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Additive Manufacturing Utilizing Stock Ultraviolet Curable
Silicone
Daniel A. Porter1, Adam L. Cohen1, Paul S. Krueger1, and David
Son2
1 Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Southern Methodist University
Dallas, TX 75206 2 Dept. of Chemistry, Southern Methodist
University Dallas, TX 75206
Abstract
Extrude and Cure Additive Manufacturing (ECAM) is a method that
enables 3D printing (3DP) of common thermoset materials.
Ultraviolet (UV)-curable silicone is an example of a thermoset
material with a large number of industrial and medical
applications. 3D printed silicone prototype parts are obtained
using a custom high pressure ram, valve, and UV exposure
system.
This paper will address issues with printing stock UV curable
silicone such as electrostatic repulsion, in-nozzle curing, and
extrudate slumping. One solution that addresses two issues is
adding carbon black (CB) to the mixture to reduce electrostatic
repulsion while also inhibiting UV cure depth, hence preventing
material from curing in the nozzle. Evidence shows that too much
carbon black can be detrimental to the structural stiffness of the
resulting part.
Introduction
Additive manufacturing (AM) is a lucrative and active research
area with significant growth potential due to its myriad of
commercial applications [1]. Common AM process materials such as
acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polylactic acid (PLA),
polyamide (nylon), and photosensitive polymers are better
understood, with more research attention focusing on the expansion
of the viable AM material repertoire. 3D printing silicone is the
leading edge of research in academic and industrial
environments.
Polyurethanes, epoxies, urea formaldehyde, polyimides [2], and
silicone rubber are
thermoset materials that are difficult to 3D print via
traditional additive manufacturing methods. Such techniques like
material extrusion (ME) which include fused filament fabrication
(FFF) are well researched for thermoplastics but are still being
investigated for thermosets. Once crosslinking begins in the curing
process for these materials, plastic reflow is impractical if not
impossible. Introduced complexities may include unwanted cured
material accumulation near the nozzle or part, system jams due to
material curing in an improper place, mixing and system loading
processes, and cleanup and maintenance after a print. Some benefits
of using a ME setup for printing thermosets is the ability to
utilize multiple materials (which is not compatible with
stereolithography (SLA) and digital light processing (DLP)) not
needing to encase the entire print bed to protect the curable
material from initiators such as UV, and minimizing waste.
Although most materials that can be used in popular ME or FFF
are of a rigid plastic nature,
recently, advanced elastomers have been investigated in the
field of additive manufacturing. Materials such as thermal plastic
elastomers (TPE) [3] and silicones [4] [5] are now of interest.
Silicone as a printing material for additive manufacturing is one
of the newest additions to the 3D
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Solid Freeform Fabrication 2017: Proceedings of the 28th Annual
InternationalSolid Freeform Fabrication Symposium – An Additive
Manufacturing Conference
Reviewed Paper
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printing field due to the numerous applications such as medical
implants, component insulation, and prosthetics for their chemical,
temperature, and moisture resistances along with mechanical
flexibility, and weatherability [6] [7] [2].
San Draw Inc. (San Jose, CA) is able to print silicone in full
color, adjustable hardness,
and with multi-material capability [8]. San Draw Medical (San
Jose, CA) is currently printing silicone seals for fuel cells [9].
Sterne Elastomere (Cavaillon, France) is revealing a silicone 3D
printer that prints 0.25 mm layers of UV cured silicone [10].
Keyence, a Japanese sensor and printer manufacturer, is also
developing a silicone 3D printing [11]. Stamos + braun
Prothesenwerk (Dresden, Germany) is making headway into the
biomedical field by 3D printing silicone inserts and bone
structures [12]. Wacker Chemie (Munich Germany) announced the
world’s first industrial silicone 3D printer, the ACEO Imagine
Series K [13], which utilizes drop on demand type printing for UV
silicones. Fripp Design (Sheffield, U.K.) has the Picsima process
which uses a needle to dispense a silicone component into a bath
containing the other crosslinking component.
As of yet, UV curable silicones are not highly biocompatible,
but the vast amount of non-
medical silicone applications makes investigating additive
manufacturing in this area still highly viable. Some polymer
materials that are at least somewhat biocompatible include medical
grade polyurethanes [14], polypyrrole [15], poly-ε-caprolactone
[16], and silicones [17]. Other recent advances in additive
manufacturing include printing optically transparent glass [18],
polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) [19], and ultra-soft thermoplastic
elastomers (TPE) [20]; fiber encapsulation additive manufacturing
[21], printing of drug delivery devices [22], stretchable embedded
sensors [23], and capacitive force sensors [24].
In this work Extrude and Cure Additive Manufacturing (ECAM) is
performed at the
Laboratory for Additive Manufacturing, Robotics, and Automation
(LAMRA) to cure materials that are extruded and cured layer by
layer or in situ. High pressures and friction inside the system
create some difficulties for the given ME approach. Some of the
greatest challenges are electrostatic repulsion, an effect that
causes two masses to push apart due to significant charge of the
same sign, and nozzle jamming. Carbon black is added to the UV
curable silicone mix to reduce the repulsion effect and the amount
of nozzle jams while curing in situ. The mechanical properties of
3D printed dog bones with different concentrations of carbon black
are quantified and discussed in these proceedings.
