e., the satisfaction onegets after doing one's work well. Praise, responsibility,recognition, esteem, status, competition and participation isexamples.

5. Financial Motivation: It is connected directly or indirectly withmoney. Wages and salary, bonuses, profit-sharing, leave withpay are included under this type. Money is needed to providefor material goods and satisfy physiological, social and esteemneeds. For this reason, money is sometimes regarded as areliable motivator.

6. Non-Financial Motivations: These motivators are not connectedwith monetary rewards. Job enlargement (the employeeperforms more varied tasks, which are all on the same level, theidea being to make the jobs less monotonous), Job rotation(shifting of an employee from one job to another), Job loading(making the job more interesting), Job enrichment (deliberateupgrading of responsibility, scope and challenge), Job security,Delegation of Authority, Status and Pride, Praise or Recognition,Competition and Participation are the examples of non-financialmotivations.