Adaptive Strategies: Hunting & Gathering (Foraging)

Adaptive Strategies:

Hunting & Gathering(Foraging)

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4 Adaptive StrategiesHUNTING & GATHERING

(FORAGING)HORTICULTURE PASTORALISM AGRICULTURE

INCLUDES PEASANTS

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Cultural Ecology

Inter-relationships between people & environment

ADAPTIVE STRATEGY: THE WAY PEOPLE IN A PARTICULAR

ENVIRONMENT USE CULTURAL MEANS TO SURVIVE IN THAT ENVIRONMENT;

THE STRATEGY EMPLOYED TO PROCURE NEEDS OF THE GROUP

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ENVIRONMENTAL POSSIBILISM:

ENVIRONMENT PLACES LIMITATIONS & PROVIDES POSSIBILITIES

IT DOES NOT DETERMINE CULTURE

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Hunting & Gathering Successful way of life – 99% of human

history Out of 150 billion people ever – 60%

H&G--10,000 YA 10 million 100% H&G

0 AD 50% H&G

1500 AD 350 million 1% H&G

2000 AD 4 billion .001% H&G(300,000)

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Why Have H & G Disappeared?

Disappearance is not due to technological inefficiency Political factors – European expansion

Importance of early human history Contemporary H&G are not relics

from the past But participants in the modern world

system Forced into marginal areas

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Geographic DistributionH&G

European contact ~ 1600 (polar, desert)

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Where H&G persist today

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Collectors (vs. Producers) Dependent on

scarcity or abundance of resources

Hunt Forage Combine

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I. PEDESTRIAN H&G !KUNG SAN: Plant-focused H&G

55,000 SAN; 4000 !KUNG SAN)

1 KUNG BAND = 250 SQ. MI. POPULATION DENSITY

44/100 SQ. MI. 11 GROUPS

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Functional Consequences

SMALL GROUP SIZE, 25-50 NOMADIC, FUSION & FISSION MOBILITY - DONT ACCUMULATE

SURPLUS

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BASIC UNIT OF PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION = VILLAGE/CAMP

DIVISION OF LABOR BY SEX & AGE LACK SPECIALIZATION EGALITARIAN - EQUAL ACCESS TO

RESOURCES NO SOCIAL STRATIFICATION NO INDIVIDUAL OWNERSHIP

OF RESOURCES RECIPROCITY

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BANDS ORGANIZED ON BASIS OF KINSHIP

INFORMAL SOCIAL CONTROL "HEADMAN"

POLYTHEISTIC RELIGION PART-TIME RELIGIOUS SPECIALIST

(SHAMAN)

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MOBILITY & SOCIAL RELATIONS

= SOLUTION TO ADAPT TO RESOURCES FOOD IS CONSTANT BUT DISTANCE TO IT

INCREASES IN DRY SEASON GROUP SIZE IS DETERMINED BY CARRYING

CAPACITY

THE KEY ISSUE IS WATER - FIXED DISTRIBUTION OF WATER HOLES SEASONAL AGGREGATION IN DRY (100);

MAY BE 7 GROUPS AT 1 WATERHOLE DISPERSAL IN WET (SMALLER)

MOBILITY: MAY MOVE 2 - 10 TIMES/YEAR

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Perspectives… HOBBES:

“LIVE IN A STATE OF NATURE”;

LIFE IS “NASTY, BRUTISH & SHORT”

SAHLINS: “THE ORIGINAL

AFFLUENT SOCIETY”

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Richard Lee’s Research D.O.L. - MEN HUNT, WOMEN GATHER

"MAN THE HUNTER IS A MYTH" 60-80% DIET IS VEGETABLES, GATHERED

BY WOMEN; 2-3 DAYS/WEEK

LESS THAN 20% OF DIET IS MEAT 1 KILL EACH 4 DAYS

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WOMEN PROVIDE 2-3 TIMES THE AMOUNT OF FOOD AS MEN PROBABILITY OF MEN FINDING FOOD IS

LESS THAN 25%; WOMEN 100% 1 HR. HUNTING 100 CAL.; 1 HR. GATHER 240 CAL.