Experimental Methods Machine Setup
The custom ECAM machine built at LAMRA labs is shown Figure 1. A
high-torque geared stepper motor drives a linear sled which in turn
operates a high pressure hydraulic cylinder, Figure 1a). Material
is loaded into the cylinder by pulling vacuum and in the case of
high viscosity, assisted with a pressurized device. A manual valve
at the end of the cylinder allows the material to be pushed through
a Teflon high pressure hose, then high pressure metal tubing, and
subsequently into a high pressure stainless steel pneumatically
actuated valve shown in Figure 1b). From the pneumatic valve,
material is deposited and positioned by the X and Y linear stages.
The
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constructed 3D printer with UV shielding is shown in Figure 1c).
For silicones with additives, a filter is placed between the
hydraulic cylinder and the metal plumbing on the Z stage.
Figure 1. 3D printer utilized in this research. a) High pressure
ram rendering, b) rendering of
3D printer, and c) constructed printer with valve controller and
UV exposure system.
A custom UV wand holder is 3D printed in ABS and a render of the
setup is shown in Figure 2. This custom holder ensured
repeatability of prints by keeping the angle and distance of UV
exposure wands fixed. The UV source is a Dymax Bluewave 200 (40
W/cm2 total intensity) which has four wands optically coupled to
the source. Four wands covered the immediate part being printed and
ensured a cured layer for moderate part size despite extrusion
direction. Brass nozzles with short throat lengths are used to
ensure the pressure drop in the system is minimized.
Figure 2. Custom UV wand holder and high pressure pnuematic
valve setup with shield ring.
Initial Observations
Initial prints revealed problems such as significant slumping of
certain materials, nozzle material accumulation (Figure 3b)), in
nozzle curing (Figure 3a)), and electrostatic repulsion. Slumping
was only a problem if the UV curable silicone was not cured
immediately after extrusion. One way to get around the slumping
problem was to print low aspect ratio beads. However this technique
simultaneously increased cured material accumulation on the nozzle
and interfered with the print process by rubbing against the part,
reducing print quality and reliability. It became apparent that
curing in situ was a preferred method when using low viscosity,
non-shear-thinning materials. The material, if optically
translucent, may act as a light guide and gradually cure material
in the nozzle thus clogging the system.
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Figure 3. a) Rendering of a typical silicone nozzle clog in
which the material cures in the
dispense orifice and b) an image of nozzle material
accumulation.
Electrostatic repulsion is observed in this system configuration
with silicones from Momentive Performance Materials (Waterford,
NY). The effect seems greater in higher viscosity materials like UV
Silopren 2030 when compared to UV Electro 225-1 which has
viscosities of ~450 Pa-s and ~70 Pa-s respectively at 10 s-1
according to Momentive’s technical data sheet. After a few minutes
of material extrusion, the silicone upstream of the nozzle starts
to locally accumulate electrostatic charge. Combined with the
charging that occurs during UV curing, the resulting effect is a
significant repulsion force acting on the extruded silicone. This
can be observed by the extrudate deviating from its intended
deposition path, degrading part geometry and potentially mechanical
quality to suffer. Illustrating this effect is Figure 4d) and f).
The silicone used in Figure 4 is UV Silopren 2030 and is shown as a
free stream in Figure 4a). Observe the lack of an electrostatic
repulsion effect to a black nitrile glove in Figure 4b), an uncured
blob of silicone in Figure 4c), and an aged 3D printed silicone
part in Figure 4e). Contrast this to a freshly 3D printed silicone
part in Figure 4d) and cured silicone blob in Figure 4f). Diversion
of the viscous fluid indicates electrostatic repulsion effects.
Figure 4. Repulsion effects for a) free stream of UV Silopren
2030 next to b) a nitrile glove, c) an uncured blob of silicone, d)
a recent 3D printed silicone part, e) an aged 3D printed
silicone
part, and f) a bulk UV cured blob of silicone.
Reducing the repulsion effect would require eliminating or
neutralizing the surface charge of the part, the tribocharged
silicone emerging from the nozzle, or both. Adding electrically
conductive fillers can ameliorate this problem. Options for
electrically conductive fillers include antimony-tin doped oxide
[25], aluminum, silver, copper, silicon-carbide [26], ZnO [27],
carbon black (CB) powder [28], carbon nanotubes [29], among others.
The carbon black option is inexpensive and simple but also
increases the opaqueness of the silicone, thus impeding the
curing
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depth. Impeding the curing depth can be detrimental to part
mechanical properties but could also alleviate some problematic
observation like silicone curing in the nozzle.
CB in silicone has been explored before with research being done
to understand the benefits
and effects [30] [28] [31] [32]. Electrical conductivity
percolation thresholds for carbon black in a medium vary
significantly, but some typical values are 10-25 percent by volume
when in a styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) [33]. The objective is to
not make the silicone as conductive as a bulk material, but rather
to reduce the localized tribocharging which appears to cause the
electrostatic repulsion. With this in mind, UV Electro 225-1 is
mixed with small amounts of Vulcan XC605 carbon black from Cabot
(Boston, MA). All samples tested and printed were mixed with a
FlackTek SpeedmixerTM DAC 150.1 FVZ-K (Landrum, SC) to ensure
thorough dispersion of the CB. The samples were mixed at 2500 RPM
for 150 seconds, then the composite was scraped off the inner sides
of the container and mixed again. Even with the Speedmixer, there
are conglomerates of CB that exist which clog the nozzle and
require in line system filtering. Quantifying Slumping of Silicone
Understanding how much a material slumps is important to 3D
printing. It is vital to know just how the height of a bead changes
as a function of time. To obtain this information ten traces of UV
Electro 225-1 and UV Silopren are printed 100 mm long at 20 mm/s. A
dwell time of about 30 seconds is held in-between each trace giving
a total dwell time range of about 300 seconds. Immediately after
the ten traces are printed a UV flood exposure is done at max
intensity so that all of the silicone lines are cured as fast as
possible. Traces of 0.25, 0.20, and 0.10 mm height are printed and
have an equivalent flow rate that would allow for a 0.5 mm wide
trace assuming a pill shaped cross section.