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ACUTE AWARENESS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

MEN’S KNOWLEDGE OF ANIMAL HABITS, ABILITY TO TRACK ANIMALS POISON ARROWS WITH BEETLE LARVAE

WOMEN’ ABILITY TO IDENTIFY VINES, EDIBLE PLANTS

40% (YOUNG & OLD) DON’T CONTRIBUTE, DEPEND ON REST

POPULATION OF 466, 46 ARE OVER AGE 60

LEISURE TIME (compared to industrial society)

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Dietary Quality?Reciprocity Evens out wealth

differencesDiet: 37% MEAT, 63% VEG. Mongongo nuts (not all are eaten)

300 NUTS/DAY; 33% OF VEG. DIET; PROVIDES 5 x CALORIES &

10 x PROTEIN AS CEREAL (CORN, RICE)

EQUIVALENT OF 2 1/2 LB. RICE, 15 OZ. BEEF; 56 GM. PROTEIN

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VARIETY: 84 PLANTS (FRUIT, BERRIES, ROOTS, BULBS) WIDE RANGE ALTERNATIVES;

90% OF VEG. DIET IS BASED ON 23 SPECIES SELECTIVENESS

KNOW 2300 ANIMALS, 54 EDIBLE, 17 HUNTED

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OPTIMAL FORAGING THEORY

SELECTION IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO THE CALORIES OFFERED, PER UNIT OF EFFORT REQUIRED TO OBTAIN THEM

GREATER ENERGY COST TO OBTAIN, LESS LIKELY TO SELECT

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Brink of Starvation??PROTEIN & CALORIES RECOMMENDED

PROTEIN & CALORIESCONSUMED

CALORIES 1975 2140

PROTEIN 60 93

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Richard Lee: "CONSIDERING THE GREAT IMPORTANCE

OF THE MONGONGO & THE LONG DISTANCES WALKED BY THE !KUNG TO REACH THE GROVES, ONE WOULD IMAGINE THAT SOME ATTEMPT WOULD HAVE BEEN MADE TO GROW THE MONGONGO TREES IN THE SANDY SOILS NEAR THE PERMANENT WATER HOLES, MAKING POSSIBLE A MORE SEDENTARY LIFE. I ASKED XASHI, " WHY DONT YOU TRY GROWING THE MONGONGO TREE?" HE ANSWERED, " WHY SHOULD WE PLANT WHEN THERE ARE SO MANY MONGONGOS IN THE WORLD?"

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II. Equestrian H&G Cheyenne (agriculture nomadic

hunters) LARGER GROUPS, MORE MOBILE MORE LIKELY TO DEVELOP A SOCIAL &

POLITICAL HIERARCHY

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GREAT PLAINS - SPANIARDS INTRODUCED

THE HORSE IN THE 17TH CENTURY

THUS H&G IS A RESULT OF EUROPEAN CONTACT

1ST ACQUIRED BY APACHE, WHOSE RAIDS IMPELLED OTHER GROUPS TO ADOPT THE HORSE & DEVELOP WARFARE FOR DEFENSE

MILITARY SOCIETIES DEVELOPED

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EXPANSION OF THE AMERICAN FRONTIER UPROOTED NATIVE AMERICANS & FORCED THEM WEST THEY CAME INTO CONFLICT WITH OTHER

TRIBES AS THEY COMPETED FOR HUNTING GROUNDS

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CHEYENNE: 10 BANDS FORM TRIBE, EACH BAND HAS MEMBERS FROM

SEVERAL OF THE 7 MILITARY SOCIETIES

band A band B

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FUSION IN SUMMER – 1000'S UNITE FOR BUFFALO HUNT (MATING SEASON) SUCCESS DEPENDED ON COOPERATIVE

HUNTING IN SUMMER BUFFALO POLICE WITH COERCIVE

AUTHORITY ONLY DURING HUNTS FISSION -- DISPERSE IN WINTER VARIATION: TRIBAL ORGANIZATION

& WARFARE RARE AMONG H & G

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III. Aquatic H&G KWAKIUTL – Northwest Coast EVEN LARGER GROUPS, GREATER SOCIAL

STRATIFICATION, MORE ELABORATE MATERIAL CULTURE ELABORATE FISHING TECHNOLOGY (BOATS) PRIVATE PROPERTY IS

CLEARLY DEFINED

DIFFERENCES IN WEALTH & SOCIAL RANK

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25 GROUPS (TRIBES), EACH WITH ITS OWN AUTONOMOUS VILLAGE

CEDAR & SALMON = RICH ENVIRONMENT, "HARVEST THE SEA" 5-7 SALMON RUNS PER YEAR

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UNUSUAL ABUNDANCE = FOOD SURPLUS, LIFEWAY SIMILAR TO AGRICULTURALISTS

LARGE SETTLED COMMUNITIES, PLANK HOUSES

LEISURE ALLOWED ATTENTION TO NON-ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF LIFE ELABORATION OF MATERIAL CULTURE

(TOTEMS, MASKS)

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EXTENDED FAMILIES WITH INHERITED RIGHTS TO FISHING AREAS & HUNTING TERRITORIES; FAMILIES WERE RANKED

ACCORDING TO WEALTH & PRESTIGE, VALIDATED THROUGH POTLATCH

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Friedl: Society & Sex Roles What is the source of power among

H&G? Understand her hypothesis ! Comparative study of 4 H&G

societies The !Kung are an anomaly Why don’t women hunt? What lessons does this have for

women in the U.S.?

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Gather

HuntSmall

HuntLarge

Marriage

Divorce

Washo(N.America

Hadza(Tanzania)

Tiwi(Australia)

Inuit(Alaska)

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Gather

HuntSmall

HuntLarge

Marriage

Divorce

Washo(N.America

♀♂ cooperation

♀♂rabbit

♀♂lovers

+

Hadza(Tanzania)

Tiwi(Australia)

Inuit(Alaska)

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Gather

HuntSmall

HuntLarge

Marriage

Divorce

Washo(N.America

♀♂ cooperation

♀♂rabbit

♀♂lovers

+

Hadza(Tanzania)

♀♂independently

♂ (♂)rarely

♀♂♀polygyny

+

Tiwi(Australia)

Inuit(Alaska)

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Gather

HuntSmall

HuntLarge

Marriage

Divorce

Washo(N.America

♀♂ cooperation

♀♂rabbit

♀♂lovers

+

Hadza(Tanzania)

♀♂independently

♂ (♂)rarely

♀♂♀polygyny

+

Tiwi(Australia)

♀ ♀ ♂ ♀= alliances, select

husband

Inuit(Alaska)

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Gather

HuntSmall

HuntLarge

Marriage

Divorce

Washo(N.America

♀♂ cooperation

♀♂rabbit

♀♂lovers

+

Hadza(Tanzania)

♀♂independently

♂ (♂)rarely

♀♂♀polygyny

+

Tiwi(Australia)

♀ ♀ ♂ ♀= alliances, select

husband

Inuit(Alaska) ♂

provide all food

♀sexual favors to trade partners

?

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Conclusions:Male dominance varies with the

amount of meat availableThe less meat, the more

egalitarianVegetables are distributed

within the familyMeat is distributed to the band

(source of power)

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!KUNG SAN - SOCIAL CHANGE

HAS !KUNG CULTURE REMAINED UNCHANGED FOR 1000s OF YEARS?

GOOD ANTHROPOLOGISTS UNDERSTAND THE IMPORTANCE OF HISTORY

!KUNG PEOPLE HAVE BEEN ALTERNATELY REPRESSED BY DUTCH, BANTU, & INFLUENCED BY THE HERERO & TSWANA

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Botswana

Namibia

Kalahari Desert

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HUNTING & GATHERING SOCIETIES OCCUPY THE LAST FRONTIERS OF EXPLOITABLE RESOURCES IN