The glass substrate with the printed silicone lines is taken to
a microscope, Olympus (Shinjuku, Tokyo, Japan) BX60, where a
marking compound is drawn across a section of each trace to improve
measurability. Height measurements are performed by focusing on the
glass substrate and then on top of the marked trace while a Fowler
(Newton, MA) Digital Indicator to measure the displacement.
Extrudate widths are measured using a digital microscope camera
from Dino Lite (New Taipei City, Taiwan) AM-7023B. These
experiments are repeated three times for each type of silicone and
trace height and then averaged. Figure 5 shows the glass plate with
three sets of slumping experiments right after UV exposure.
Figure 5. Three sets of cured UV Electro 225-1 traces with a
light marking compound applied.
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Mechanical Property Testing
Dog bone structures adhering to ASTM standard D638 T1 are 3D
printed in UV Electro 225-1 with different loadings of CB. For
comparison, bulk cast molds of the same dog bone are done for the
same material. Print specifications for the samples are shown in
Table 1. There are five prepared samples for each dog bone lot.
Table 1. Printing parameters for dog bone samples.
Parameter Value Notes
Feed rate (mm/s) 15 X, Y total vector velocity Layer height (mm)
0.25 Extrudate width (mm) 0.50 Trace to trace spacing Infill % 100
Infill pattern type Rectilinear Alternates by 90 degrees each layer
Infill angle (deg) 45 Outer perimeters 3 UV wand distance (mm) ~15
From wand to plane surface UV wand angle (deg) 30 Measured from
vertical
The samples are covered in talc powder and marked so that the
gauge length marks (50mm)
may easily be observed with a HD camera. Each sample is loaded
into a tensile testing apparatus and strained at 500 mm/min until
an end displacement of 100 mm is achieved. Pictures are captured
intermittently from above while force data is recorded. The tensile
testing apparatus with a bulk 0.00 and 3D printed 0.15wt% loaded is
shown in Figure 6a) and Figure 6b). A single sample from the bulk
and 0.00, 0.15, 0.50, and 1.00 wt% CB 3D printed dog bones is shown
in Figure 6c) through g).
Figure 6. Dog bones with 0.00 wt% and 0.15 wt% CB marked and
loaded into the tensile tester.
Bulk dog bone with c) 0.00 wt% and 3D printed UV Electro 225-1
dog bones with d) 0.00, e) 0.15, f) 0.50, and g) 1.00 wt% CB
loading.
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Hardness of all samples is measured using a Rex DD-4 Type M
durometer (Rex Durometers, Buffalo Grove, IL) and with LabVIEW
(National Instruments, Austin, TX) data logging software.
Measurements are taken on three different positions on the samples
and then averaged. Hardness is a good indicator of how well cured
each sample is.
Results and Discussion
Carbon Black Effect on Repulsion Different amounts of CB are
added to Silopren 2030 and bulk cured under a UV wand for
around 3 minutes. The larger the wt% of CB, the thinner the
layer of cured silicone in the bulk solid due to the CB attenuating
the curing depth of the UV. Repulsion effects for the different wt%
loadings in UV Silopren 2030 are shown in Figure 7a) through e).
Figure 7f) shows that a freshly printed part in UV Electro 225-1
next to a stream of the same material having the same CB loading
has negligible repulsion effects.
Figure 7. Effects of a) 0.01 wt%, b) 0.16 wt%, c) 0.31 wt%, d)
1.25 wt%, and e) 2.50 wt% bulk cured CB loaded UV Silopren 2030 on
the repulsion effect given a 0.00 wt% CB free stream of
the same material. A 0.15 wt% CB free stream of UV Electro 225-1
f) flows next to a freshly 3D printed silicon part fabricated with
the same silicone.
In addition to the reduction of the electrostatic repulsion, all
prints with carbon black loading of 0.15 wt% or higher showed a
significant decrease in the occurrence of nozzle jams that were
caused by silicone curing in the dispense orifice. In fact there
was only one jam which occurred when 3D printer was left idle for
about 30 minutes while the UV exposure system was active. Nozzle
material accumulation was lessened with the same amount of carbon
black but eventually still occurs with the given setup. Slumping of
Silicone Results for slumping of UV Electro 225-1 and UV Silopren
2030 are shown in Figure 8. From Figure 8a) and b). The slopes of
width versus dwell time are greater for the less viscus silicone UV
Electro 225-1. Also the heights in Figure 8c) and d) show the same
general trend that UV Electro drops faster than UV Silopren 2030.
Images of UV Electro 225-1 after 30 seconds of dwell time, Figure 9
a), show widening by 20 percent. 300 seconds of dwell time for UV
Silopren 2030 start to show significant widening, Figure 9 b).
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Figure 8. Slumping result widths for a) UV Electro 225-1 and b)
UV Silopren 2030. Slumping
result heights for c) UV Electro 225-1 and d) UV Silopren 2030.
The results of the slumping test show the importance of needing to
cure in situ for materials like UV Electro 225-1. These experiments
were performed on glass substrates so the results of slumping may
be slightly different for a substrate of tacky silicone of the same
type. This would reveal the effect of wettability on slumping.
Figure 9. Images of a) UV Electro 225-1 trace after 30 seconds
of dwell time b) vs UV Silopren
2030 after 300 seconds.
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Stiffness of Dog Bone Samples Initial dog bone tensile testing
revealed that the bulk, 0.00, and 0.15 wt% CB dog bone samples have
almost equivalent stiffness responses. The stiffness results are
averaged for all five samples in each category for simplicity. The
higher 0.50 and 1.00 wt% CB samples had much lower stiffness values
as shown in Figure 10a). Secant modulus results for the stress
versus strain curves are shown in Figure 10b). A drop in stiffness
for higher loaded CB dog bones was expected because UV curing
starts to become significantly attenuated enough that the bottom
part of the 3D printed traces are not fully cured by the time the
entire layer is finished.
Figure 10. Tensile test results for all as cast and as printed
dog bone samples.
UV Electro 225-1 was found to be fully cured after baking in an
oven at 121°C for 10 minutes. Three of the dog bone samples were
put into an oven and baked for the same settings to see if
stiffness and hardness improvments could be made. The average
stiffness response for the three dog bones in the post-oven cured
experiment are shown in Figure 11. It is evident from Figure 11
that post-oven curing the bulk and 3D printed samples will fully
cure the silicone. An enhancement in stiffness over simple UV
curing is also observed with post-oven processing at the prescribed
time and temperature.
Figure 11. Post-oven cure tensile test results for cast and
printed dog bone samples.
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Quantifications for dog bone tensile testing is shown in Table 2
along with the standard deviation for 100% strain measurements. For
UV Electro 225-1, a CB wt% of 0.15 gave the best benefit in terms
of alleviating nozzle clogging and electro static repulsion while
still maintaining a comparable stiffness to the bulk and 0.00wt% CB
3D printed samples.
Table 2. Tensile test results for all dog bone samples showing
modulus at 100% strain. Percent
difference is with reference to the initial tensile testing
results.
Modulus 100% (MPa), initial
Modulus 100% (MPa), post-oven cure
Average Std. Dev. Average
Std. Dev. % Diff
Bulk Cast 0.310 0.004 0.340 0.008 9.59 3D Printed, 0.00 wt% CB
0.312 0.007 0.336 0.004 7.45 3D Printed, 0.15 wt% CB 0.306 0.008
0.331 0.007 8.36 3D Printed, 0.50 wt% CB 0.235 0.017 0.332 0.008
41.61 3D Printed, 1.00 wt% CB 0.197 0.007 0.327 0.007 65.82
Hardness of Dog Bone Samples
Durometer results for the dog bone samples also reveal that 0.50
and 1.00 wt% CB samples are under cured compared to the others.
Once post-oven cured, the samples increased in Durometer like the
results of the stiffness tests. Momentive reports that the
durometer for a fully cured UV Electro 225-1 sample is about Shore
25 A which correlates to about ~26-27 Shore M (assuming sample
thickness is not small) indicating the bulk cast, 3D printed 0.00,
and 0.15 wt% carbon black samples are most likely fully cured via
UV exposure.
Table 3. Durometer results for all dog bone samples. Percent
difference is with respect to initial
durometer measurements. Hardness, M
initial Hardness, M
post-oven cured
Average Std. Dev. Average Std. Dev. % Diff
Bulk Cast 26.8 1.05 26.7 0.59 -0.48 3D Printed, 0.00 wt% CB 26.1
1.30 26.0 0.20 -0.29 3D Printed, 0.15 wt% CB 26.1 0.31 26.5 0.17
1.55 3D Printed, 0.50 wt% CB 24.6 1.03 26.9 0.54 9.25 3D Printed,
1.00 wt% CB 22.6 1.03 27.4 0.27 21.26
Conclusions and Future Work UV curable silicone dog bone samples
are 3D printed with a high pressure ECAM system. Slumping of
silicones is investigated and is found to be significant for the
low viscosity and non-shear-thinning UV Electro 225-1 thus leading
to the need of in situ curing. Problems with in situ curing using
stock silicone materials are in nozzle curing, nozzle material
accumulation, and electrostatic repulsion. Carbon black is selected
as an inexpensive additive and was found to
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significantly stop system jams due to silicone curing in the
nozzle and reduce the amount of nozzle material accumulation.
Material property tests revealed that bulk cast, 0.00 and 0.15 wt%
CB 3DP dog bones responded approximately the same to applied force.
The 0.50 and 1.00 wt% CB loaded 3DP dog bones showed lower
stiffnesses indicating that they were not fully UV cured. This
could be detrimental to printing silicone parts that have high
aspect ratios as the entire part could accumulate a large Z height
error due to weight. A post-oven cure on three of the samples from
each lot increased all of the dog bone stiffnesses to levels
comparable to bulk cured material. Thus a small amount of carbon
black in UV silicones can allow for continuous high intensity in
situ UV curing to minimize slumping effects while retaining
mechanical stiffness and harnesses. One downside is that the color
of the silicone is tinted. Work to eliminate nozzle material
accumulation currently entails using UV opaque materials with
smooth surfaces and nonstick properties. The printing process must
be optimized because silicone may still cure around the nozzle in a
ring shape which could mechanically lock itself in place.