THE WORLD

1652 ON, DUTCH KILLED 200,000 SAN IN 200 YEARS; LAND TAKEN OVER FOR AGRICULTURE, HERDING

18TH C.: COLONIAL SETTLERS USED THE !KUNG AS MENIAL LABORERS OR WENT ON RAIDS & MASSACRED SMALL CAMPS

THE ENCROACHMENT OF CAPITALISM & SOUTH AFRICA'S WAR ON ITS NEIGHBORS TOOK A TOLL ON !KUNG CULTURE

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BOTSWANA - RAPID EXPANSION OF CAPITALIST RANCHING

BROUGHT IN DRILLING RIGS & DUG WELLS TO REACH DEEP WATER IN THE KALAHARI

PEOPLE IN HIGH GOVT. POSITIONS ARE GAINING 99 YEAR LEASES TO THE LAND

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KALAHARI DESERT - SITE OF MAJOR MINERAL PROSPECTING BY MNCs

THE FUTURE OF H&G IS MORE CLOSELY BOUND TO MNCs THAN WITH HUNTING ANTELOPE OR AVAILABILITY OF MONGONGO NUTS

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BOTSWANA WAS A S. AFRICAN PROTECTORATE (1886)

GAINED INDEPENDENCE 1966 BELONGS TO UN & SUPPORTED S. AFRICAN

LIBERATION MOVEMENTS VS. APARTHEID FOUGHT VS. ONE OF WORLD'S MOST POWERFUL

& RACIST REGIMES LACKS A LARGE EUROPEAN SETTLER

POPULATION MAJORITY ARE BANTU SPEAKERS;

SAN ARE MINORITY SUBJECT TO INTENSE MISSIONIZING

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NAMIBIA WAS A COLONY OF SOUTH AFRICA, SEIZED

FROM GERMANY IN WW I

AS S. AFRICA IMPLEMENTED EXTREME POLICIES OF APARTHEID, U.S. CONSIDERED IT STRATEGICALLY IMPORTANT: GOLD, DIAMONDS, MINERALS

S. AFRICA'S SMALL RULING WHITE ELITE DEPENDED ON THE LABOR & SUPPRESSION OF MILLIONS OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLE

S. AFRICA TIGHTENED BORDERS BETWEEN BOTSWANA & NAMIBIA, RESTRICTING MOVEMENT OF !KUNG & INHIBITING THEIR SUBSISTENCE ACTIVITIES

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BY 1970s !KUNG WERE LIVING IN SMALL GOVERNMENT-ADMINISTERED CAMPS, DEPENDING ON GOVT. RATIONS, & UNABLE TO HUNT & GATHER

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SWAPO SW AFRICAN PEOPLE'S ORGANIZATION

FORMED IN 1966 MARXIST GUERRILLA GROUP U.S. OPPOSED THE LEFTIST

GOVERNMENT OF NAMIBIA

S. AFRICA USED NAMIBIA AS A CORRIDOR TO RAID SWAPO CAMPS IN ANGOLA, SUPPORTED BY THE U.S.

S. AFRICAN ARMY RECRUITED 100s OF !KUNG, FORMING 2 BATALLIONS 4000 !KUNG IN THE AREA WERE UNDER TOTAL

CONTROL OF THE ARMY

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THE RESULT: ALCOHOLISM, FIGHTING, HOMICIDES TRIPLED AS !KUNG MEN GOT WEAPONS & ACQUIRED A MACHO IMAGE

THE SYSTEM OF RECIPROCITY BROKE DOWN, ANOMIE

SWAPO GAINED INDEPENDENCE FOR NAMIBIA IN 1990

THE NEW CONSITITUTION STRESSES HUMAN RIGHTS & DEMOCRATIC PARTICIPATION FOR ALL PEOPLES

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SOME H&Gs HAVE DEVELOPED POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS TO MOBILIZE & RESIST ENCROACHEMENT

THESE DRAW ON THEIR OWN CULTURAL, POLITICAL, & ORGANIZATIONAL RESOURCES

BUT THEY RELY ON OUTSIDE HELP, SUCH AS ANTHROPOLOGISTS

1975 ANTHROPOLOGISTS CREATED KALAHARI PEOPLE'S FUND CONCERN WITH AIDING THE

STRUGGLE FOR SELF-DETERMINATION