Inexpensive additives that reduce slumping and inhibit UV curing
depth while retaining translucent optical properties are also being
investigated.
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L, Meissner B, Asai S, Sumita M. Percolation Concept:
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WelcomeTitle PagePrefaceOrganizing CommitteePapers to
JournalsTable of ContentsMaterialsScanning Strategies in Electron
Beam Melting to Influence Microstructure DevelopmentRelating
Processing of Selective Laser Melted Structures to Their Material
and Modal PropertiesThermal Property Measurement Methods and
Analysis for Additive Manufacturing Solids and PowdersPrediction of
Fatigue Lives in Additively Manufactured Alloys Based on the
Crack-Growth ConceptFatigue Behavior of Additive Manufactured Parts
in Different Process Chains – An Experimental StudyEffect of
Process Parameter Variation on Microstructure and Mechanical
Properties of Additively Manufactured Ti-6Al-4VOptimal Process
Parameters for In Situ Alloyed Ti15Mo Structures by Laser Powder
Bed FusionEfficient Fabrication of Ti6Al4V Alloy by Means of
Multi-Laser Beam Selective Laser MeltingEffect of Heat Treatment
and Hot Isostatic Pressing on the Morphology and Size of Pores in
Additive Manufactured Ti-6Al-4V PartsEffect of Build Orientation on
Fatigue Performance of Ti-6Al-4V Parts Fabricated via Laser-Based
Powder Bed FusionEffect of Specimen Surface Area Size on Fatigue
Strength of Additively Manufactured Ti-6Al-4V PartsSmall-Scale
Mechanical Properties of Additively Manufactured Ti-6Al-4VDesign
and Fabrication of Functionally Graded Material from Ti to Γ-Tial
by Laser Metal DepositionTailoring Commercially Pure Titanium Using
Mo₂C during Selective Laser MeltingCharacterization of MAR-M247
Deposits Fabricated through Scanning Laser Epitaxy (SLE)Mechanical
Assessment of a LPBF Nickel Superalloy Using the Small Punch Test
MethodEffects of Processing Parameters on the Mechanical Properties
of CMSX-4® Additively Fabricated through Scanning Laser Epitaxy
(SLE)Effect of Heat Treatment on the Microstructures of CMSX-4®
Processed through Scanning Laser Epitaxy (SLE)On the Use of X-Ray
Computed Tomography for Monitoring the Failure of an Inconel 718
Two-Bar Specimen Manufactured by Laser Powder Bed FusionLaser
Powder Bed Fusion Fabrication and Characterization of Crack-Free
Aluminum Alloy 6061 Using In-Process Powder Bed Induction
HeatingPorosity Development and Cracking Behavior of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu
Alloys Fabricated by Selective Laser MeltingEffect of Optimizing
Particle Size in Laser Metal Deposition with Blown Pre-Mixed
PowdersAluminum Matrix Syntactic Foam Fabricated with Additive
ManufacturingBinderless Jetting: Additive Manufacturing of Metal
Parts via Jetting NanoparticlesCharacterization of Heat-Affected
Powder Generated during the Selective Laser Melting of 304L
Stainless Steel PowderEffects of Area Fraction and Part Spacing on
Degradation of 304L Stainless Steel Powder in Selective Laser
MeltingInfluence of Gage Length on Miniature Tensile
Characterization of Powder Bed Fabricated 304L Stainless SteelStudy
of Selective Laser Melting for Bonding of 304L Stainless Steel to
Grey Cast IronMechanical Performance of Selective Laser Melted 17-4
PH Stainless Steel under Compressive LoadingMicrostructure and
Mechanical Properties Comparison of 316L Parts Produced by
Different Additive Manufacturing ProcessesA Parametric Study on
Grain Structure in Selective Laser Melting Process for Stainless
Steel 316L316L Powder Reuse for Metal Additive
ManufacturingCompeting Influence of Porosity and Microstructure on
the Fatigue Property of Laser Powder Bed Fusion Stainless Steel
316LStudying Chromium and Nickel Equivalency to Identify Viable
Additive Manufacturing Stainless Steel ChemistriesInvestigation of
the Mechanical Properties on Hybrid Deposition and Micro-Rolling of
Bainite SteelProcess – Property Relationships in Additive
Manufacturing of Nylon-Fiberglass Composites Using Taguchi Design
of ExperimentsDigital Light Processing (DLP): Anisotropic Tensile
ConsiderationsDetermining the Complex Young’s Modulus of Polymer
Materials Fabricated with MicrostereolithographyEffect of Process
Parameters and Shot Peening on Mechanical Behavior of ABS Parts
Manufactured by Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF)Expanding Material
Property Space Maps with Functionally Graded Materials for Large
Scale Additive ManufacturingConsidering Machine- and
Process-Specific Influences to Create Custom-Built Specimens for
the Fused Deposition Modeling ProcessRheological Evaluation of High
Temperature Polymers to Identify Successful Extrusion ParametersA
Viscoelastic Model for Evaluating Extrusion-Based Print
ConditionsTowards a Robust Production of FFF End-User Parts with
Improved Tensile PropertiesInvestigating Material Degradation
through the Recycling of PLA in Additively Manufactured
PartsEcoprinting: Investigating the Use of 100% Recycled
Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) for Additive
ManufacturingMicrowave Measurements of Nylon-12 Powder Ageing for
Additive ManufacturingImprovement of Recycle Rate in Laser
Sintering by Low Temperature ProcessDevelopment of an Experimental
Laser Sintering Machine to Process New Materials like Nylon
6Optimization of Adhesively Joined Laser-Sintered
PartsInvestigating the Impact of Functionally Graded Materials on
Fatigue Life of Material Jetted SpecimensFabrication and
Characterization of Graphite/Nylon 12 Composite via Binder Jetting
Additive Manufacturing ProcessFabricating Zirconia Parts with
Organic Support Material by the Ceramic On-Demand Extrusion
ProcessThe Application of Composite Through-Thickness Assessment to
Additively Manufactured StructuresTensile Mechanical Properties of
Polypropylene Composites Fabricated by Material ExtrusionPneumatic
System Design for Direct Write 3D PrintingCeramic Additive
Manufacturing: A Review of Current Status and
ChallengesRecapitulation on Laser Melting of Ceramics and
Glass-CeramicsA Trade-Off Analysis of Recoating Methods for Vat
Photopolymerization of CeramicsAdditive Manufacturing of
High-Entropy Alloys – A ReviewMicrostructure and Mechanical
Behavior of AlCoCuFeNi High-Entropy Alloy Fabricated by Selective
Laser MeltingSelective Laser Melting of AlCu5MnCdVA: Formability,
Microstructure and Mechanical PropertiesMicrostructure and Crack
Distribution of Fe-Based Amorphous Alloys Manufactured by Selective
Laser MeltingConstruction of Metallic Glass Structures by
Laser-Foil-Printing TechnologyBuilding Zr-Based Metallic Glass Part
on Ti-6Al-4V Substrate by Laser-Foil-Printing Additive
ManufacturingOptimising Thermoplastic Polyurethane for Desktop
Laser Sintering
ModelingReal-Time Process Measurement and Feedback Control for
Exposure Controlled Projection LithographyOptimization of Build
Orientation for Minimum Thermal Distortion in DMLS Metallic
Additive ManufacturingUsing Skeletons for Void Filling in
Large-Scale Additive ManufacturingImplicit Slicing Method for
Additive Manufacturing ProcessesTime-Optimal Scan Path Planning
Based on Analysis of Sliced GeometryA Slicer and Simulator for
Cooperative 3D PrintingStudy on STL-Based Slicing Process for 3D
PrintingORNL Slicer 2: A Novel Approach for Additive Manufacturing
Tool Path PlanningComputer Integration for Geometry Generation for
Product Optimization with Additive ManufacturingMulti-Level
Uncertainty Quantification in Additive ManufacturingComputed Axial
Lithography for Rapid Volumetric 3D Additive ManufacturingEfficient
Sampling for Design Optimization of an SLS ProductReview of AM
Simulation Validation TechniquesGeneration of Deposition Paths and
Quadrilateral Meshes in Additive ManufacturingAnalytical and
Experimental Characterization of Anisotropic Mechanical Behaviour
of Infill Building Strategies for Fused Deposition Modelling
ObjectsFlexural Behavior of FDM Parts: Experimental, Analytical and
Numerical StudySimulation of Spot Melting Scan Strategy to Predict
Columnar to Equiaxed Transition in Metal Additive
ManufacturingModelling Nanoparticle Sintering in a Microscale
Selective Laser Sintering Process3-Dimensional Cellular Automata
Simulation of Grain Structure in Metal Additive Manufacturing
ProcessesNumerical Simulation of Solidification in Additive
Manufacturing of Ti Alloy by Multi-Phase Field MethodThe Effect of
Process Parameters and Mechanical Properties Oof Direct Energy
Deposited Stainless Steel 316Thermal Modeling of 304L Stainless
Steel Selective Laser MeltingThe Effect of Polymer Melt Rheology on
Predicted Die Swell and Fiber Orientation in Fused Filament
Fabrication Nozzle FlowSimulation of Planar Deposition Polymer Melt
Flow and Fiber Orientaiton in Fused Filament FabricationNumerical
Investigation of Stiffness Properties of FDM Parts as a Function of
Raster OrientationA Two-Dimensional Simulation of Grain Structure
Growth within Substrate and Fusion Zone during Direct Metal
DepositionNumerical Simulation of Temperature Fields in Powder Bed
Fusion Process by Using Hybrid Heat Source ModelThermal Simulation
and Experiment Validation of Cooldown Phase of Selective Laser
Sintering (SLS)Numerical Modeling of High Resolution
Electrohydrodynamic Jet Printing Using OpenFOAMMesoscopic
Multilayer Simulation of Selective Laser Melting ProcessA Study
into the Effects of Gas Flow Inlet Design of the Renishaw AM250
Laser Powder Bed Fusion Machine Using Computational
ModellingDevelopment of Simulation Tools for Selective Laser
Melting Additive ManufacturingMachine Learning Enabled Powder
Spreading Process Map for Metal Additive Manufacturing (AM)
Process DevelopmentMelt Pool Dimension Measurement in Selective
Laser Melting Using Thermal ImagingIn-Process Condition Monitoring
in Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF)Performance Characterization of
Process Monitoring Sensors on the NIST Additive Manufacturing
Metrology TestbedMicroheater Array Powder Sintering: A Novel
Additive Manufacturing ProcessFabrication and Control of a
Microheater Array for Microheater Array Powder SinteringInitial
Investigation of Selective Laser Sintering Laser Power vs. Part
Porosity Using In-Situ Optical Coherence TomographyThe Effect of
Powder on Cooling Rate and Melt Pool Length Measurements Using In
Situ Thermographic TecniquesMonitoring of Single-Track Degradation
in the Process of Selective Laser MeltingMachine Learning for
Defect Detection for PBFAM Using High Resolution Layerwise Imaging
Coupled with Post-Build CT ScansSelection and Installation of High
Resolution Imaging to Monitor the PBFAM Process, and
Synchronization to Post-Build 3D Computed TomographyMultisystem
Modeling and Optimization of Solar Sintering SystemContinuous Laser
Scan Strategy for Faster Build Speeds in Laser Powder Bed Fusion
SystemInfluence of the Ratio between the Translation and
Contra-Rotating Coating Mechanism on Different Laser Sintering
Materials and Their Packing DensityThermal History Correlation with
Mechanical Properties for Polymer Selective Laser Sintering
(SLS)Post Processing Treatments on Laser Sintered Nylon
12Development of an Experimental Test Setup for In Situ Strain
Evaluation during Selective Laser MeltingIn Situ Melt Pool
Monitoring and the Correlation to Part Density of Inconel® 718 for
Quality Assurance in Selective Laser MeltingInfluence of Process
Time and Geometry on Part Quality of Low Temperature Laser
SinteringIncreasing Process Speed in the Laser Melting Process of
Ti6Al4V and the Reduction of Pores during Hot Isostatic PressingA
Method for Metal AM Support Structure Design to Facilitate
RemovalExpert Survey to Understand and Optimize Part Orientation in
Direct Metal Laser SinteringFabrication of 3D Multi-Material Parts
Using Laser-Based Powder Bed FusionMelt Pool Image Process
Acceleration Using General Purpose Computing on Graphics Processing
UnitsBlown Powder Laser Cladding with Novel Processing Parameters
for Isotropic Material PropertiesThe Effect of Arc-Based Direct
Metal Energy Deposition on PBF Maraging SteelFiber-Fed Laser-Heated
Process for Printing Transparent GlassReducing Mechanical
Anisotropy in Extrusion-Based Printed PartsExploring the
Manufacturability and Resistivity of Conductive Filament Used in
Material Extrusion Additive ManufacturingActive - Z Printing: A New
Approach to Increasing 3D Printed Part StrengthA Mobile 3D Printer
for Cooperative 3D PrintingA Floor Power Module for Cooperative 3D
PrintingChanging Print Resolution on BAAM via Selectable
NozzlesPredicting Sharkskin Instability in Extrusion Additive
Manufacturing of Reinforced ThermoplasticsDesign of a Desktop
Wire-Feed Prototyping MachineProcess Modeling and In-Situ
Monitoring of Photopolymerization for Exposure Controlled
Projection Lithography (ECPL)Effect of Constrained Surface
Texturing on Separation Force in Projection
StereolithographyModeling of Low One-Photon Polymerization for 3D
Printing of UV-Curable SiliconesEffect of Process Parameters and
Shot Peening on the Tensile Strength and Deflection of Polymer
Parts Made Using Mask Image Projection Stereolithography
(MIP-SLA)Additive Manufacturing Utilizing Stock Ultraviolet Curable
SiliconeTemperature and Humidity Variation Effect on Process
Behavior in Electrohydrodynamic Jet Printing of a Class of Optical
AdhesivesReactive Inkjet Printing Approach towards 3D Silcione
Elastomeric Structures FabricationMagnetohydrodynamic
Drop-On-Demand Liquid Metal 3D PrintingSelective Separation Shaping
of Polymeric PartsSelective Separation Shaping (SSS) – Large-Scale
Fabrication PotentialsMechanical Properties of 304L Metal Parts
Made by Laser-Foil-Printing ProcessInvestigation of Build
Strategies for a Hybrid Manufacturing Process Progress on
Ti-6Al-4VDirect Additive Subtractive Hybrid Manufacturing (DASH) –
An Out of Envelope MethodMetallic Components Repair Strategies
Using the Hybrid Manufacturing ProcessRapid Prototyping of EPS
Pattern for Complicated Casting5-Axis Slicing Methods for Additive
Manufacturing ProcessA Hybrid Method for Additive Manufacturing of
Silicone StructuresAnalysis of Hybrid Manufacturing Systems Based
on Additive Manufacturing TechnologyFabrication and
Characterization of Ti6Al4V by Selective Electron Beam and Laser
Hybrid MeltingDevelopment of a Hybrid Manufacturing Process for
Precision Metal PartsDefects Classification of Laser Metal
Deposition Using Acoustic Emission SensorAn Online Surface Defects
Detection System for AWAM Based on Deep LearningDevelopment of
Automatic Smoothing Station Based on Solvent Vapour Attack for Low
Cost 3D PrintersCasting - Forging - Milling Composite Additive
Manufacturing ThechnologyDesign and Development of a Multi-Tool
Additive Manufacturing SystemChallenges in Making Complex Metal
Large-Scale Parts for Additive Manufacturing: A Case Study Based on
the Additive Manufacturing ExcavatorVisual Sensing and Image
Processing for Error Detection in Laser Metal Wire Deposition
ApplicationsEmbedding of Liquids into Water Soluble Materials
via Additive Manufacturing for Timed ReleasePrediction of the
Elastic Response of TPMS Cellular Lattice Structures Using Finite
Element MethodMultiscale Analysis of Cellular Solids Fabricated by
EBMAn Investigation of Anisotropy of 3D Periodic Cellular Structure
DesignsModeling of Crack Propagation in 2D Brittle Finite Lattice
Structures Assisted by Additive ManufacturingEstimating Strength of
Lattice Structure Using Material Extrusion Based on Deposition
Modeling and Fracture MechanicsControlling Thermal Expansion with
Lattice Structures Using Laser Powder Bed FusionDetermination of a
Shape and Size Independent Material Modulus for Honeycomb
Structures in Additive ManufacturingAdditively Manufactured
Conformal Negative Stiffness HoneycombsA Framework for the Design
of Biomimetic Cellular Materials for Additive ManufacturingA
Post-Processing Procedure for Level Set Based Topology
OptimizationMulti-Material Structural Topology Optimization under
Uncertainty via a Stochastic Reduced Order Model ApproachTopology
Optimization for 3D Material Distribution and Orientation in
Additive ManufacturingTopological Optimization and Methodology for
Fabricating Additively Manufactured Lightweight Metallic
MirrorsTopology Optimization of an Additively Manufactured
BeamQuantifying Accuracy of Metal Additive Processes through a
Standardized Test ArtifactIntegrating Interactive Design and
Simulation for Mass Customized 3D-Printed Objects – A Cup Holder
ExampleHigh-Resolution Electrohydrodynamic Jet Printing of Molten
Polycaprolactone3D Bioprinting of Scaffold Structure Using
Micro-Extrusion TechnologyFracture Mechanism Analysis of Schoen
Gyroid Cellular Structures Manufactured by Selective Laser
MeltingAn Investigation of Build Orientation on Shrinkage in
Sintered Bioceramic Parts Fabricated by Vat
PhotopolymerizationHypervelocity Impact of Additively Manufactured
A356/316L Interpenetrating Phase CompositesUnderstanding and
Engineering of Natural Surfaces with Additive ManufacturingAdditive
Fabrication of Polymer-Ceramic Composite for Bone Tissue
EngineeringBinder Jet Additive Manufacturing of Stainless Steel -
Tricalcium Phosphate Biocomposite for Bone Scaffold and Implant
ApplicationsSelective Laser Melting of Novel Titanium-Tantalum
Alloy as Orthopedic BiomaterialDevelopment of Virtual Surgical
Planning Models and a Patient Specific Surgical Resection Guide for
Treatment of a Distal Radius Osteosarcoma Using Medical 3D
Modelling and Additive Manufacturing ProcessesDesign Optimisation
of a Thermoplastic SplintReverse Engineering a Transhumeral
Prosthetic Design for Additive ManufacturingBig Area Additive
Manufacturing Application in Wind Turbine MoldsDesign, Fabrication,
and Qualification of a 3D Printed Metal Quadruped Body: Combination
Hydraulic Manifold, Structure and Mechanical InterfaceSmart Parts
Fabrication Using Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing
TechnologiesDesign for Protection: Systematic Approach to Prevent
Product Piracy during Product Development Using AMThe Use of
Electropolishing Surface Treatment on IN718 Parts Fabricated by
Laser Powder Bed Fusion ProcessTowards Defect Detection in Metal
SLM Parts Using Modal Analysis “Fingerprinting”Electrochemical
Enhancement of the Surface Morphology and the Fatigue Performance
of Ti-6Al-4V Parts Manufactured by Laser Beam MeltingFabrication of
Metallic Multi-Material Components Using Laser Metal DepositionA
Modified Inherent Strain Method for Fast Prediction of Residual
Deformation in Additive Manufacturing of Metal Parts 2539Effects of
Scanning Strategy on Residual Stress Formation in Additively
Manufactured Ti-6Al-4V PartsHow Significant Is the Cost Impact of
Part Consolidation within AM Adoption?Method for the Evaluation of
Economic Efficiency of Additive and Conventional
ManufacturingIntegrating AM into Existing Companies - Selection of
Existing Parts for Increase of AcceptanceRamp-Up-Management in
Additive Manufacturing – Technology Integration in Existing
Business ProcessesRational Decision-Making for the Beneficial
Application of Additive ManufacturingApproaching Rectangular
Extrudate in 3D Printing for Building and Construction by
Experimental Iteration of Nozzle DesignAreal Surface
Characterization of Laser Sintered Parts for Various Process
ParametersDesign and Process Considerations for Effective Additive
Manufacturing of Heat ExchangersDesign and Additive Manufacturing
of a Composite Crossflow Heat ExchangerFabrication and Quality
Assessment of Thin Fins Built Using Metal Powder Bed Fusion
Additive ManufacturingA Mobile Robot Gripper for Cooperative 3D
PrintingTechnological Challenges for Automotive Series Production
in Laser Beam MeltingQualification Challenges with Additive
Manufacturing in Space ApplicationsMaterial Selection on Laser
Sintered Stab Resistance Body ArmorInvestigation of Optical
Coherence Tomography Imaging in Nylon 12 PowderPowder Bed Fusion
Metrology for Additive Manufacturing Design GuidanceGeometrical
Accuracy of Holes and Cylinders Manufactured with Fused Deposition
ModelingNew Filament Deposition Technique for High Strength,
Ductile 3D Printed PartsApplied Solvent-Based Slurry
Stereolithography Process to Fabricate High-Performance Ceramic
Earrings with Exquisite DetailsDesign and Preliminary Evaluation of
a Deployable Mobile Makerspace for Informal Additive Manufacturing
EducationComparative Costs of Additive Manufacturing vs. Machining:
The Case Study of the Production of Forming Dies for Tube
Bending
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